BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

GOLDEN GATE COLLEGES

A Major Design Project in

REFRIGERATION ENGINEERING

MANGO COLD STORAGE

PRESENTED TO:

ENGR. NESTOR C. VISAYA

PRESENTED BY:

PEREZ, MARIEL R.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objective of the Design 2

1.2 Background of the Design 3

1.3 Significance of the Design 5

1.4 History 7

1.5 Definition of Terms 14

CHAPTER 2 RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System 18

2.3 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems 22

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Specifications of the Ripening Systems 29

3.3 Details of Operating Parameters 30

3.4 Flow Chart 31

CHAPTER 4 TECHNICAL ANAYSIS AND COMPUTATION

4.1 Refrigeration System Details 33

4.2 Schematic Diagram 33

4.3 P-h Diagram 34

4.4 Computations 34

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 39

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

1.1 Objective of the Design

The purpose of this section is to provide the various applications of refrigeration and air
conditioning industry. Over the span of last few decades, refrigeration industry has
grown into full-fledged industry in urbanized or northern countries. The refrigeration has
become as vital feature rather than a luxury. It has brought much more success and
comforts to human beings than any other devices of human comfort. The application of
refrigeration can be classified in the following six categories:

1. Domestic Refrigeration / Appliance Servicing

2. Commercial Refrigeration

3. Industrial refrigeration

4. Transport and Marine

5. Comfort Air-Conditioning

6. Processing Air-Conditioning

The primary function of the refrigerator or freezer is to provide and maintain food
storage space at lower temperature for preservation of food. The mechanical vapour
compression cycle as well as absorption system may use for domestic refrigerator or
freezer. Appliance industry covers the domestic refrigerators, freezer; the commercial
refrigeration covers the commercial and industrial applications for example
merchandising cabinet, cool rooms, freezers rooms and air 4 conditioning systems, the
air conditioning industry covers residential installation, shopping centres and hospitals ,
whereas industrial process such as textile, printing, drug manufacturing and for drying of
products.

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1.2 Background of the Design

A refrigerator (colloquially fridge) is an appliance that consists of a thermally

insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that
transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside
of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the
room. Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The
lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces
the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above
the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3
to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F). A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing
point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a
common household appliance for almost a century and a half.

The first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the
mid 1750’s, and developed in the early 1800s. In 1834, the first working vapor-
compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine
was invented in 1854. In 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923
Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. The introduction of Freon in the 1920s
expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate
compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes) were introduced in 1940.
Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace.

Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Commercial
refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home
models. The freezer-on-top-and-refrigerator-on-bottom style has been the basic style
since the 1940s, until modern refrigerators broke the trend. A vapor compression cycle
is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers. Newer
refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water, and ice from a dispenser in
the door.

India is the largest producer of banana and mango in the world. 29.72 million Tons of
banana and 18.43 million Tons are produced in India in the year 2014. India exports
mango and banana to several other countries.

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Mango and being perishable commodities need cooling and preservation technologies
to keep the fruits for a long time to benefit the farmers for better price realization during
less demand in the market and high production time. Farmers also must get the benefit
of off-season prices. At the same time consumers also get the benefit of availability of
fruits during off-season. At present Indian farmers are not able to take the benefits even
though India is the largest producer of these two fruits in the world. This is due to lack of
infrastructure, knowledge along with technical details to the farmers and interested
entrepreneurs. This paper presents the data of technical specifications, components
and machinery to be used for a suitable refrigeration and ripening systems for mango
and banana storage. Several preservation methods like pre-cooling, cool store, drying,
etc. are used to preserve apples to benefit farmers to get a good price while selling.
Several researchers investigated on the cooling aspects and heat and mass transfer to
remove field heat of fruits by forced air cooling, hydria cooling. Cold Storage (CS)
or Controlled Atmosphere storage (CAS) is used to store fruits and vegetables for
longer periods. In the CS, fruits are cooled to low temperature and maintained at that
temperature to increase its life. In CAS, fruits are kept at low oxygen and high carbon
dioxide level apart from low temperature and high relative humidity. Beneficial effects of
ethylene ripening were studied by several researchers and optimum ethylene
concentrations were derived.

The important processing operations carried before mango and banana ripening are:
sorting, quality segregation, size grading, and packing in the storage boxes (either
CFB boxes or plastic perforated crates). Sorting indicates separating the non-storable
fruits from the good fruits. Non-storable fruits include: Over matured/ripened, heavily
bruised, spoiled/damaged due to mishandling during plucking or transportation or
insect damaged fruits. Grading means segregating the fruits based on the size and
colour. Mangos and bananas are stored in separate storage chambers due to the
fundamental properties of rate of respiration. This helps to get an optimum shelf life.
Refrigeration systems are to be designed suiting the temperature requirements of
mango and banana. From preliminary experiments it was found that ripening of mango

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and banana at 24-28°C is appropriate. However this depends of the type, variety and
pre-harvest practices.
Traditionally traders andfarmers areusing harmful chemicalnamed calciumcarbide for
ripeningdue to its availability at low cost. Several harmful effects on human health due
to carbide ripened fruits are reported by Asif (2012). The toxic effect of calcium carbide
is reported by Mohd Danish et al (2015). Ripening systems using ethylene are designed
to suit the concentration requirements for banana and mango. An ethylene generator is
used to make controlled release of ethylenetypically to maintain at 100 to 150 ppm in
the ripening chambers. The ethylene generator contains ethylene liquid to vaporize,
ethylene sensor to measure and control the ethylene level in the ripening chamber.

