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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Recent years have been marked by a rapid development of unconventional

technologies in textile production. This Chapter is concerned with the literature
review on conventional spinning, compact spinning, doubled yarn, hybrid yarn
and weft knitted fabrics. A considerable amount of work has been carried out on
yarn characteristics of conventional, compact and hybrid spinning, bio finishing of
fabrics, physical and dimensional properties of fabrics, spirality and wicking. This
literature survey is based upon the intensive search of the journals published in
textile technology. Articles from other sources are also included, and the subject is
reviewed under different captions.
The concern of the previous workers with the above aspects, namely,
compact spinning, spirality, wicking of knitted fabrics is reflected in the following
literature review.
2.2 DEVELOPMENTS IN SPINNING
The art of spinning originated in prehistoric times. The technique of cotton

spinning crystallized at the beginning of the industrial revolution says Rohlena
(1974). Revolutionary changes in spinning technology took place during the 1950s
and 1960s, following the post war boom, views Lord (2004). During the 1970s,
there appeared to be a myriad of spinning systems, such as twistless spinning, self-
twist spinning, fascinated yarns, composite yarns, wrap-spun yarns, pot spinning,
continuously felted yarns and the many possible variants in open-end spinning
such as rotor, electrostatic, friction spinning, and vortex spinning (the original
7
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“Polish” system). At the same time, there were continued developments in ring
spinning, with ventures into rotating ring and traveler systems, individual spindle
drives, high draft systems, modified travelers, double roving spinning, and hybrid
systems. A look at today’s industry reveals that while some systems have
established a successful but small niche- wrap spinning for fancy yarns and
friction spinning for specialty industrial markets -very few systems have survived.
2.3 RING SPINNING
Until the early 60s, the main type of spinning machines were ring spinning
frames, which were used in all types of spinning systems. In the 70s, open end
spinning was developed, mainly rotor spinning, with reference to cotton and
cotton like yarns. However, ring spinning frames are still competitive in relation to
rotor spinning machines, and in some systems they are impossible to replace says
Lewandowski et al (2010).Today, infact ring spinning is by far the most
widespread spinning process, setting clear standards in terms of yarn quality, field
of application and flexibility. Ring spinning has become a truly high-tech process
reveals Stalder (2003).
According to Yafa (2006), yarn that is produced by using a ‘ring’ is ring

spinning. The ring, which spins and winds yarn in one continuous motion onto
bobbins, produces yarn that has a characteristic natural unevenness. Wulfhurst et
al., (2006) reveals that the first ring spinning frame was built in 1828 in the U.S.
Ring spinning consists of three subsequent processing steps, slubbing, ring
spinning and winding.
Ring spinning is used for coarser number and has greater production and
requires less labour than mule spinning. The function of ring spinning is to draw
out the rove and spin it into yarn on a continuous system, opines Dooley
(2008).The method used to produce ring- spun yarns is “a series of operations in

which a mass of entangled fibers are transformed into a rope-like structure in
which the fibers are more aligned than in the entangled mass. During the last 50
years, ring spinning has a high degree of efficiency. High draft systems have been
developed and it has become possible to attain given standards of yarn regularity
at very much higher levels of draft, says Lord (2004).
Grosberg and Iype (1999) mention that only ring spinning will be
considered as the most widely used method of spinning. Because of ring
spinning’s versatility in terms of fiber types that can be handled, the range of
counts that can be spun and the quality of the yarns produced, it is the standard
against which other systems of spinning are judged. A ring-spinning machine is an
uncomplicated, flexible, low cost device that is well established in the nineteenth
century.
2.3.1 Theory of Ring spinning
The principal of ring spinning is depicted in Figure 2.1. A bundle of

parallel fibers, the roving is fed to the drafting zone, the difference in surface
velocity of the front (faster) and back (slower) drafting roller will attenuate the
roving to a thinner strand of parallel fibers under the control of the double aprons.
The thin strand of parallel fibers emerging from the front roller is then
simultaneously twisted and wound onto a yarn package mounted on a driven
spindle. The twisted thin strand of fibers now called a yarn is threaded through a
traveller and a yarn guide and balloons out between these two elements during
normal spinning. Owing to the careful control during the spinning process, ring
spun yarns have a very high quality and these qualities of ring spun yarns have
been used as a benchmark against which the quality of yarns produced on other
spinning systems is judged. Ring spinning has been an integral part of various yarn
manufacturing systems. It is obvious that ring spinning system holds a dominant

position in spinning in view of its low cost in comparison with other systems. A
flow chart of yarn production routes is shown in figure 2.2.
FIGURE 2.1 -PRINCIPLE OF RING SPINNING
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FIGURE 2.2 - Flow charts of the cotton system of modern yarn production
routes
Carded yarns
Blow Room
Cards
Draw frame
2 passages
Roving
Frame
Rotor
Ring spinning
spinning
Combed yarns
Blow room
Carding
Draw frame Sliver lap
Lap former Ribbon lap
Combing Combing
Drawing
Roving
Combing
Ring
Spinning
2.3.2 Ring Spun yarns
Trajkovic et al., (2008) say, quality of the ring- spun yarns is greatly
influenced by the construction of the drafting system and the geometry of the
11

spinning triangle formed in the area of spinning. The optimization of the structure
of the drafting system, the spindle, the ring and the traveller, as well as the
automatisation and synchronization of the operation of ring spinning frame
brought about a significant increase of production, better yarn quality and greater
flexibility.
Akaydin (2009) views, combed ring yarns have always been considered as
a quality reference among all the yarns produced by other new spinning systems in
textile industry. Combed cotton is a fiber that is smooth, lustrous and strong
because the fibers are long and straightened so that they lie parallel to each other.
2.3.3. Advantages of Ring spun yarns
Ring- spun yarns have a regular twist structure and because of the good
fiber control during roller drafting, the fibers in the yarn are well straightened and
aligned. Ring spun yarns have excellent tensile properties, which are often
important for technical applications, say Horrocks and Anand (2000). The ring
spinning will continue to be the most widely used form of spinning machine in the
near future, because it exhibits significant advantages in comparison with the new
spinning processes.
 It is universally applicable, i.e., any material can be spun to any required

count.
 It delivers a material with optimum characteristics, especially with
regard to structure and strength.
 It is simple and easy to operate i.e., the know- how is well established
and accessible for everyone. www.textiletechnology.co.cc.
12

2.3.4 Limitations of Ring spinning
The limitations of the ring spinning technology are well known. One of the
major limitations is the metal – to- metal rubbing contact between the ring and the
traveler, which restricts the spindle speed, opines Dash et al. (2002)
They are expensive and more hairy. The ring spun yarns contain many
uncontrolled fiber ends which are not bound to the yarn body thus the yarn is very
hairy. The yarn hairiness not only affects the quality of yarn and fabric but also
causes many processing problems. Also from an ecological stand point this
amounts to deficient utilization of the raw material (Lucca 1999)
Another limitation of the ring spinning technology is the spinning triangle.

