Science Midterm Reviewer  

Minerals 
- Elements: cannot be broken down 
- Most abundant minerals take place in rock-forming minerals 
- Present during rock formation 
- Tells the identity of rock 
 
Characteristics of a Mineral 
- Naturally occurring 
- Inorganic 
- Homogenous solids (identical materials) 
- Has a specific chemical composition (or atomic pattern has structure) 
- Crystalline structure  
 
Physical Properties of a Mineral 
 
Hardness  Fracture 
- measured using materials   - Breaks along curves surfaces  
- The ability of a mineral to scratch  - Has an uneven surface and irregular 
another mineral  shape 
   
Color  Gravity 
- Reflection of light in mineral’s surface  - Measurenif relative density 
(physical color)  - Mass/volume of water 
- Exposed to other factors = NOT THE  - Mineral’s weight vs equal 
TRUE COLOR  weight of water 
   
Streak  Luster  
- The powdered form of the mineral =  - Quality/intensity of light reflected on 
TRUE COLOR  the mineral’s surface 
  - ADAMANTINE: reflective, 
Cleavage  brilliant 
- Way minerals break along planes of  - VITREOUS: glassy 
weakness  - METALLIC: opaque, reflects light 
- Breaks in sheets (flat, smooth surfaces)  - PEARLY: iridescent  
- Can be in more than one direction   - RESINOUS: like hardened tree 
  sap 
  - DULL: plain-looking 
 
Rocks 
- Naturally occurring aggregate (made of sediments) 
- Combination of minerals and mineraloids 
- MINERALOIDS: minerals that don’t exhibit the requirements to be minerals 
 
Igneous Rocks 
- formed from the cooling of lava/magma 
- LAVA: exits volcano 
- MAGMA: inside the earth’s surface  
 
Intrusive Igneous Rocks 
- Forms in MAGMA = occurs below the earth’s surface 
- Slow-cooling = produces large crystals 
- EXAMPLES: diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, peridotite 
 
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks 
- Forms in LAVA = occurs on the earth’s surface 
- Fast-cooling = produces smaller crystals 
- EXAMPLES: andesite, basalt, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, tuff 
  
Sedimentary Rocks 
- Formed from previously existing rocks that have been broken down into small particles 
- EXAMPLES: sandstone, limestone, shale 
 
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 
- DEPOSITION 
- Accumulation of sediments 
- COMPACTION 
- Particles stick together due to pressure 
- CEMENTATION 
- Chemical deposits fill in spaces that harden the rock 
 
Metamorphic Rocks 
- In contact with high temperature and pressure 
- Formed with previously existing rocks that have contact with great pressure and 
temperature 
- High enough to change the chemical composition but lower not to be igneous 
- EXAMPLES: schist, marble, slate. quartz, lapis lazuli 
 
 
The Rock Cycle 
- Rocks are created, changed, and formed again 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Endogenic and Exogenic Processes 
 
Endogenic 
- The geological process that occurs within the earth 
- Associated with energy originating in the earth 
- EXAMPLES: convection current, tectonic plates 
 
Exogenic 
- Land-weathering process that occurs on or near the earth’s surface 
- Associated with solar energy as the source of energy 
- Responsible for sculpting the earth’s surface 
 
Weathering   
- Breaking down of materials into   
smaller parts  Erosion 
- EXAMPLES: physical, chemical, and  - Wearing away of materials 
biological weathering  - Observed in sedimentary rocks 
  - Due to flowing agents (water, wind, ic 
Mass Weathering 
- Downslow movement of materials due 
to gravityEXAMPLES: landslides, 
avalanche 
 
Natural Hazards 
 
Hazard 
- Natural/human-made events 
- Any dangerous observable event that will exist 
- Threatens to adversely affect human life, property, and activity to the extent of causing 
disaster 
- Hazard : observable event :: Disaster : affects life 
 
Types of Hazards 
 
Physical  Biological 
- In contact with dangerous materials  - Produced from living organisms 
   
Chemical  Psychological 
- Poses a threat to human health and  - May cause mental distraction 
safety 
 
Effects of Hazards 
 
Primary Effect  - Result of the primary effect 
- An effect that comes directly from the   
incident  Tertiary Effect 
  - Long term effects 
Secondary Effect 
 
 
Vulnerability 
- Reduce the ability to prepare for and cope with the impacts of hazards. 
- Potential to be harmed 
- Looks into: 
- Coping capacity 
- Adaptation (the ability to adjust) 
- Susceptibility (educational status, economic status, etc) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Types of Vulnerability 
 