1.3 Significance of the Design

The refrigeration technology is an important technology in that it slows down the growth
of bacteria. In doing this, it lowers the risks of diseases. This is because bacteria exist
all around us including in the foods that we eat. When the bacteria are supplied with
enough nutrients and favourable climatic conditions, they grow rapidly and hence can
cause illnesses. Refrigeration technology comes in handy to stop the rapid multiplication
of the bacteria and this is a benefit to the society in that its chances of falling ill from
Bacteria illnesses are reduced (Bauer, 1998).

Historical roots behind refrigeration.

The very first artificial refrigeration known was the demonstration presented at the
University of Glasgow by William Cullen in 1748. This discovery however was not use
for any practical purpose. The first refrigerator was designed by Oliver Evans, an
American inventor in 1748. But the first practical refrigerator was built in 1834 by Jacob
Perkins. This refrigerator used vapor in a vapor compression cycle. John Gorrie an
American physician built a refrigerator in 1844 based on Evans design. This refrigerator
was built with the aim of making ice to cool the air for the yellow fever patients that he
was treating. Carl Von Linden, a German engineer patented, in 1976 the process

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ofliquefying gas but not the refrigerator (Burstall, 65). Gas liquefaction is the basic part
of refrigeration technology. The first refrigerators were made of wood cabinet and a
compressor that was cooled with water. Steel and porcelain cabinets emerged in 1920s
to replace the wooden refrigerators which were less effective. The evolutions of the
refrigerators continue to improve in the 50s and 60s and they became better to suit the
needs of the customers. Automatic ice makers and automatic defrost were added in the
refrigerator with the aim of making them user friendly and reduce the maintenance.

The refrigeration process has not stopped evolving. The early refrigerators of 1800 used
toxic gas like ammonia, methyl chloride and sulfur dioxide as the refrigerant. These
were used up to 1929. In the 1920s, there are many fatal accidents which occurred.
This was caused by the leaking of methyl chloride from the refrigerators. It was after this
that 3 American corporations embarked on intensive research to come up with a less
dangerous method of refrigeration. Their efforts led to the use of Freon which became a
standard for all refrigerators. Freon was changed in 1996 and it was replaced with HFC
134a. This was done so as to comply with The Regulatory Clean Air Act. The
replacement was done because HFC 134a was less injurious to the environment and
the Ozone as compared to Freon. The effectiveness of HFC 134a was just the same as
Freon and the users of refrigerators did not notice any difference.

A refrigeration system’s compression or pressure ratio is defined as the absolute

discharge pressure divided by the absolute suction pressure. Calculating this ratio can
be a big help when it comes to troubleshooting a system.

This article will use the term compression ratio instead of pressure ratio, but they refer
to the same measurement. In addition, discharge pressure and condensing pressure
are one and the same, as are suction pressure and evaporating pressure.

By way of background, keep in mind that although a gauge is calibrated to read zero at
atmosphere pressure, in reality, there is 14.7 psi (standard atmospheric pressure) of
pressure being applied to it. This is called gauge pressure, which is not a true

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pressure.To attain the true (absolute) pressure, one must add 14.7 to a gauge reading.
True, or absolute, pressure must be used when utilizing an equation like the one below.

𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

1.4 History

The seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have
begun earlier than 1000 BC.A Chinese collection of lyrics from this time period known
as the Shijing, describes religious ceremonies for filling and emptying ice cellars.
However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was
used for. The next ancient society to harvest ice may have been the Jews according to
the book of Proverbs, which reads, “As the cold of snow in the time of harvest, so is a
faithful messenger to them who sent him.” Historians have interpreted this to mean that
the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient
cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass,
chaff, or branches of trees as cold storage. Like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did
not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. The
Egyptians also developed methods to cool beverages, but in lieu of using ice to cool
water, the Egyptians cooled water by putting boiling water in shallow earthen jars and
placing them on the roofs of their houses at night. Slaves would moisten the outside of
the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water. The ancient people of
Indiaused this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called
a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use cold storage to preserve
food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where
the weather could be hot and dry, many farmers used a "Coolgardie safe". This
consisted of a room with hessian "curtains" hanging from the ceiling soaked in water.
The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air

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circulating in the room. This would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and
cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat.

Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-
storehouses and iceboxes. As these two things became more widely available,
individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses. This method
proved to be difficult, dangerous, and certainly did not resemble anything that could be
duplicated on a commercial scale.

Despite the difficulties of harvesting ice, Frederic Tudor thought that he could capitalize
on this new commodity by harvesting ice in New England and shipping it to the
Caribbean islands as well as the southern states. In the beginning, Tudor lost
thousands of dollars, but eventually turned a profit as he constructed icehouses in
Charleston, Virginia and in the Cuban port town of Havana. These icehouses as well as
better insulated ships helped reduce ice wastage from 66% to 8%. This efficiency gain
influenced Tudor to expand his ice market to other towns with icehouses such as New
Orleans and Savannah. This ice market further expanded as harvesting ice became
faster and cheaper after one of Tudor’s suppliers, Nathaniel Wyeth, invented a horse-
drawn ice cutter in 1825. This invention as well as Tudor’s success inspired others to
get involved in the ice trade and the ice industry grew.