It is not only the yarn formation zone but also the origin of hairiness in ring spun
yarns .In conventional ring spinning, as the strand of fibers emerges from the front
roller nip, each rotation of the traveller inserts one turn of twist to the strand of
fibers by twisting propagation. However, the ribbons form of fibers at the front
roller nip line limits this twist propagation. Hence, the front roller nip is not the
actual yarn formation point. The formation of different types of hairs in the
spinning triangle has been studied in detail by many research workers
(Barella1957, Hearle et al. 1969, Pierce 1947, Wang et al. 1999).
2.3.5. Spinning Triangle
The zone between the line of contact of the pair of delivery rollers and the
twisted end of the yarn is called the spinning triangle says Celik et al. (2004) In
conventional spinning, it is formed immediately after the drafting mechanism in
the ring frame (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). The spinning triangle is a weak zone due to
less twist in that region. Under normal working conditions, most of the breaks
occur in the near-vicinity of the spinning triangle. The strength of the fibrous mass
13

in the spinning triangle determines the attainable spindle speed. Hence if the
spinning triangle is avoided, or its length reduced, the achievable spindle speed
could be increased, reveals, Sitra (2001)
FIGURE 2.3 - Formation of the Spinning Triangle

Short (a) and long (b) spinning triangle, (c) side view
FIGURE 2.4 – Spinning triangle - influence of the twist
2.4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPACT SPINNING
Ismail and Nagarajan (2011) report that compact is a proven technology,

introduced twenty years ago and it was commercialized twelve years later. But
only in past five years awareness has increased among cloth manufacturers and
14

cloth consumers. The spinning process with the minimized spinning triangle is
called compact (condensed, compressed) spinning which is depicted in Figure2.5.
Compact spinning system works between drawing and yarn formation steps
and serves as an interlocutory region. In this interlocutory region, fiber form which
is ready to be drawn is densened by air pressure, mechanical means or magnetic
effect, opines Akaydin (2009).
Factors, which were introduced, led to the rise of new techniques in

spinning, in particular, the ring compact technique. One of the factors essentially
connected with the quality of the yarn, as well as the efficiency of the spinning
process, is the spinnability of fibers, and many working parameters of the spinning
machines are applied in the individual technological operations. However, there is
also a group of technological parameters which are characteristic to the individual
technological operations of the spinning process, Lewandowski et al (2010).
During the last two decades, components of ring spinning machines have
been greatly improved, with changes in drafting system, drive systems and
robotics enabling large gains in productivity, flexibility and quality. Most of the
technical advances in ring spinning were aimed at improving the performances of
the existing technology. In recent years, however a bonafide innovation has
occurred to minimize the width and height of the spinning triangle associated with
ring spinning, says Ahmad (2009). The purpose is to condense a fiber strand after
the drafting system immediately before twist is imparted so that the spinning
triangle is practically eliminated, reveals Niijjaawan (2009).
Compact spinning developed initially for spinning cotton yarn which

belongs to short staple sub groups, remarks Ozdil et al. (2005). These days the
improvements made it possible to use for small, medium and long- staple fiber
spinning express Loganathan et al., (2009).
15

Compact spinning process is certainly a good substitute for traditional yarn
spinning, since it reduces the hairiness of single yarns. This can minimize the
twisting angle and improve yarn quality, opine Tyagi and Kumar (2009). The
hairiness of the yarn is also reduced and the tenacity is higher when compared to
ring- spun yarns. The yarn evenness is also improved, says Wulfhurstet el., (2006).
2.4.1 History of Compact Spinning
Compact yarn involves textile technology in which Europe has taken the
lead from discovering the principle to developing equipment and
commercialization. At the European textile machinery exhibition, ITMA 95, a
German company CSM announced its "principles of compacting in spinning"
which consisted of the results of research by the Austrian DrFehrer. The First
compact spinning machine was put into trial production in 1995 in some spinning
mills in Switzerland views Cheng et al. (2003).Four years later three companies,
Rieter, of Switzerland, Sussen and Zinser, of Germany announced pneumatic
condensing systems at the International Textile Machine Fair ITMA 99. This
equipment display attracted attention from visitors. They began commercial
production of compact spinning equipment by getting users from various
countries.Rieter has users mainly in Europe, while Sussen mainly in India and
Pakistan. In 2001, Toyota Industries Corporation displayed a similar model as a
prototype at the 7th Otemas, a Japanese textile machinery exhibition held in Osaka
in 2001. Subsequently, the Italian company Kognetex announced compact
spinning equipment for worsted yarn.
(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5508/is_200202/ai_n21308892/)
Though these systems are somewhat different in each case, the principle of
compact spinning systems is to increase the yarn quality by means of narrowing
and decreasing the width of the band of fibers which come out from the drawing
16

apparatus before it is twisted into yarn, and by the elimination of the twisting
triangle report Jackowski et al. (2004).
2.4.2 Concept of Compact spinning
Compact spinning is designed to reduce hairiness in yarn. In traditional

spinning fibers, the selvedge of strand emerging from front roller nip does not get
fully integrated into yarn because of restriction to twist flow by the spinning
triangle. These fibers, therefore, show up partly as protruding hairs or wild fibers.
To overcome this effect, the spinning triangle is nearly eliminated in compact
spinning by incorporating a condensing zone after main drafting zone. The
condensing zone has a revolving perforated apron with suction underneath. The
fibers are collected on the perforated track and thus get condensed. The width of
the strand under front roller nip is substantially reduced and this enables twist to
flow right up to nip. Eliminating the spinning triangle at the delivery section of the
front roller produces quality yarn with low hairiness and high evenness.
(Figure 2.5)
FIGURE 2.5- Concept of Compact spinning
17

2.4.3 Types of Compact spinning system
Since the introduction of the compact spinning process, the market leaders
and pioneers were Rieter and Suessen. Today, there are a number of designs
offered by different machine manufacturers, but they all use the same principle,
namely condensing the fibrous strand at the end of the draft region pneumatically.
According to Zou et al. (2010) the available compact spinning systems today are
1.Perforated drum pattern (Rieter’sComforSpin K44 (Com4), K45)

2. Lattice apron pattern (Suessen’s Elite, Ningbo Dechang’sJee and ShlanLee)
3.Perforated apron pattern (Zinser’s Air-Com-Tex 700)
4. Pneumatic groove pattern (DongHua University’s compact spinning) and
5. Ceramic thickening funnel pattern (Rotorcraft’s RoCoS).
2.4.4 Advantages of Compact yarns
Compact Spinning is basically designed to control those protruding fibers

(uncontrolled fibers) which have become the part of the yarn but have no role in
the yarn formation and ultimately no contribution to yarn strength, but rather than
adverse effect on subsequent processes. After passing through the normal drafting
system, the fibers are entered in to the condensing zone, which is equipped by the
suction system. In this zone, maximum free and protruding fibers becomes parallel
and condensed. Immediately after this condensing zone, this fibrous bundle is
twisted in normal & conventional style. The yarn achieved in this way has better
& uniform yarn formation, and better strength and elongation.
Advantages of compact yarn as compared with conventional ring yarn
 Increased yarn strength & elongation.
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 Due to better-control & uniform fibers in yarn, the strength & elongation of
yarn is increased by 20% then that of conventional ring spinning even on
low twist
 Reduction in yarn hairiness:
As the yarn enters in to front roller nip after the condensing zone for twist
insertion, due to the better spinning triangle, the ends down rate is reduced
significantly which ultimately reduces fluff in spinning department & vice
versa, as depicted in figures (2.6 &2.7)
FIGURE 2.6-Comparison of compact and conventional yarn
FIGURE 2.7- External comparison of yarn package
 As maximum number of fibers become parallel & uniform after passing

through condensing zone the hairiness value is reduced about 20 ~ 25 %
than that of normal spinning.
19

 Increase in productivity
 Less twist and high spindle speed.
 Less ends down rote due to better spinning triangle.
 Advantages in subsequent processes

 Reduction in sizing cost
 Improved dyeing
 Increased efficiency of loom & knitting machines
 Ultimate solution for spirality
 Improved Wear ability
 Reduction in Singeing Cost
 Exquisite fabric Feel
(http://www.fazaltextile.com)
 General advantages of compact yarn in knitting-Physical properties