Physical Vulnerability   
- The potential impact on built and  Social Vulnerability 
population  - The potential impact on groups 
- EXAMPLES: poor infrastructure, death  - EXAMPLE: disabilities, age, inequality 
tolls   
  Environmental Vulnerability 
Economic Vulnerability  - The potential impact on the 
- The potential impact on economic  environment 
assets  - EXAMPLE: depletion of resources, 
- EXAMPLES: lack of awareness, poverty  pollution 
 
Exposure 
- The situation of people, infrastructure, housing production capacities, and other tangible 
human assets located in hazard-prone areas 
- EXAMPLE: population/urbanization = scarcity of natural resources 
 
Risk 
- The chance of being harmed 
- The potential loss of life or injury 
- Risk : chance of being harmed :: Hazard : observable event 
 
 
Types of Natural Hazards 
 
Earthquakes 
- A geological hazard that occurs on land 
- Movement of the earth’s surface caused by energy from the core 
- Causes landslides, ruptures, etc 
- Classified into: active, dormant, extinct 
 
Landslides 
- A geological hazard 
- Is the movement of landmass downward (mass wasting) 
 
Tropical Cyclones 
- Rotating storm patterns 
- Strong winds 
- The name depends on location 
- HURRICANE: atlantic & northeast pacific 
- TYPHOON: northwest pacific 
- CYCLONE: indian ocean & south pacific 
- Hydrometeorological hazard (occurs in the atmosphere) 
 
Coastal Erosions 
- Permanent loss of rock along the coastline due to currents, waves, and tides 
- Possible prevention: strong sea walla 
 
Volcanic Eruptions 
- When hot materials (gasses, rocks, lava) are thrown out from a volcano 
 
Tsunamis 
- Series of waves due to earthquakes, volcanic eruption or a large displacement of water 
 
 
 
Natural Resources 
- Resources that exist without human action 
- Provided by the environment 
- Renewable and nonrenewable, tangible and intangible, living and nonliving 
- Essential to all human beings 
 
Energy 
- Resources that move objects  
- Produces heat and energy 
 
Renewable Energy 
- Can be replenished by the environment in a relatively short period of time 
- Alternative energy 
 
Biomass  - EXAMPLE: solar panels 
- Energy harnessed from plants &   
animals  Hydroelectric Power 
- EXAMPLE: algae  - Energy from moving waters 
  - EXAMPLE: dams 
Windpower   
- Uses wind for power  Geothermal Power 
- EXAMPLE: wind turbines  - Energy from the stored heat under the 
  earth’s surface 
Solar Energy  - Different from nuclear power (which is 
- Energy from sunlight  from nuclear fission energy) 
 
Nonrenewable Energy 
- Does not regenerate quickly enough to sustain or does not regenerate at all :( 
- Fossil Fuels/Dirty Fuels 
- Formed from geological past 
- Slow forming and can run out 
- High in demand since it is readily available = scarcity of natural resources 
- Pressure from being buried under the ground/ocean floor turns them into coal, oil, or gas 
 
Coal  Oil  
- Natural sedimentary material (from  - Formed from marine animals 
land remains)  - Can cause oil spills = destruction of 
- Note: charcoal is made from trees  marine life 
- Coal mining   
- Produces carbon monoxide  Natural Gas 
- Results to deforestation,  - Decomposes organic materials that 
contamination of groundwater,  have gone through high 
and health hazards  heat/temperature 
  - Carbon emission 
  - Produces carbon dioxide = main 
  driver for the climate crisis 
 
Water 
- Hydrosphere  
- Most water is found in the ocean 
- The main component of the earth 
- Vital for survival 
- The human body is 70% made out of water 
 
 
 Types of Water 
 
Freshwater  - Chemical treatment 
- Lakes, rivers, groundwater, ice caps,   
permafrost  Saltwater 
- 1.2% of the total water on earth  - Oceans, seas 
- Undergoes water treatment  - A big source of oxygen 
- Physical treatment  - Makes most of the total water 
- Biological treatment 
 
Demand for Freshwater 
- Increases as economic growth increases 
- Leads to scarcity and deterioration of the environment  
- Aral Sea 
- Lake used for agricultural purposes 
- Shrunk and died 
- Effects 
- Massive fish kill 
- Lack of portable water 
- Degrades water quality 
- Affected biodiversity 
 