Ice became a mass-market commodity by the early 1830s with the price of ice dropping
from six cents per pound to a half of a cent per pound. In New York City, ice
consumption increased from 12,000 tons in 1843 to 100,000 tons in 1856. Boston’s
consumption leapt from 6,000 tons to 85,000 tons during that same period. Ice
harvesting created a “cooling culture” as majority of people used ice and iceboxes to
store their dairy products, fish, meat, and even fruits and vegetables. These early cold

storage practices paved the way for many Americans to accept the refrigeration
technology that would soon take over the country.

The history of artificial refrigeration began when Scottish professor William

Cullen designed a small refrigerating machine in 1755. Cullen used a pump to create
apartial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether, which then boiled,

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absorbing heat from the surrounding air. The experiment even created a small amount
of ice, but had no practical application at that time.

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, professor of chemistry, collaborated on a

project investigating the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object
at Cambridge University, England. They confirmed that the evaporation of highly volatile
liquids, such as alcohol and ether, could be used to drive down the temperature of an
object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of
a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to quicken the
evaporation; they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to 7 °F
(−14 °C), while the ambient temperature was 65 °F (18 °C). They noted that soon after
they passed the freezing point of water (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface
of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about a quarter inch thick when
they stopped the experiment upon reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Franklin wrote, "From this
experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's
day".In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum.

In 1820 the English scientist Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia and other gases by
using high pressures and low temperatures, and in 1834, an American expatriate to
Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration
system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he
described in his patent:

I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or
freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile
fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste.

His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially.

In 1842, a similar attempt was made by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a
working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. Like many of the medical experts
during this time, Gorrie thought too much exposure to tropical heat led to mental and
physical degeneration, as well as the spread of diseases such as malaria. He
conceivedthe idea of using his refrigeration system to cool the air for comfort in homes

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and hospitals to prevent disease. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a
British patent in 1850 for a vapour compression system that used ether.

The first practical vapour-compression refrigeration system was built by James

Harrison, a British journalist who had immigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a
vapour-compression system using ether, alcohol, or ammonia. He built a mechanical
ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point
in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854.
Harrison also introduced commercial vapour-compression refrigeration to breweries and
meat-packing houses, and by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation. He later
entered the debate of how to compete against the American advantage of
unrefrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. In 1873 he prepared the sailing
ship Norfolk for an experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom, which used a
cold room system instead of a refrigeration system. The venture was a failure as the ice
was consumed faster than expected.

The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water
(referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859
and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineer specializing in steam
locomotives and professor of engineering at the Technological University of Munich in
Germany, began researching refrigeration in the 1860s and 1870s in response to
demand from brewers for a technology that would allow year-round, large-scale
production of lager; he patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His
new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose
until the late 1920s.

Thaddeus Lowe, an American balloonist, held several patents on ice-making machines.

His "Compression Ice Machine" would revolutionize the cold-storage industry. In 1869
other investors and he purchased an old steamship onto which they loaded one of
Lowe's refrigeration units and began shipping fresh fruit from New York to the GulfCoast
area, and fresh meat from Galveston, Texas back to New York, but because of Lowe's
lack of knowledge about shipping, the business was a costly failure.

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In 1842 John Gorrie created a system capable of refrigerating water to produce ice.
Although it was a commercial failure, it inspired scientists and inventors around the
world. France’s Ferdinand Carre was one of the inspired and he created an ice
producing system that was simpler and smaller than that of Gorrie. During the Civil War,
cities such as New Orleans could no longer get ice from New England via the coastal
ice trade. Carre’s refrigeration system became the solution to New Orleans ice
problems and by 1865 the city had three of Carre’s machines. In 1867, in San Antonio,
Texas, a French immigrant named Andrew Muhl built an ice-making machine to help
service the expanding beef industry before moving it to Waco in 1871. In 1873, the
patent for this machine was contracted by the Columbus Iron Works, a company
acquired by the W.C. Bradley Co., which went on to produce the first commercial ice-
makers in the US.

By the 1870s breweries had become the largest users of harvested ice. Though the ice-
harvesting industry had grown immensely by the turn of the 20th century, pollution and
sewage had begun to creep into natural ice, making it a problem in the metropolitan
suburbs. Eventually, breweries began to complain of tainted ice. Public concern for the
purity of water, from which ice was formed, began to increase in the early 1900s with
the rise of germ theory. Numerous media outlets published articles connecting diseases
such as typhoid fever with natural ice consumption. This caused ice harvesting to
become illegal in certain areas of the country. All of these scenarios increased the
demands for modern refrigeration and manufactured ice. Ice producing machines like
that of Carre’s and Muhl’s were looked to as means of producing ice to meet the needs
of grocers, farmers, and food shippers. Refrigerated railroad cars were introduced in the
US in the 1840s for short-run transport of dairy products, but these used harvested ice
to maintain a cool temperature.