 Clearer loop structure with less loop cross-infringing fibers
 Higher brilliancy and softer handle
 Fewer end-breaks
 Low emission of fly and dust
 Usage of un-waxed yarn is feasible
 Reduction in abrasion by 30%
 Reduces the wear and tear of needles and other related components,
thus avoiding holes or stripes in the fabric
 Fabric appearance is enhanced due to the uniformity and low yarn
hairiness
 Structural advantages of compact yarn in knitting contributing to its

cost effectiveness
 Significantly lower fabric shrinkage by around 35-40% after fabric
processing, resulting in net saving of 2% in fabric weight loss
20

 Dimensional stability is retained after many washes owing to the
better pilling resistance
 Fabric gloss after yarn mercerization is retained even after several
washes
(http://www.suessen.com)
2.4.5 Summary of Previous research work On Compact Spinning
Compact spinning has been investigated by many researchers. Most of

them have focused on two types of research; One on the types of system and its
advantages and the other research on yarn structure of compact yarn. The subject
matter has been discussed in many seminars and conferences. Recently some
papers have been published which compare the properties of compact yarns
produced from various systems.
However, it is noticed that many interesting papers have been published on

compact yarns which have improved our understanding about their structure and
properties. Thus research carried out on compact spinning at Turkey has
demonstrated many facets of compact yarns.
A great deal of work has also been carried out by research workers in India,
USA, Honkong, Poland, Germany, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Slovenia
&Pakistan on compact spinning. Table 2.1 shows the research work which has
been carried out on compact spinning.
21

TABLE 2.1
RESEARCH WORK DONE ON COMPACT SPINNING
Experime
Sl. Research System
Year ntal Yarn Produced Highlights of research
No Worker(S) used
Materials
1 Stalder 2000 Cotton 40Ne,50Ne, Rieter’sCom4 used Strength is more for
60Ne &80Ne compact,CV% of strength is less
Ring and compact yarns yarn hariness is low for compact
yarns
2 Kadoglu 2001 Cotton 40Nmcarded& Ring and compact Compact yarns are characterized
60Nmcombed56Nmcom Zinser-Air-Com-Tex- by higher tenacity, lower
bed cotton 700.Yarns were made hairiness
with four levels of twist
factor for carded and five
levels for combed
3 Dash, Ishtiaque 2002 Cotton 24 Ne Combed Winding speeds were Compact yarns exhibits higher
and varied and yarn packing ,even after winding yarn
Alagirusamy characteristics studied hariness is less for compact
yarns but increases with winding
fabrics made with compact yarn
show higher K/S values
4 Krifa,Hequet 2002 Cotton 100%cotton(short staple) Suessen(Elite) Compact spinning resulted in a
and 26Ne highly significant improve-ment
Ethridge in both strength and
elongation.Yarn hariness is less
for compact yarns
22

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
5 Artzt 2002 Pima Nm 70 Carded Combed Unspecified compact Compact spinning uses twist
cotton carding parameters spinning most effectively than
varied. combed waste conventional ring
were 10%,15% and 20% spinning.carded material reach
maximum strength earlier than
the same material with 13%
comber waste
6 Nikolic, 2003 Cotton, 100% Conventional,Compact- For Cotton and cotton Viscose
Stjepanovic, Polyester, Combed, Suessen and Zinser blended yarns compact spinning
Lesjak& Viscose 50P/C, is eminently suitable for
polyester cotton blend.
Stritof 87/13C/V
7 Basal 2003 Cotton P/C 28Ne Suessen 100% ring compact yarn is
superior at low twist factor,rate
of migration is higher for
compact yarns
8 Cheng and Yu 2003 Long 38,50,60 and 80Ne Rieter Com4,Both Performance is found to be poor
Staple combed conventional and with respect to coarser counts.
Supina compact yarns were For finer counts such as 60s and
cotton Produced 80s ,compact spinning gives
better results
23

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
9 Behera,Hari and 2003 Cotton Tensile properties were Not specified Packing, fraction of compact
Ghosh determined for single, yarn is higher than that of ring
two ply and sized yarns. spun yarn. The weavability of
Weavability was compact yarn is much better
determined. than the ring yarn irrespective of
34 Nm ring and compact twist.The compact requires less
yarns with three levels of size and weavability increases
twist were used. yarns with increase in size-add-on.
were sized with starch at For compact yarns at lower size
2%,6%,10% and 14% add-on improvement in
concentrations weavability is noticed.
Weavability of single compact
yarn is comparable to the 2-ply
ring yarn irrespective of size add
on
10 Mahmood,Jamil, 2004 Cotton 20Ne Rieter,Three levels of air Modified top roll
Iftikhar&Saleem guide element ,three pressure,perforated air drum and
levels of TM,three levels maximum twist gave best yarn
of Top roller results
11 Celik&Kadoglu 2004 Wool, 100%wool,45%wool and 4 levels of twist For yarns of 100% wool,
Polyester, 55%pet varying weaving Suessen Elite system compact yarns show lower
PAN twist used values of yarn hairiness. Same
factor50%PAN,%PANva results for 50% wool and 50%
rying Knitting twist PAN. Yarn hairiness is less for
factor 19 and 25 tex all compact yarns
24

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
12 Ozdil,Ozdogan, 2005 Cotton Properties of interlock Rieter com 4 system Compact yarn knitted fabric is
Demirel&Oktem fabrics Knitted from were used Bursting more brilliant and glossier.
50Ne ring and compact strength, Pilling Fabrics knitted from compact
yarns were studied. Dye enzymatic finishes and yarns displayed better Bursting
uptake was studied. dyeing behavior were strength and pilling abrasion
Fabrics were bio studied resistance was not different
polished and dyed between the samples
13 Goktepe, Yilmaz 2006 100%Cott 20Ne System A-Perforated System B(K44) gave better
and on combed 30Ne apron System B- performance for finer yarns
OzerGoktepe yarns Perforated Drum System whilst System A(Air com tex
Ne 41
C-Perforated apron 700) was found to be better for
situated at bottom part of medium to coarse counts
the drafting system
14 Basal 2006 50/50 P/C 28Ne Suessen elite. Yarns were The high tenacity values of
&Oxenham & 100% produced with five levels compact yarns can be attributed
Cotton of twist were compared to the higher rate and amplitude
offiber migration in compact
yarns compared to those in ring
yarns. Another important finding
was the superiority of compact
yarns in terms of tensile
properties is less noticeable at
highertwist levels and in 50/50
polyester/cotton blend.
25

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
15 Kane,Patil&Sud 2007 Cotton 30Ne ring and compact Effect of Single jersey, Compact yarn fabrics showed
hakar yarn were used to single Pique, double better performance in all the
produce knitted fabrics pique and honey comb structures and their
structures varying 3 respectiveSCSL. Double pique
SCSL(Structural cell fabric showed better performance
Stitch length)on ring and for the summer outer wear and
compact yarn properties single jersey fabric showed
were studied better performance for summer
inner wear
16 KretzschmarOzg 2007 Cotton 30Ne and 40Ne varying Knitted fabrics (Single The hairiness of compact yarns
uney,Ozcelik&O 2 different twist factors jersey, Rib and Interlock) was less and the strength and
zerdem made from compact elongation percentages were
(Rieter K44) and higher,the fabrics produced with
conventional ring-spun compact yarns showedless
yarns (Rieter G33). tendency to pilling and had a
Physical properties were higher bursting strength.
investigated before and
after the dyeing process
18 Ozguney , 2008 cotton 30Ne and 40Ne varying Knitted fabrics (Single In general, it was observed that
KretzschmarOzc 2 different twist factors jersey Rib and Interlock) compact yarns weremore
elik&Ozerdem made from compact advantageous with regard to ring
(Rieter K44) and yarns for both theyarn counts
conventional ring-spun and twist coefficients, therefore,
yarns (Rieter G33). it can be concludedthat the
Physical properties were compact spinning technique
investigated before and brings advantagesregarding
after the printing process quality and production
26