Soil 
- Sediments that are used for planting 
- Basic for ecosystem function 
- Filters underground water 
- Regulates earth’s temperature 
- Foundation if infrastructures 
- The Philippines is an agricultural country 
- Rice is abundant = have enough soil and sunlight 
 
Soil vs. Land 
- Soil: consists of minerals, organic materials, organisms, water, and air 
- Land: part of the earth that’s not water and consists of soil 
 
Mining 
- The Philippines is rich in minerals (gold, iron, copper) 
- Effects of mining and farming: 
- Excessive tillage 
- Use of toxic pesticides 
- Use of synthetic fertilizers 
- Soil erosion 
- Dust 
- Contamination of groundwater 
- Deforestation  
- Disturbance and displacement of organisms  
 
Earth’s Systems 
- The earth is the only habitable planet that has intelligent life 
- Has water: most important substance 
- Has atmosphere: blocks radiation and heat 
- Has tectonic plates: solid earth 
- Systems interact with each other 
 
 
 
Geosphere 
- Physical and solid earth 
- Composed of rocks, soil, and minerals 
- EXAMPLE: mountains, hills 
 
Layers of the Earth 
 
Crust 
- Outermost, thinnest later 
- All rock types are found 
- Lithosphere: fundamental and oceanic 
crust 
- Oxygen, silicon, aluminum. Iron. calcium 
 
Mantle 
- Largest and thickest 
- Semi-solid rock 
- Oxygen, silicon, magnesium 
 
Outer Core 
- Liquid composition (iron + nickel) 
- Generates magnetic field (ex: convection current) 
 
Inner Core 
- Hottest part 
- A solid layer of iron 
 
 
Hydrosphere  
- The totality of the earth’s water  
- Includes cryosphere ice) 
- Earth is the only planet that contains water in 3 phases (solid, liquid, gas) 
 
Water Cycle 
- A hydrological process that recycled water  
- Groundwater: underground  
- Surface runoff: occurs on land/melted water 
 
Evaporation 
- Liquid to gas 
- 90% of moisture 
 
Transpiration  
- Vapor from plants 
- 10% of moisture  
 
Condensation 
- Gas to liquid  
- Clouds: the main route from the 
sky to earth 
 
Precipitation 
- Water that forms in the atmosphere (can be solid or liquid) 
- Vapor compresses to droplets 
 
 
 
Atmosphere 
- The mixture of gasses that surround the atmosphere 
 
Troposphere 
- Weather  
- 80% of the total gas 
 
Stratosphere 
- Ozone layer (absorbs UV rays) 
- Jets/aircrafts 
 
Mesosphere 
- Protects the earth from meteors  
 
Thermosphere 
- Space shuttles 
 
Exosphere  
- Highest point 
- Atoms and molecules go to space 
- Protects earth from meteors 
 
Biosphere 
- All forms of life that exist 
- Any part/place that can support life 
- Ecosphere 
- The worldwide sum of all ecosystems 
- Levels/ecological hierarchy 
- ORGANISM: individual plant, animal, etc 
- POPULATION: same organism living in the same location 
- COMMUNITY: population of different species in an area 
- ECOSYSTEM: biotic & abiotic factors affect each other 
 
ORGANISM >> POPULATION >> COMMUNITY >> ECOSYSTEM 
 
The Solar System 
- The Sun + collection of all materials/celestial bodies within its gravitational pull 
- Astronomy: anything beyond the atmosphere 
- Meteorology: deals with phenomenons/processes that occur in the atmosphere 
- Newton’s Law of Gravity 
- Reason for orbit around the sun (pulls objects together) 
 
Solar Nebula Theory 
- Widely accepted theory about the formation of the Solar System 
- Formed 4.billion years ago when gravity pulled together a low-density and spinning cloud 
of interstellar gas and dust called NEBULA 
 
Collapse 
- Birth/new beginning 
- The nebula collapsed 
- The gravitational interaction of particles 
- Shockwave from a nearby supernova 
- Conservation of angular momentum 
- Cloud spins rapidly as it collapses 
- Remains constant unless disturbed by external forces 
  
Flattening 
- While rotation, nebula flattened and center formed a hot dense bulge 
- Most gas and dust went to the center 
- Remaining dust and gas formed a disc around the bulge called PROTOPLANETARY 
DISC 
 
Formation of the Protosun 
- Generated enough energy to trigger nuclear fission (of hydrogen and helium) and increase 
the temperature 
- Protosun: the early stage of a sun (takes up 99.8% of total mass) 
- Gas around the nebula rotated around the center and lead to the formation of the planets 
 