The new refrigerating technology first met with widespread industrial use as a means to
freeze meat supplies for transport by sea in reefer ships from the British Dominions and
other countries to the British Isles. The first to achieve this breakthrough was
anentrepreneur who had immigrated to New Zealand. William Soltau Davidson thought
that Britain's rising population and meat demand could mitigate the slump in
world wool markets that was heavily affecting New Zealand. After extensive research,
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he commissioned the Dunedin to be refitted with a compression refrigeration unit for
meat shipment in 1881. On February 15, 1882, the Dunedin sailed for London with what
was to be the first commercially successful refrigerated shipping voyage, and the
foundation of the refrigerated meat industry.

The Times commented "Today we have to record such a triumph over physical
difficulties, as would have been incredible, even unimaginable, a very few days ago...”
The Marlborough—sister ship to the Dunedin – was immediately converted and joined
the trade the following year, along with the rival New Zealand Shipping Company
vessel Mataurua, while the German Steamer Marsala began carrying frozen New
Zealand lamb in December 1882. Within five years, 172 shipments of frozen meat were
sent from New Zealand to the United Kingdom, of which only 9 had significant amounts
of meat condemned. Refrigerated shipping also led to a broader meat and dairy boom
in Australasia and South America. J & E Hall of Dartford, England outfitted the 'SS
Selembria' with a vapor compression system to bring 30,000 carcasses of mutton from
the Falkland Islands in 1886. In the years ahead, the industry rapidly expanded to
Australia, Argentina and the United States.

By the 1890s refrigeration played a vital role in the distribution of food. The meat-
packing industry relied heavily on natural ice in the 1880s and continued to rely on
manufactured ice as those technologies became available. By 1900, the meat-packing
houses of Chicago had adopted ammonia-cycle commercial refrigeration. By 1914
almost every location used artificial refrigeration. The major meat packers, Armour,
Swift, and Wilson, had purchased the most expensive units which they installed on train
cars and in branch houses and storage facilities in the more remote distribution areas.

By the middle of the 20th century, refrigeration units were designed for installation on
trucks or lorries. Refrigerated vehicles are used to transport perishable goods, such as
frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, and temperature-sensitive chemicals. Most modern
refrigerators keep the temperature between –40 and –20 °C, and have a maximum
payload of around 24,000 kg gross weight (in Europe).

Although commercial refrigeration quickly progressed, it had limitations that prevented it

from moving into the household. First, most refrigerators were far too large. Some of the

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commercial units being used in 1910 weighed between five and two hundred tons.
Second, commercial refrigerators were expensive to produce, purchase, and maintain.
Lastly, these refrigerators were unsafe. It was not uncommon for commercial
refrigerators to catch fire, explode, or leak toxic gases. Refrigeration did not become a
household technology until these three challenges were overcome.

During the early 1800s consumers preserved their food by storing food and ice
purchased from ice harvesters in iceboxes. In 1803, Thomas Moore patented a metal-
lined butter-storage tub which became the prototype for most iceboxes. These iceboxes
were used until nearly 1910 and the technology did not progress. In fact, consumers
that used the icebox in 1910 faced the same challenge of a moldy and stinky icebox that
consumers had in the early 1800s.

General Electric (GE) was one of the first companies to overcome these challenges. In
1911 GE released a household refrigeration unit that was powered by gas. The use of
gas eliminated the need for an electric compressor motor and decreased the size of the
refrigerator. However, electric companies that were customers of GE did not benefit
from a gas-powered unit. Thus, GE invested in developing an electric model. In 1927,
GE released the Monitor Top, the first refrigerator to run on electricity.

In 1930, Frigidaire, one of GE’s main competitors, synthesized Freon. With the invention
of synthetic refrigerants based mostly on a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) chemical, safer
refrigerators were possible for home and consumer use. Freon led to the development
of smaller, lighter, and cheaper refrigerators. The average price of a refrigerator
dropped from $275 to $154 with the synthesis of Freon. This lower price allowed
ownership of refrigerators in American households to exceed 50%.Freon is a trademark
of the DuPont Corporation and refers to these CFCs, and later hydro chlorofluorocarbon
(HCFC) and hydro fluorocarbon (HFC), refrigerants developed in the late 1920s. These
refrigerants were considered at the time to be less harmful than the commonly-used
refrigerants of the time, including methyl formate, ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur
dioxide. The intent was to provide refrigeration equipment for home use without danger.
These CFC refrigerants answered that need. In the 1970s, though, the compounds
were found to be reacting with atmospheric ozone, an important protection against solar

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ultraviolet radiation, and their use as a refrigerant worldwide was curtailed in the
Montreal Protocol of 1987.

1.5 Definition of Terms

Absolute Pressure - gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure (14.7 lbs. per sq. in.)

Absolute Temperature - temperature measured from absolute zero

Absolute Zero Temperature - temperature at which molecular motion ceases

Absorbent - substance with ability to take-up, or absorb another substance

Absorber – a solution or surface that is capable of soaking up (taking in) another

substance or energy form

Absorption Refrigerator - refrigerator which creates low temperatures by using the

cooling effect formed when a refrigerant is absorbed by chemical substance

Adiabatic Compression - compressing refrigerant gas without removing or adding heat

Air - invisible, odourless, and tasteless mixture of gases (consisting mostly of Nitrogen,
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide) which form earth's atmosphere

ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers -Agency regulating design and

construction of boiler and pressure vessels

Back Pressure – pressure in low side of refrigerating system; also called suction
pressure or low side pressure

BTU - British Thermal Unit, in scientific terms, it represents the amount of energy
required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, one BTU is the
approximate equivalent to the heat given off by a single wooden kitchen match

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Cold - a sensation felt as a result of the absence of heat (Similarity: There is no true
definition of darkness, other than the absence of light.)