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
19 Akaydin 2009 Cotton 30Ne and 40 Ne Single Rieter K44 It is observed that the
jersey, Rib and Interlock Rieter G 33 differences between the
fabrics were produced structures of ring and compact
yarn play a significant role on
the fabric properties. The fabric
produced from compact yarns
are found to have better abrasion
resistance,higher burst strength,
less pilling tendency, better dye
absorption and dyeability in
more vivid colors
20 Yilmaz&Usal 2010 Cotton 30Ne were produced on Rocos compact It was determined that the
three different yarn Conventional ring compact-jet yarn properties air
spinning system with the Compact jet jet nozzles are different from
same material that of the conventional ring and
compact yarns. The compact-jet
spinning system is mainly
effective on yarn hairiness and
compact-jet yarn is superior
compared with
Other yarns.
27

Experime
Sl. Research System
No Worker(S) used
Materials
21 Lewandowski,Dr 2010 Combed 20 tex Classic ring frame-G33 The physical properties of both
obina,Jozkowicz cotton Compact Ring frame- yarns were analyzed by means
K44 of statistical models based on
multiple regression and it was
confirmed that the percentage of
noils and the metric co-efficient
of the twist were important
factor in quality of yarn and
efficiency of production
28

2.5 INTRODUCTION TO WEIBULL DISTRIBUTION
Waloddi Weibull invented the Weibull distribution in 1937 and delivered

his hallmark American paper on this subject in 1951. He claimed that his
distribution applied to a wide range of problems. He illustrated this point with
seven examples ranging from the strength of steel to the height of adult males in
the British Isles. He claimed that the function "…may sometimes render good
service." He did not claim that it always worked. Time has shown that Waloddi
Weibull was correct in both of these statements.
Weibull distribution is one of the most widely used lifetime distributions in

reliability and survival analysis. This parametric model is commonly used to
estimate important life characteristics of a product such as reliability or probability
of failure at a specific time, the average life of the product, and to determine
warranty time. It is a versatile simple distribution that specializes to other types of
distributions, based on the value of the shape parameter. These features of the
Weibull distribution have made it a useful distributional model in reliability and
survival analysis. The weibull modulus is not a material constant, but gives a good
indication of how homogenous it is
2.5.1. Advantages of Weibull Analysis
The primary advantage of Weibull analysis is the ability to provide

reasonably accurate failure analysis and failure forecasts with extremely small
samples. Solutions are possible at the earliest indications of a problem without
having to "crash a few more." Small samples also allow cost effective component
testing. For example, "sudden death" Weibull tests are completed when the first
failure occurs in each group of components, (say, groups of four bearings). If all
the bearings are tested to failure, the cost and time required is much greater.
29

Another advantage of Weibull analysis is that it provides a simple and
useful graphical plot. The data plot is extremely important to the engineer and to
the manager. The Weibull data plot is particularly informative as Weibull pointed
out in his 1951 paper. Figure 2.8 is a typical Weibull plot. The horizontal scale is a
measure of life or aging. Start/stop cycles, mileage, operating time, landings or
mission cycles are examples of aging parameters. The vertical scale is the
cumulative percentage failed. The two defining parameters of the Weibull line are
the slope, beta, and the characteristic life, et. The slope of the line, β, is
particularly significant and may provide a clue to the physics of the failure. The
characteristic life, η , is the typical time to failure in Weibull analysis. It is related
to the mean time to failure.
FIGURE 2.8- Weibull plot
2.5.2.Scope of Weibull Analysis
Weibull analysis includes:
 Plotting the data and interpreting the plot

 Failure forecasting and prediction
30

 Evaluating corrective action plans
 Engineering change substantiation
 Maintenance planning and cost effective replacement strategies
 Spare parts forecasting
 Warranty analysis and support cost predictions
 Calibration of complex design systems, i.e., CAD\CAM, finite element
analysis, etc.
 Recommendations to management in response to service problems
(http://quanterion.com/Publications/WeibullHandbook/ChapterOne.pdf)
2.5.3 Weibull theory
Using the classical weakest-link scaling of Peirce, Realff et al (1991) have

predicted the probability distribution Fl (x) for the strength of a yam at any gauge
length l from knowledge of the strength distribution Fl (x) , at a given length l0 by

0
Fl (x)  1  [1  Fl (x)] m ,
0
(1)
l
where m = . Moreover if Fl ( x ) follows a two-parameter Weibull
l0 0
distribution ,
   
x
Fl (x)  1  exp     , (2)
0
  x0  
 
where x0 and r are positive constants called the scale parameter and the
shape parameter (or modulus), respectively, then
31

   
x
Fl (x)  1  exp     , (3)
  xl  
 
where x1 = x0m-1/r. For data following a Weibull distribution with scale parameter
x0 and shape parameter r, the mean and variance are given by
μ  x0 Γ(1  1/r)

σ 2  x02 Γ(1  2/r)  Γ(1  1/r) ,
2
 (4)
where () is the classical “gamma function.” Notice that the coefficient of
variation /  is a function of r alone. Realff et al. have used the Weibull

distribution and the weakest-link scaling theorem to examine data obtained on
yarn strength distributions, thereby including effects of changes in both the mean
and the variation in strength with gauge length.
2.5.4. Review of Related Research
Hussainet at (1990) studied the effect of tensile specimen gauge length on

cotton yam strength. They found that yarn tenacity was a modified power-law
function of gauge length manifesting lower mean strength values at longer gauge
lengths. They also found that significant differences in this gauge length effect
occurred between pairs of ring versus rotor spun yarns of comparable structures
(29.5 tex and 4.0 twist multiple) and of three different cotton varieties. The gauge
length effect, which they expressed as a ratio between the tenacity of a given
gauge and that of a 1 cm length, showed no significant difference between ring
versus rotor spun yams at relatively short lengths. But the differences were
statistically significant at long (70 cm) lengths. Hussain et al. measured the effect
32

of gauge length on strength variability, but they did not explore its implications
further, nor did they compare their yam results with corresponding fabric
response.
An earlier experimental investigation by Lord and Radhakrishnaiah (1988)

examined the tensile strength of fabrics constructed of rotor, friction, and ring
spun weft yarns, each combined with several different warp yarns in both plain
and 3/ 1 twill constructions. Testing the yarn at 500 mm gauge lengths, they
reported yarn tenacities of 8.4, 10.1, and 14.7 cN/tex for the friction, rotor, and
ring spun yarns, respectively. For yarns tested in fabrics, the strength ratios for the
different spinning systems were, in most cases, markedly different from those
between the yams when tested alone. For fabrics tested in the weft direction, the
strength ratios of friction spun weft fabrics to ring spun weft fabrics were reported
as 0.68 and 0.74 for two plain weave constructions versus a strength ratio of 0.58
for the corresponding yarn tests. Further, when warp wise strength tests were
conducted on cloths with identical warp yams, but with different spinning system
weft yarns, the data showed higher warp strengths in the presence of friction spun
weft than for cases of ring spun weft (1.04 and 1.12 for the warp strength ratios of
friction to ring spun weft fabrics).
Lord and Radhakrishnaiah (1988) submit that the difference between the
yarn strength ratios and the fabric strength ratios arises from fabric assistance that
is, the effects of friction at crossovers, crimp, and the like. They further argue that
due to the hooking and fold back geometries of the friction spun yarns, the fibers
behave as if they were and “shorter than they really are” The pressure points due
to the interlacing of weft with warp serve to retard fiber slippage, allowing each
fiber to carry higher tensile loads. In support of this concept, they report the yam
strength ratio for friction to ring spun yams to be 0.68 for a gauge length of 6 mm
versus 0.57 at 500 mm.
33