Accretion 
- Matter accumulating to the bulge due to the gravitational pull 
- Planetesimals 
- Particles of dust, rock, and materials form small objects 
- Protoplanets 
- Celestial objects massive enough to accrete more materials 
- Planet 
- Follows requirements  
 
Geocentric Model 
- Aristotle: the earth is the center of the solar system 
- Claudius Ptolemy: model and planet motion 
- Superior planets (saturn, jupiter, mars): orbit further from the earth 
- Inferior planets (venus, mercury): orbits closer to the sun 
 
Retrograde motion 
- The backward movement of planets 
- EPICYCLE: planets move in small circles 
- DEFERENT: epicycle moves in a larger sphere around the earth 
- ECCENTRIC: the earth is slightly off the center of the deferent 
- EQUANT: the point where epicycles move in constant speed 
 
Heliocentric Model 
- Aristarchus of Samos: the sun is the center of the solar system 
- Nicolas Copernicus: planet motion appears to be opposite from a particular vantage point 
- RETROGRADE MOTION IS AN ILLUSION 
- Because the earth overlaps the pace of other planets 
 
Planets 
- Formed through accretion 
- Ingredients: 
- Rocks and minerals 
- Metals 
- Hydrogen and Helium 
- Hydrogen compounds  
- Requirements: 
- Orbits a star 
- Big enough to have its own gravity to shape itself 
- Has a clear orbit around a star 
 
 
 
 
 
Terrestrial/Tellune 
- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars 
- Closer to the sun 
- Rocky planets 
- Thin atmosphere 
- Metals and rocks 
- Has high boiling point = condenses in hot temperatures 
Jovian 
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune 
- Named after Jupiter 
- Outer planets  
- Can have rings 
- Gas giants and ice (helium and hydrogen) 
- Low boiling point = condensed in cold temperatures 
 
Planetary Motions 
- rotate on axis = day and night 
- 1 orbit = 1 year = 1 revolution 
- Earth tilted on its axis = seasons 
 
Kepler’s Laws 
 
Law of Ellipses 
- The path of the planets around the sun is elliptical in shape with the dented of the sun 
being located at one focus (not exactly in the center) 
 
Law of Equal Areas 
- planets have an equal area within equal time 
- The gravitational pull of the sun affects velocity 
- Closer to sun = higher velocity 
- PERIHELION: closer to the sun 
- APHELION: farther from the sun 
 
Law of Harmonies 
- similarity between motions of planets  
 
Minor Objects in the Solar System 
 
Dwarf Planets 
- Massive enough to have its own gravity for shape 
- Smaller than mercury  
- Orbits in a zone that has other objects in it 
- EXAMPLES: ceres, makemake, eris, haumea, pluto 
 
Asteroids 
- Found in the asteroid belt 
- Planetoids 
- Rocky celestial bodies (smaller than earth’s moon) 
- Leftovers from the formation of the sun 
 
Comets 
- Ice, methane, ammonic compounds 
- Develops a fuzzy shell called COMA 
- The sun’s heat burns gasses = bright light 
 
 
Meteors, etc 
- Meteor: light that is seen upon entrance in the atmosphere 
- Meteoroids: debris that hurtles through space 
- Meteorites: when meteoroid survives and lands on the earth’s surface 
 
Sun 
- source of all power in the solar system 
- Huge ball of glowing gases (hydrogen and helium) 
- Held by gravity (and has the greatest gravitational pull) 
- A yellow dwarf star 
 
Parts of the Sun 
 
Core 
- The innermost layer where the sun gets energy 
- Has plasma 
- Nuclear fission of hydrogen and helium occur 
 
Radiative Zone 
- Where energy by the sun travels (radiates) 
 
Convective Zone 
- Energy waves pass through via convection currents  
 
Photosphere 
- Start if the visible surface of the sun 
- Not solid, made of gasses 
- Cooler than the core 
- Radiation is seen on earth as a spectrum 
- Visible on earth for about eat minutes after it leaves the sun 
 
Chromosphere 
- Where thin gasses rise to the surface of the sun 
- Solar prominences  
- Great clouds of glowing gases 
- Huge arches 
- Solar flares 
- Most violent solar disturbances 
- A sudden outward eruption of electrically charged electrons and protons  
 
Corona 
- The outer portion of the sun’s atmosphere 
- Extends millions of miles into space 
- Sun’s Halo