Compressor - the heart or "pump" within an air conditioning or heat pump system, the
compressor maintains adequate pressure to cause refrigerant to condense and flow in
sufficient quantities to meet the cooling requirements of the system

Fahrenheit Scale - on a Fahrenheit thermometer, under standard atmospheric pressure,

boiling point of water is 212 deg. and freezing point is 32 deg. above zero on its scale

Gas - vapor phase or state of a substance

Head Pressure - pressure which exists in condensing side of refrigerating system

Head Pressure Control - pressure operated control which opens electrical circuit if high
side pressure becomes excessive

Heat Exchanger - a device for the transfer of heat energy from the source to the
conveying medium, with the latter often being air or water, most common combinations
are: Refrigerant to air or Refrigerant to water (DX), Water to air (hydronic), Steam to air,
Steam to water

Joule - Thomson Effect- change in temperature of a gas on expansion through a porous

plug from a high pressure to a lower pressure

Manifold, Service - a device equipped with gauges and manual valves, used by
serviceman to service refrigerating systems

Pascal's Law - a pressure imposed upon a fluid is transmitted equally in all directions

Piston - close fitting part which moves up and down in a cylinder

Piston Displacement - volume displaced by piston as it travels length of stroke

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Range - pressure or temperature settings of a control; change within limits

Refrigerant - a substance produces a refrigerating or cooling (heat absorbing)effect

while expanding or vaporizing

Refrigeration - the moving of heat from an undesirable location, to that of a location

where its presence is lest undesirable

Saturation Temperature - the temperature where a refrigerant exists in both liquid and
vapor form relative to its measured pressure

Super Heat - the temperature rise within an evaporator/suction line assembly from the
evaporator's saturation temperature

Sub Cooling –process process whereas additional sensible heat (as opposed to latent
heat) is removed from condensed refrigerant liquid prior to the metering device, the
proper method for charging a system utilizing a TXV

Temperature - degree of hotness or coldness as measured by a thermometer;

measurement of speed of motion of molecules

TON – a unit of measurement used for determining cooling capacity. One ton is the
equivalent of 12,000 BTUs per hour

Water -Cooled Condenser - condensing unit which is cooled through use of water

Watt - unit of electrical power, Watts

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 CHAPTER 2
Related Literature

2.1 Introduction

Gomej-lim (1997) investigated on mango fruit softening and made studies on the
postharvest physiology. Brinson (1998) discussed the cell wall and carbohydrate
changes during maturation are important from the point of view of marketing and
storage.

Prasanna et al (2007) in a review article explained about the fruit ripening which is
genetically programmed, highly coordinated, and an irreversible phenomenon involving
a series of biochemical, physiological, and organoleptic changes, which finally makes a
soft and edible fruit in the ripen state with attributes as desired by consumer.

A refrigeration system utilizes work supplied by an electric motor to transfer heat from a
space to be cooled to a high temperature sink (place to be heated). Low temperature
boiling fluids called refrigerants absorb thermal energy to get vaporized in the
evaporator causing a cooling effect in the region being cooled. While comparing the
advantages and disadvantages of various cooling systems, two most important
parameters, the operating temperature and the coefficient of performance are of vital
importance in these systems. These systems can be evaluated using energy and
exergy analyses which are based on first and second law of thermodynamics,
respectively and have been described in the previous chapter in detail. An extensive
review of the literature has been done on different refrigeration and heat pump systems
in present chapter. The main idea was to have possible future direction of research. The
literature review has been classified as under:

1. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration Systems

2. Vapor Compression Refrigeration System

17
2.2 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration Systems

The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor
compression refrigeration system like compression, condensation, expansion and
evaporation. In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or
lithium bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets
evaporated in the evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator
and releases the heat to the atmosphere via the condenser.

The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and
compression of the refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle. In the vapor compression
system, the compressor sucks the refrigerant from evaporator and compresses it to the
high pressure. The compressor also enables the flow of the refrigerant through the
whole refrigeration cycle. In the vapor absorption cycle, the process of suction and
compression are carried out by two different devices called as the absorber and the
generator. Thus the absorber and the generator replace the compressor in the vapor
absorption cycle. The absorbent enables the flow of the refrigerant from the absorber to
the generator by absorbing it.

Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is
the method in which the energy input is given to the system. In the vapor compression
system the energy input is given in the form of the mechanical work from the electric
motor run by the electricity. In the vapor absorption system the energy input is given in
the form of the heat. This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the
hot water. The heat can also be created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene,
heater etc. though these sources are used only in the small systems.

CONDENSER
Just like in the traditional condenser of the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant
enters the condenser at high pressure and temperature and gets condensed. The
condenser is of water cooled type.

18
EXPANSION VALVE OR RESTRICTION
When the refrigerant passes through the expansion valve, its pressure and temperature
reduces suddenly. This refrigerant (ammonia in this case) then enters the evaporator.