Shahpurwala and Schwartz (1989) attempted to predict the tensile strength
of woven fabrics once they had determined the strength distributions of the
constituent yarns. They began with a simple analysis based on Daniels (1945) in
which the fabric was modeled as a loose bundle of yarns with no yarn interaction.
Under these assumptions, the fabric strength distribution should be asymptotically
Gaussian. They then applied the Daniels model to three different 100% cotton
fabrics, plain, 3/1 twill, and 4/1 satin, in an attempt to predict fabric strength from
a knowledge of yam strength obtained from tests taken at a gauge length of 152.4
(1 1 + c) mm, where c was the value of yam crimp in the test direction. They
found that the simple bundle model, using this gauge length as the “Daniels
bundle” length, under predicts fabric strength by as much, in one case, as a factor
of 0.67.They then determined the sub-bundle tensile gauge length (in a chain-of-
bundles model) needed to predict fabric strength from yarn strength distributions.
They accomplished this by back calculation, using weakest link scaling, on the
basis of known fabric and yam strength distributions. The sub-bundle lengths
ranged from a high of 18.7 mm to a low of 6 mm (all well below the average
cotton staple length). This provided additional evidence that the tensile behavior of
a yam in a fabric differs from that observed in out-of-fabric yam tensile tests
performed at gauge lengths well above the staple length.
The Daniels bundle model has serious deficiencies when applied to fabrics,
in that it does not account for (a) the role of the cross yams in the
“compartmentalization” of a yam break and in the subsequent redistribution of the
load from the failed yam to its surviving neighbors, (b) the effect of yam surface
topography, yam mechanical properties, and woven fabric structure on load
sharing mechanisms, and (c) changes in yam failure mechanisms at short lengths,
especially as the length passes below the average fiber staple length in the
presence of inter yam pressures that may allow the yam to carry greater loads.
34

Pan (1996) demonstrated in his study that the Weibull function is a good
approximation to yarn tensile strength when used to predict fabric strength; and
the yarn failure mechanism in a fabric during fabric extension is likely to be
different from the yarn failure behavior observed on a strength tester using a
correspondingly adjusted gauge length
The influence of different configurations in the sample preparation process

on commercial polyacrylonitrile-based carbon fibers mechanical tests were studied
by Pereira et al. (2010). Mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, Young’s
modulus, elongation and Weibull modulus, were evaluated. The results showed
that all sample preparation steps may have strong influence on the results.
A theoretical model has been developed by Das and Neckar (2005) for
predicting yarn strength at different gauge lengths as a summation of two mutually
independent stationary, ergodic, Markovian and Gaussian stochastic processes and
then experimentally verified with different cotton yarns produced from different
spinning technologies. A new methodology to measure yarn strength at a gauge
length longer than that of the longest fibre in yarn has been devised and special
data evaluation techniques developed. With this, it is possible to obtain a new
characterization of yarn strength as well as to predict actual yarn strength behavior
at different gauge lengths. It is experimentally observed that the strengths of
neighbouring short sections along a yarn are correlated and this correlation is
different in different yarns. Depending on the degree of this correlation, the
empirical equations relating yarn strength and gauge length are found to be
different in different yarns.
Realff et al. (1991) conducted a detailed study to establish the effect of test
gauge length on yarn properties. Yarns produced on each of the three major
spinning systems were tensile tested at varying gauge lengths. Yarn strength data
were fit to two-parameter Weibull distributions and corresponding shape and scale
35

parameters were determined. Realff et al. in their study observed that strength
increased as gauge lengths decreased, a trend indicated by the weakest-link theory.
At very short gauge lengths, however, the data deviated from prediction based on
the weakest-link theory, thus suggesting a change in the yam failure mechanism,
as one would expect when the gauge length approximates the staple length.
Ghosh (2005) the phenomenon of spun yarn failure is strongly dependent

on the yarn structure namely, the configuration, alignment and packing of the
constituent fibers in the yarn cross-section. The structure of yarn is solely
determined by the methods of consolidating the fibers into yarns. In the present
study, ring, rotor, air-jet and open-end friction spun yarns were produced from
identical fibers and their structural parameters; namely, mean fiber extent,
spinning-in-coefficient, helix angle of the fibers, percentage of different hooks and
their extents, number of fibers in yarn cross-section and yarn diameter were
measured. These yarns were subjected to uniaxial loading on the tensile testers
with a large range of gauge lengths (0 to 500 mm) and strain rates (5 to 400
m/min). The results showed that the strength of yarns largely depends on the
structure of the yarns, gauge lengths and strain rates. A combined effect of fiber
extent in the yarn and gauge length influences the yarn strength. At high strain
rates the yarn failure is dominated by the breakage of fibers rather than the
slippage of fibers. Furthermore, the analysis of the region of yarn failure provides
more direct evidences of the influence of yarn structure and testing parameters on
the strength of different spun yarns.
The determination of the tensile strength of high strength carbon fibers and
their gauge length dependence were analyzed by means of the Weibull model. The
influences of the estimator chosen and of the sample size on the calculated value
of the tensile strength of the fiber were first determined. Secondly, the accuracy of
the three- and the two-parameter Weibull distributions is examined. Finally, it is
shown that the most appropriate extrapolation at short length is performed by
36

means of a linear logarithmic dependence on gauge length of the tensile strength.
This method seems to be valid for untreated as well as for surface-treated high
strength carbon fibers, Asloun et al. (1989)
Rengasamy et al. (2005) have predicted the spun yarn strength at different
gauge lengths using Weibull distribution. The shape and scale parameters of
Weibull distribution have been determined. It has been observed that the data of
yarn tenacity fit well to two-parameter Weibull distribution. The Weibull shape
parameter diminishes as the gauge length decreases. None of the yarns strictly
follow the classical weakest link theory and there is a considerable change in
failure mechanism for all the yarns as the gauge length is varied.
Raghunathan et al. (2002) have studied the characteristics of ring and rotor
yarns using modified Weibull distribution. The influence of gauge length on the
tensile strength of ring and rotor yarns has been investigated. A modified Weibull
distribution was verified through Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness test. The
tenacity of all the ring and rotor yarns studied is found to decrease with the
increase in gauge length and fits well with Weibull distribution. The strength
variation is found to be high at lower gauge lengths.
2.6 OBJECTIVES OF DOUBLED YARN
The folded yarn is produced by folding two or more single yarns together.
In spinning, the purpose of folding is to join together two or several yarns to give
them a twist that improves the strength, the regularity and the yarn aspect Gupta et
al. (1984) opined that plied yarns are widely used in many areas of textile industry
due to their unique physical characteristics over single yarns. Double yarns are
more uniform and have high strength, less hairiness, very smooth surface than the
single yarns. They are used in sewing threads and are excellent choice for mittens,
socks and dress items. Doubling is the process of equalizing and compensating
37

single –strand unevenness, thin and thick places. It is also reported that there is
reduction in yarn hairiness after doubling due to entrapping of the protruding
fibers between constituent yarns
2.6.1. Benefits of Doubled yarn
Folded yarns and plied yarns are used especially where single yarns are
incapable of withstanding the demands made by them in manufacture or end use.
Hence the folded yarn has continued to maintain its status in the production cycle
despite occupying a disproportionate share of production cost says Magel et al.,
(1999). Zaghouani, et al., (2009) states that the ring yarns are known for the
remarkable resistance and for their homogenous structure. The open end yarns
which are less resistant present a good regularity and a less production cost. To
balance the two structures it is interesting to realize a hybrid folded yarn consisted
of one ring yarn and another open-end. This allows, in theory to obtain more
tenacity than open-end folded yarns and have a better regularity than ring folded
yarns
2.6.2. Related studies concerning Doubled yarn
A number of research workers in the past have contributed to the study of