EVAPORATOR

The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature enters the evaporator and
produces the cooling effect. In the vapor compression cycle this refrigerant is sucked by
the compressor, but in the vapor absorption cycle, this refrigerant flows to the absorber
that acts as the suction part of the refrigeration cycle.

ABSORBER

The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of water that acts as the absorbent, and the
previous absorbed refrigerant. Thus the absorber consists of the weak solution of the
refrigerant (ammonia in this case) and absorbent (water in this case). When ammonia
from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by the absorbent due to which
the pressure inside the absorber reduces further leading to more flow of the refrigerant
from the evaporator to the absorber. At high temperature water absorbs lesser
ammonia, hence it is cooled by the external coolant to increase it ammonia absorption
capacity.

The initial flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because the
vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower than the vapor
pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator. The vapor pressure of the refrigerant-
absorbent inside the absorbent determines the pressure on low-pressure side of the
system and also the vaporizing temperature of the refrigerant inside the evaporator. The
vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent solution depends on the nature of the
absorbent, its temperature and concentration.
When the refrigerant entering in the absorber is absorbed by the absorbent its volume
decreases, thus the compression of the refrigerant occurs. Thus absorber acts as the

19
suction part of the compressor. The heat of absorption is also released in the absorber,
which is removed by the external coolant.

PUMP
When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant strong solution of refrigerant-absorbent
(ammonia-water) is formed. This solution is pumped by the pump at high pressure to
the generator. Thus pump increases the pressure of the solution to about 10bar.

GENERATOR
The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the generator is heated by the external source of
heat. This is can be steam, hot water or any other suitable source. Due to heating the
temperature of the solution increases. The refrigerant in the solution gets vaporized and
it leaves the solution at high pressure. The high pressure and the high temperature
refrigerant then enters the condenser, where it is cooled by the coolant, and it then
enters the expansion valve and then finally into the evaporator where it produces the
cooling effect. This refrigerant is then again absorbed by the weak solution in the
absorber.
When the vaporized refrigerant leaves the generator weak solution is left in it. This
solution enters the pressure reducing valve and then back to the absorber, where it is
ready to absorb fresh refrigerant. In this way, the refrigerant keeps on repeating the
cycle.
The pressure of the refrigerant is increased in the generator, hence it is considered to
be equivalent to the compression part of the compressor.

20
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

21
2.3 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems

The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle is nearly 200 years old, but it does not
seem ready to leave the scene any time soon. While some people have viewed this
method as environmentally harmful and inefficient, the cycle is still applicable in the
industrial sphere.

Natural gas plants, petroleum refineries, and petrochemical plants and most of the food
and beverage processes are some of the industrial plants that utilize vapor compression
refrigeration systems.

What is its defining feature of these systems? The simplest explanation of this system is
a heat engine working in reverse, technically referred to as reverse Carnot engine. In
other words, it is the transfer of heat from a cold reservoir to a hot one. Clausius
Statement of the Second Law of thermodynamics states:

“It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature
body”.

Since the vapor compression cycle is against the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
some work is necessary for the transfer to take place.

The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle involves four components: compressor,

condenser, expansion valve/throttle valve and evaporator.

It is a compression process, whose aim is to raise the refrigerant pressure, as it flows

from an evaporator. The high-pressure refrigerant flows through a condenser/heat
exchanger before attaining the initial low pressure and going back to the evaporator. A
more detailed explanation of the steps is as explained below.

22
STEP 1: COMPRESSION

The refrigerant enters the compressor at low temperature and low pressure. It is in a
gaseous state. Here, compression takes place to raise the temperature and refrigerant
pressure. The refrigerant leaves the compressor and enters to the condenser. Since this
process requires work, an electric motor may be used. Compressors themselves can be
scroll, screw, centrifugal or reciprocating types.

STEP 2: CONDENSATION

The condenser is essentially a heat exchanger. Heat is transferred from the refrigerant
to a flow of water. This water goes to a cooling tower for cooling in the case of water-
cooled condensation. Note that seawater and air-cooling methods may also play this
role. As the refrigerant flows through the condenser, it is in a constant pressure.

One cannot afford to ignore condenser safety and performance. Specifically, pressure
control is paramount for safety and efficiency reasons. There are several pressure-
controlling devices to take care of this requirement.

STEP 3: THROTTLING AND EXPANSION

When the refrigerant enters the throttling valve, it expands and releases
pressure. Consequently, the temperature drops at this stage. Because of these
changes, the refrigerant leaves the throttle valve as a liquid vapor mixture, typically in
proportions of around 75 % and 25 % respectively.

Throttling valves play two crucial roles in the vapor compression cycle. First, they
maintain a pressure differential between low- and high-pressure sides. Second, they
control the amount of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator.

STEP 4: EVAPORATION

At this stage of the Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle, the refrigerant is at a lower
temperature than its surroundings. Therefore, it evaporates and absorbs latent heat

23
ofvaporization. Heat extraction from the refrigerant happens at low pressure and
temperature. Compressor suction effect helps maintain the low pressure.

There are different evaporator versions in the market, but the major classifications are
liquid cooling and air cooling, depending whether they cool liquid or air respectively.

PROBLEMS IN THE VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The Coefficient of Performance (COP) expresses the efficiency of this cycle. Knowing
that the aim of the refrigerator is heat removal and that this process requires work, the
COP of the cycle becomes:

Where “h” is the enthalpy in the system.

24
SOME OF THE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE PROBLEMS
THAT MAY AFFECT THIS VALUE ARE:

COMPRESSOR LEAKAGE/FAILURE

The failure of an industrial refrigeration compressor can be expensive affair to the

company and damaging to the manufacturer’s reputation. Often, manufacturers will tear
down returned compressors in search faults. Over years of studies, some common

reasons for compressor failure have been identified to include lubrication problems,
overheating, slugging, flood back and contamination.

FOULING – EVAPORATOR AND CONDENSER

Fouling is any insulator hinders transfer between the water and the refrigerant.

It could result from algae growth, sedimentation, scale formation or slime. As this
problem increases head pressure, it can lead to increased energy use by the
compressor. What is the best practice?

Keep the evaporator surface and condenser tubes clean. Water treatment practices
need to be on point to keep this problem at bay.

MOTOR COOLING

The motor is easily the highest energy consumer in the vapor compression cycle. Most
times when efficiency drops in this device, it is because of a cooling problem. Many
issues could lead to this- blocked air filters, dirty air passages etc. Regular checks of the
chiller logs should unearth any anomaly, specifically the comparison between amperage
and voltage.

LIQUID LINE RESTRICTION

If you are a refrigeration technician and you encounter low evaporator pressure, one of
the areas to check is the liquid line, specifically for any form of restriction. Many other

25
symptoms could point to the problem that affects the system enthalpy as shown by the
following examples:

1. Abnormally high discharge temperature

2. Low current draw
3. High superheats
4. Low condensing pressures
5. Local frost close to the restriction
6. Bubbles in sight glass
In commercial cooling, liquid line restriction can degrade cooling capacity of the system
by as much as 50%.

Diagnosis of this problem does not to be fancy, as an experienced technician can tell
something is not okay by just checking the system history or checking visually. If you
are not acquainted with the system, you may need to conduct a few tests to pinpoint the
issue.

The first one is temperature drop test, which is done at all points likely to develop
restriction. You could also perform a freeze test if finding the exact point becomes
troublesome. This test comes in handy when you suspect several components such as
evaporator, feeder tubes and metering device.

Thermal imaging has to be the most advanced and reliable method of identifying liquid
line restriction. It gives real time results that help you identify the problem as shown by
temperature changes.

26
 CHAPTER 3
Design Consideration

3.1 Introduction

Marketing of perishable fruits and vegetables often requires some cold storage to
balance day to day fluctuations between harvest and transport to market. Certain
commodities, such as grapes, can be stored for longer periods to extend marketing
beyond the end of harvest season. Temperature in the cold storage facility should be
kept within 1°C (2°F) of the desired temperature for the commodity being stored. For
storage rooms operating very close to the freezing point, controls should be able
to maintain temperatures within 0.5°C (1°F) of the desired set temperature. This
will typically require more accurate temperature controls than the standard
thermostats used in commercial 38 applications. Maintaining proper storage
temperatures within the desired range depends on several important design factors.
The refrigeration system must be sized to handle the maximum expected cheat load.
Undersized refrigeration systems allow the air temperatures to rise during peak heat
load conditions. The system should be designed so that the leaving air temperature off
the cooling coil is close to the desired room temperature. Large refrigeration coils
designed for a minimum temperature difference (∆T) between refrigerant temperature
and room air temperature will provide the desired relative humidity within the room.
For most perishable commodities, the relative humidity in the cold room should be
kept at 90% to 95% RH. To achieve 90% RH and above, the refrigeration coils should
be designed large enough to operate at a temperature difference (∆T) of 4°C (8°F) at
maximum design heat load. This will usually result in an operating temperature
difference of approximately 1°C to 2°C at normal and low heat load conditions in
the room. To calculate the required refrigeration loads for a typical produce cold
room the following heat load ratios can be used to approximate the total
refrigeration capacity. Detailed calculations should be conducted to verify actual loads
for specific projects.

27
Cold storage is the one widely practiced method for bulk handling of the perishables
between production and marketing processing. It is one of the methods of reserving
perishable commodities in fresh and whole some state for a longer period by controlling
temperature and humidity with in the storage system. Maintaining adequately low
temperature is critical, as otherwise it will cause chilling injury to the produce. Also,
relative humidity of the storeroom should be kept as high as 80-90% for most of the
perishables, below or above which his detrimental effect on the keeping quality of the
produce. Most fruits and vegetables have a very limited life after harvest if held at
normal harvesting temperatures. Post-harvest cooling rapidly removes field heat,
allowing longer storage periods. Proper post-harvest cooling can:

• Reduce respiratory activity and degradation by enzymes

• Reduce internal water loss and wilting

• Slow or inhibit the growth of decay-producing microorganisms

• Reduce the production of the natural ripening agent, ethylene

In addition to helping maintain quality, postharvest cooling also provides marketing

flexibility by allowing the grower to sell produce at the most appropriate time. Having
cooling and storage facilities makes it unnecessary to market the produce immediately
after harvest. This can be an advantage to growers who supply restaurants and grocery
stores or to small growers who want to assemble truckload lots for shipment.
Postharvest cooling is essential to delivering produce of the highest possible quality to
the consumer Cold storage can be combined with storage in an environment with added
of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, etc. according to the nature of product to be preserved.
The cold storage of dried/dehydrated vegetables in order to maintain vitamin C, storage
temperature can be varied with storage time and can be at 0°-10°C for a storage time of
more than one year, with a relative humidity of 80-95 %. The cold storage of perishables
has advanced noticeably in recent years, leading to better maintenance of organoleptic
qualities, reduced spoilage, and longer shelf lives. These advances have resulted from
joint action by physiologists to determine the requirements of fruit and vegetables, and
by refrigerating specialists to design and run refrigerating machines accordingly.