doubled yarn. Coulson and Dakin (1957) did pioneering work on the properties of
doubled yarn. They studied the doubled yarn properties as a function of doubling
twist, ratio of doubled yarn twist to single yarn twist, doubling, tension. Based on
the comprehensive study several findings which were obtained were found to be
very useful to the industry. When they studied these properties conventional ring
spun yarns only were available. In 1985, Hari et al. studied the effect of doubling
on the tenacity of rotor spun yarns. They concluded that twist-over-twist doubling
of low-twist singles rotor-spun yarn gave a significant improvement in the tenacity
of doubled rotor-spun yarn and the differences in the strengths of ring and rotor-
38

spun doubled yarn was considerably reduced. Almost at the same time Gupta et al.
(1984) reported on the effect of doubling of yarn on classimat yarn faults. They
found that the number of faults showed a considerable reduction following
doubling of cotton and polyester/cotton yarns. This finding is collaborated by
Magel et al. (1999) in their study on controlling the properties of folded yarns.
They concluded that yarns spun on long-staple and short staple systems exhibited
similar behavior when converted to two fold yarns with folding twist in the same
direction and counted to the singles twist at different twist levels. It is pointed out
that folded yarns produced with cotton and wool yarns became appreciably more
even as a result of the folding process and had lower hairiness, highest strength
and extension and higher abrasion resistance.
Lin et al. (1998) have made a comparative study of the properties of

doubled yarn produced by the ring twister, the two-for-one twister and the novel
twister designed by them. Their results showed that the rotor twister had a twisting
tension lower or equal to that of ring twister and that the physical properties of the
plied yarns produced on it were better than those of the ring twister and those of
the two-for-one twister under constant twisting conditions.
Onder, et al. (2003) has studied the mechanical properties and air
permeability of light weight wool blend apparel fabrics. The mechanical responses
in uniaxial, tensile and tear tests of gray-state fabrics and low deformation
characteristics were reported by them. The use of sirospun yarn had led to a slight
drop in shear rigidity and higher air permeability of fabrics. Thus the effect of siro
doubled yarn structure on the properties of fabrics has been examined.
Ishtiaque, et al. (2009) has studied the structural and tensile properties, of
ring and compact plied yarns. The structural parameter, namely fiber extent,
spinning- in- coefficient, fiber pair overlap length and packing density show an
increase while migration parameters show a decrease for both ring and compact
39

yarns. The difference in tenacity between ring and compact yarns when doubled
shows a decrease compared to before doubling and elongation of yarn shows a
drop following doubling of yarn. Thus while Gupta et al and Magel et al (1999)
have studied the imperfections in yarns following doubling.
Ishtiaque et al. (2009) studied the structural changes. They also report on
the reduction in hairiness of two fold yarns in ring and compact, single and plied
yarns. That reduction in hairiness is quite significant in ring yarns has been
pointed out by them. Recently there has been increased interest in studying the
properties of doubled yarn.
Zaghouani, et al. (2009) studied the effect of various spinning and folding
parameters on the yarn quality for ring, Open-end and hybrid folded yarn. The
folding twist factor has been found to be the most influential factor which affects
the strength of doubled yarn. A comparative study of the quality of the hybrid
folded yarns showed that the hybrid folded yarns have a better quality than the
open-end folded ones and very close to ring folded yarns. The experiments were
performed with three levels of linear density, three levels of folding twist factor
and three levels of folding tension. Treloar (1956) dealt with the geometry of
multi-ply yarns which was based on the assumption that the individual filament in
the ply had the form of a double wound helix (ie) of a helix wound about a helical
axis.
2.7 NATURE OF SPIRALITY
Fabric spirality is a major problem, especially in plainknitted fabrics, and

comes mainly from two sources: from the yarn and from the machine. The
spirality problem is that when knitting a rectangular piece of fabric, it leans
towards one side and becomes a parallelogram. The wales are no longer at right
angles with the courses. The spirality is measured with an angle θsp which is the
angle between the direction at right angles with the courses and the distorted wale
40

direction as seen in Figure 2.9. If the spirality angle θsp exceeds 5° it is considered
an important problem described Kurbak et al. (2008). This is a very common in
single jersey knits and it may exist in grey, washed or finished state and has an
obvious influence on both the aesthetic and functional performance of knitwear.
However, it does not appear in interlock and rib knits because the wale on the face
is counter balanced by a wale on the back (www.textiletoday.com).
FIGURE 2.9 –Schematic representation of Spirality problem
(a) Normal fabric b)Spiral Fabric
One of the problems inherent in plain knitted fabrics is course spirality.

Some of the practical problems arising from loop spirality are encountered in
garments produced from knitted materials, such as the displacement or shifting of
seams, mismatched patterns, and sewing difficulties etc. These problems are often
corrected by finishing steps such as setting with resins, heat, and steam, so that the
wale lines are perpendicular to the course lines. However, such setting is often not
stable and after repeated washings, skewing of the wales normally re-occurs.
Spirality has an obvious influence on both the aesthetic and functional
performance of knitwear says chen et al. (2003). Slack fabric presents higher
spirality angle compared to tightly knitted fabrics. At each level of yarn twist
41

factor, the degree of spirality decreases linearly with fabric tightness factor, report
Das(2008).
2.7.1.Direction of spirality
The direction of spirality is determined by the direction of the twist.Z and S

directions of the twist in the yarn generate spirality in the Z and S direction
respectively.Z-twist yarns make the wales go to the right, givinga Z-skew, and
S-twist yarns make the wales go to the left, giving an S-skew to the fabric.
Furthermore, with multifeed machines, the fabric is created in a helix,which gives
rise to course inclination and consequently wale spirality. The wales will be
inclined to the right,giving a Z-skew in machines that rotate counterclockwiseand
to the left giving an S-skew in machines that rotate clockwise opines Palaniswamy
et al. (2005)
2.7.2. Methods of Determining the Spirality
There are four well known standard test methods, IWS test method no.276,
British standard 2819, ASTM D3882-88, AATCC 179 test method are available
for determining the spirality of knitted fabrics, says Tao et al (1997).
Mainly two methods for determining the spirality of knitted fabric are
available in literature. The Manual Method and the theoretical method; The
manual method consists of measuring manually the spirality angle on a real fabric
by using a protractor. This method presents some difficulties such as Wales and
courses deformation during measurement and depends on human precision. The
theoretical method permits to calculate fabric spirality from fabric and machine
parameters; number of feeders on the knitting machine, loop’s length and number
of courses and number of wales per fabric unit length. The large number of
measured parameters increases the number of error sources and affects the
reproducibility of this method, says Abdessalem et al. (2008).
42

2.7.3. Synopsis of previous research work investigated on spirality of weft
knitted fabrics
De Araujo et al.(1989) have investigated spirality in both dry and fully

relaxed jersey fabrics producedfrom a series of relaxed spun yams and reported
that spirality depends on feed density, machine cut, and loop shape, but the
magnitude of spirality can be offset by the selection of yarn twist direction. In
addition, they have shown that a reduction in yarn "torque" can only partially
reduce fabric spirality, but the use of plied yarns and plaiting techniques may
completely eliminate it. In three-end fleece fabrics, spirality can be substantially
reduced by balancing the twist direction in the face and binder yarns. We have
also developed a theory to explain the mechanism of loop inclination and loop
rotation in single knit fabrics.
Celik et al. (2005) studied to develop an algorithm to determine the angle

of spirality using image analysis. The proposed algorithm has yielded fast and
accurate results.It is established that the algorithm is quite satisfactory in
determining the angle of spirality in knitted fabrics. Therefore this algorithm,
which is simple, fast and objective, can be very useful in determining the spirality
angle during both laboratory work and manufacturing.
Murrells et al. (2009) proposed an artificial neural network model for the
prediction of the degree of spirality of single jersey fabrics made from 100 %
cotton conventional and modified ring spun yarns. The factors investigated were
the yarn residual torque as the measured twist liveliness, yarn type, yarn linear
density, fabric tightness factor, the number of feeders, rotational direction and
gauge of the knitting machine and dyeing method. The artificial neural network
model was compared with a multiple regression model,demonstrating that the
neural network model produced superior results to predict the degree of fabric
spirality after three washing and drying cycles.
43

A new intelligent method was used by Semnani et al.(2009) to evaluate the
deformation of stitches in various weft-knitted fabrics based on an ideal shape of
stitches and angle of direction of stitches in a knitting machine. To measure
deviation of stitch direction against internal stresses, an image analysis technique
was applied to images taken from different fabrics with constant front light. In this
method, evaluation of fabric regularity with emphasis on the deformation of
stitches was studied based on analyzing the images of the fabric using Radon
transformation analysis. The index of fabric regularity was obtained from the
deviation of stitches from the original direction of ideal regular fabric. Also, the
grading of weft knitted fabric was expanded with a new aspect of regularity grades
as a novel grading development.The computer vision method was applied to
models of ideal fabric with different stitch sizes. Different weft-knitted fabrics of
various structures and yarns were evaluated by the computer vision method. The
results showed that this method is capable of grading various weft-knitted fabrics
with different fabric structures, densities and yarn types. Therefore, it is possible
to use this method for every type of weft-knitted fabric. The results indicated that
tuck and miss stitches caused more regularity in fabric, where as the type of yarn
has a major effect on fabric regularity.
The nature, origin and characteristics of the spirality have been examined
in detail by Primentas (2003) and reports that the distinction between the spirality
effect and other fabrics distortions contribute towards the verification,by
experiment, that the prime reason for spirality is the yarn twist livliness.Tao et al
(1997) presents an experimental investigation of the effects of yarn and fabric
constructional variables on the spirality of laboratory produced cotton single jersey
fabrics.
44

2.8 COMFORT PROPERTIES
Comfort properties of textiles are extremely important than the aesthetic

properties when the garments are next to skin. Among all the comfort properties,
good absorption and easy drying is one of the major requirements. Garment next
to the skin should absorb the sweat quickly and transport it to the outer surface of
the garment. From the outer surface, sweat should be evaporated quickly to keep
the body dry or cool. All these desired phenomena come under one technical term
called “Moisture management”, explains Ghosh (2004). Jinliantlu (2008) says,
moisture has a big impact on thermal comfort, but also on sensory comfort. This
sensory comfort may change with different activity rates and environmental
conditions, along with different garment designs. Capillary action or capillarity
can be defined as the macroscopic motion or flow of a liquid under the influence
of its own surface, opine Sharabaty et al. (2008).
According to Singh and Chatterjee (2010), physiological comfort is very

basic and necessary property of the fabric and the fabric structure plays an
important role in comfort of any garment. The comfort has been an inherent
feature of the knitted textiles as it is mostly used for inner garment and the wears
of delicate use such as ladies and infant dress materials. (www.nopr.niscair.res.in)
Thermal comfort relates to sensations of hot, cold, dry or dampness in clothes and
is usually associated with environmental factors such as heat, moisture and air
velocity, say Parthiban and Maruthamani (2006).
2.8.1 Definition of wickability
Mahadevan (2004) defines, the ability of a fabric to take in moisture.

Absorbency is a very important property which affects many other characteristics
such as skin comfort, static build- up, shrinkage, stain removal, water repellency
and wrinkle recovery. The ability of a fibre or a fabric to disperse moisture and
45

allow it to pass through to the surface of the fabric, so that evaporation can take
place, opines Brown (2004). Wickability is the ability to sustain capillary flow
whereas wettability describes the initial behavior of a fabric, yarn or fibre when
brought into contact with water, state Sharabaty et al., (2008).
Wickability is the time taken by a strip of fabric sample to absorb water for
a distance of 1 cm. This strip is suspended vertically with its lower edge in a
reservoir of distilled water. The spaces between fibres act as capillaries. The
capillary network within a fibre will vary in different direction within the fabric.
Wettability is the ability of the fabric to become wet. It is calculated by the weight
of water absorbed by a fabric sample in a given direction when impressed in
water, express Thayumanavan et al., (2006). According to Pandey et al., (2010),
wicking ability was determined by the method suggested by Booth. Following
formula was used in this test.
Wet weight of sample - Dry weight of sample

Wicking percent = 100
Dry weight of sample
2.8.2 Wetting And Wicking
Wetting and wicking are important phenomena in the processing and

applications of fibrous materials. Various aspects of liquid- fibre interactions such
as wetting, transport and retention have received much attention both in terms of
fundamental research and for product and process development. Wetting of a
fibrous assembly affects many manufacturing processes, as well as the end-use
performance of materials. Wetting is a complex process complicated further by
structure of the fibrous assembly e.g. yarns, woven/ nonwoven/ knitted fabrics and
pre- forms for composites. The transport of a liquid into a fibrous assembly, such
as a yarn or fabric, may be caused by external forces or by capillary forces.
Wicking can only occur when a liquid wets fibres assembled with capillary spaces
46

between them. The resulting capillary forces drive the liquid into the capillary
spaces, explain Patnaik et al. (2006).
According to Pan and Zhong (2006), the term ‘wetting’ is usually used to
describe the displacement of a solid- air interface with a solid- liquid interface.
When a small liquid droplet is put in contact with a flat solid surface, two distinct
equilibrium regimes may be found; partial wetting with a finite contact angle !, or
complete wetting with a zero contact angle. Wicking is the spontaneous flow of a
liquid in a porous substrate, driven by capillary forces. As capillary forces are
caused by wetting, wicking is a result of spontaneous wetting in a capillary
system. Both wicking and wetting behaviours are determined by surface tensions
(of solid and liquid) and liquid/ solid interfacial tensions. The result of wicking
depends on a series of factors, for example those which influence interfacial
tensions (temperature, pressure, impurities, polarity…), the other properties of
liquid (viscosity, liquid evaporation…) and fibre properties (surface articulation,
fibre fineness…), reveal Wiener and Dejlova (2003).
Wetting, wicking and moisture vapour transmission properties are critical

aspects for assessing the comfort performance of textile products. There are
certain difference between wetting and wicking. Wickability can be defined as the
ability to sustain capillary flow and wettability can be defined as interaction
between liquid and the substrate before wicking takes place. So one can say that
wetting is a prerequisite of wicking, say Ramachandran et al., (2009). The surface
wetting characteristics of textiles affect their processability in finished products
and their performance when the fibres contact fluids. Wettability can be valuable
for characterizing fibre surfaces, liquid transport and interaction of fibres with
liquids, surfactants and adhesion with polymers, opine Mazloompour et al.,
(2007). Raul (2005) says, the ability of fabric to absorb water, especially by
wicking or capillary action may be observed by timing the rate at which water
47

climates up a narrow strip of fabric suspended vertically with its lower end
dipping into the water.
Wetting is the displacement of a fibre- air interface with a fibre- liquid

interface. Wicking is the spontaneous flow of a liquid in a porous substrate, driven
by capillary forces. Because capillary forces are caused by wetting, wicking is a
result of spontaneous wetting in a capillary system. Wicking processes can be
divided into two groups; wicking from an infinite liquid reservoir (immersion,
transplanar wicking and longitudinal wicking), wicking from a finite liquid
reservoir (a single drop wicking into a fabric).According to Samajpati and
Sengupta (2006), the phenomenon of wetting or non- wetting of a solid by a liquid
is better understood by studying the contact angle. It describes the shape of a
liquid drop resting on a solid surface by drawing a tangent line from the drop
shape to the touch of the solid surface.
For wicking to take place the fibre has first to be wet by the liquid. In fact it
is the balance of forces involved in wetting the fibre surface that drives the
wicking process. When a fibre is wetted by a liquid the existing fibre- air interface
is displaced by a new fibre- liquid interface. The forces involved in the
equilibrium that exists when a liquid is in contact with a solid and a vapour at the
same time are given by the following equation;
A SV - A SL = A LV cos !
where A represents the interfacial tensions that exist between the various
combinations of solid, liquid and vapour; the subscripts S, L and V standing for
solid, liquid and vapour,! = equilibrium contact angle, A LV = the surface tension
of the liquid. The contact angle is defined as the angle between the solid surface
and the tangent to the water surface as it approaches the solid; the angle is shown
as !, reveals Saville (2000).
48

2.8.3 Types of Wicking
Wicking is defined as the spontaneous movement of fluid through a

material driven by capillary forces. Wicking is an important property of fabrics
used in apparel for the following market segments; athletics, industrial uniforms
and protective services, say Leisen et al. (2008). Raul (2005) defines, the ability of
fabric to absorb water, especially by wicking or capillary action may be observed
by timing the rate at which water climates up a narrow strip of fabric suspended
vertically with its lower end dipping into the water.
At such times, the surface energy on inside face of the fabric plays an
influential role in wicking. Moisture is absorbed into a fabric in three directions
i.e., spreading outward on the inner surface of the fabric; transferring through the
fabric from the inside to the outer surface and spreading outward on the outer
surface and finally evaporating. Various testing methods such as water absorbency
and wicking property are used to measure the liquid transfer in clothing materials,
say Singh and Gupta (2010). Wiener and Dejlova (2003) point out, if the liquid
rises (by absorption) in fabric, it can be used as a liquid perspiration outlet from
the skin, for the production of hand towels and dish cloths, textiles for cleaning
works and many other such applications.
There are two types of wicking;
1) Longitudinal wicking
2) Transverse wicking
Longitudinal Wicking: If the material is vertical, the height to which the

liquid wicks is limited by gravitational forces and ceases when capillary forces are
balanced by the weight of the liquid.
49

Transverse Wicking: Transverse wicking is the transmission of water
through the thickness of the fabric i.e., perpendicular to the plane of the fabric.
Transverse wicking is more difficult to measure because the distances involved are
very small and hence the time taken to transverse the thickness of the fabric is
short. (www.fibre2fashion.com).
2.8.4. Longitudinal Wicking
Patnaik et al., (2006) say,it is a common practice to use in- plane wicking
measurements to evaluate the absorbing power or liquid transport capabilities of
fibrous sheet materials. Most versions of the test methods used for this purpose
start out by dipping one end of a sheet into a liquid and monitoring its subsequent
upward movement into the sheet, either by following the position of the liquid
front or by gravimetric or volumetric changes. During vertical upward wicking,
the flow of liquid is unsteady due to gravity effects. At the onset of absorption in a
vertical capillary system, the absorbed liquid is relatively close to the liquid source
and the effect of gravity can be neglected in this situation. However, at a longer
period of time (or upward wicking distance), gravity plays an increasingly
important role.
2.8.5 Related Studies
Ucar et al., (2007) carried out a study on physical and comfort properties of
the hoisery knit product containing intermingled nylon elastomeric yarn and it was
found that wickability in course direction is less than that of wale direction.
Patil et al., (2009) in their study wickability behaviour of single-knit

structures found out that wickability increased with structural-cell stitch length and
among the different structures of fabrics, single jersey with higher structural-cell
stitch length showed better performance of wickability and absorption of water.
50

Among the directions, wale-wise specimen showed better wicking behaviour. The
distilled water showed good wicking behaviour as compared with other liquids.
A comparative study on wicking behaviour of regular ring, jet ring -spun

and other types of compact yarns was carried out by Subramanian et al., (2007)
and from the study it was noted that wickability can be taken as a measure of
compactness; the lower the wickability the better is the compactness and
viceversa.
Comfort characteristics of fabrics made of compact yarns was studied by

Das et al., (2007) and it was found that fabrics developed from the EliTe®
compact yarns have shown slightly higher values of MVTR (moisture vapor
transmission rate) as compared to the fabrics made from the normal yarns. The
wicking characteristic of fabrics developed from EliTe® compact yarns was
slightly higher than the fabrics developed from normal yarns.
Manonmani et al., (2010) in their study suitability of compact yarn for

manufacturing of eco-friendly processed weft knitted fabrics noticed that the
compact spun yarn knitted fabrics have higher wicking height compared to the
ring spun yarn fabrics because of uniform packing of fibres and lower yarn twist in
compact yarn structure and uniform yarn surface which imparts the surface tension
to rise the wicking. The wicking characteristics of single jersey fabrics were found
to be good when compared to rib and interlock fabrics due to higher fabric density
and resistance to water rise. It was found that single jersey fabrics made of higher
stitch length showed higher wicking height because of the increased surface
tension.
Liquid transporting and drying rate are two vital factors affecting the
physiological comfort of sport garments. In a study conducted by Fangueiro et al.
(2010), plated knitted fabrics were produced with functional fiber yarns in the
51

back of the knit (close to the body), combined with polypropylene or polyester in
the face (outer surface) and were tested in terms of their wicking behavior and
drying rate capacity. Functional knitted fabrics were evaluated by vertical and
horizontal wicking tests. The drying capability was assessed by drying rate tests
under two different conditions, namely,at 20±2°C and 65±3% relative humidity
and, in an oven, at 33±2°C, in order to simulate the human body temperature. The
influence of the functional fiber used and that of the ground material, polyester or
polypropylene, was analyzed and discussed.
52

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CHAPTER 2

Recent years have been marked by a rapid development of unconventional

2.2 DEVELOPMENTS IN SPINNING

The art of spinning originated in prehistoric times. The technique of cotton

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2.3 RING SPINNING

According to Yafa (2006), yarn that is produced by using a ‘ring’ is ring

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2.3.1 Theory of Ring spinning

The principal of ring spinning is depicted in Figure 2.1. A bundle of

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FIGURE 2.1 -PRINCIPLE OF RING SPINNING

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Draw frame Sliver lap

Lap former Ribbon lap

2.3.2 Ring Spun yarns

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2.3.3. Advantages of Ring spun yarns

 It is universally applicable, i.e., any material can be spun to any required

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Another limitation of the ring spinning technology is the spinning triangle.

2.3.5. Spinning Triangle

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FIGURE 2.3 - Formation of the Spinning Triangle

FIGURE 2.4 – Spinning triangle - influence of the twist

2.4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPACT SPINNING

Ismail and Nagarajan (2011) report that compact is a proven technology,

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Factors, which were introduced, led to the rise of new techniques in

Compact spinning developed initially for spinning cotton yarn which

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2.4.1 History of Compact Spinning

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2.4.2 Concept of Compact spinning

Compact spinning is designed to reduce hairiness in yarn. In traditional

FIGURE 2.5- Concept of Compact spinning

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1.Perforated drum pattern (Rieter’sComforSpin K44 (Com4), K45)

2.4.4 Advantages of Compact yarns

Compact Spinning is basically designed to control those protruding fibers

Advantages of compact yarn as compared with conventional ring yarn

 Increased yarn strength & elongation.

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FIGURE 2.6-Comparison of compact and conventional yarn

FIGURE 2.7- External comparison of yarn package

 As maximum number of fibers become parallel & uniform after passing

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 Advantages in subsequent processes

 General advantages of compact yarn in knitting-Physical properties

 Structural advantages of compact yarn in knitting contributing to its

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2.4.5 Summary of Previous research work On Compact Spinning

Compact spinning has been investigated by many researchers. Most of

However, it is noticed that many interesting papers have been published on

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Waloddi Weibull invented the Weibull distribution in 1937 and delivered