28
Although there are other industries that make use of cold rooms, the food industry is the
first on the list of sectors in need of these special facilities. These cold storage facilities
are commonly built to store perishable goods for a period of time.

Due to the increasing demand in food supply, the production of perishable goods such
as fruit and vegetables continues to rise. In order to preserve these types of goods, they
need to be placed in cold storage facilities to make sure that they do not spoil.

Cold rooms are very important because they help to prolong the shelf life of fresh
goods. They are also effective in reducing the amount of waste and in lengthening the
timeframe for marketing these foods.

3.2 Specifications of the Ripening Systems

A 30 Metric Tons capacity ripening chamber’s specification are prepared and presented
below. The facility will have two chambers of 15 MT capacity each.

Chambers Capacity: 30 MT
Each Chamber: 15 MT
Chamber Dimension: 28.0 ft. x 15.0 ft. x 10.0 ft.
Chamber Construction Wall, Ceiling & Door: PUF Panels
Material: PUF
Density: 40 ± 1 kg/m3
Thickness: 890 mm
Floor Insulation: Expanded Polystyrene
Thickness: 100mm
Door Size: 2200mm(H) x 1200mm(W)
Door Type: Sliding

29
3.3 Details of Operating Parameters

The facility is designed to work on following parameters:

Relative Humidity: 90 to 95%
Humidifier: Steam Type
Ethylene Level: 100 to 150 ppm
Ethylene Generator Type: Portable
Ripening Liquid Consumption: 1 litre / 4 to 12 hours (adjustable)
Dimensions (in mm): 315 x 250 x 350
Power Input: 230V, 50 Hz
C02 Level: below 1%, supply and suction fans operated automatically with timer
Dimensions: 28.0 ft. x 15.0 ft. x 10.0 ft.
Insulation Thickness: 80 mm
Ambient Temperature: 30°C (maximum)
Room Temperature: set points ± 1.5°C
Relative Humidity: 90 to 95 % RH
Product Incoming Temperature: 5°C
Product Loading: 15 MT / day / chamber
Pull Down Time: 24 hrs.

30
3.4 Flow Chart

• Mango boxes received at the Dock shelter in the trucks.

1

• Fruits are unloaded on to the wooden pallets.

2

• Quality checks are done to see the ripeness, maturity.

3

• Mango boxes are shifted near to storage/ripening chamber.

4

• Fruit boxes are stacked in the ripening chamber as per flow pattern
5

• Doors are closed for the ripening chamber to make it air tight and
refrigeration, humidification system is put on to maintain required
6 temperature and humidity.

• Ethylene generator is switched on to maintain required

concentration.
7

31
Refrigeration slows down the chemical and biological processes in foods, and the
accompanying deterioration and loss of quality and nutrients. Refrigeration also extends
the shelf life of products.

Early attempts to freeze food items resulted in poor-quality products because of the
large ice crystals that formed. It was determined that the rate of freezing has a major
effect on the size of ice crystals and the quality, texture, and nutritional and sensory
properties of many foods. During slow freezing, ice crystals can grow to a large size,
whereas during fast freezing a large number of ice crystals start forming at once and are
much smaller in size. Large ice crystals are not desirable since they can puncture the
walls the cells, causing a degradation of texture and a loss of natural juices during
thawing. A crust forms rapidly on the outer layer of the product and seals in the juices,
aromatics, and flavouring agents. The product quality is also affected adversely by
temperature fluctuations of the storage room.

The ordinary refrigeration of foods involves cooling only without any phase change. The
freezing of foods, on the other hand, involves three stages: cooling to the freezing point
(removing the sensible heat), freezing (removing the latent heat), and further cooling to
the desired subfreezing temperature (removing the sensible heat of frozen food).

Fresh fruits and vegetables are live products, and thus they continue giving off heat that
adds to the refrigeration load of the cold storage room. The storage life of fruits and
vegetables can be extended greatly by removing the field heat and cooling as soon after
harvesting as possible. The optimum storage temperature of most fruits and vegetables
is about 0.5°C to 1°C above their freezing point.

32
 CHAPTER 4
Technical Analysis and Computation

4.1 Refrigeration System Details

A refrigeration system is used to cool 20 Metric Tons of mango from 5°C to 30°C on 24
hours. The refrigerant is R-22 and the operation conditions are 5°C evaporating
temperature and 55°C condensing temperature.

4.2 Schematic Diagram

33
4.3 P-h Diagram

55°C

5 °C

4.4 Computations

P2 = Psat @ 55°C

54 2126.5

55 x

56 2223.2

34
 X = 2174.85

P2 = 2174.85 kPa

h1 = hg @ 5°C

kJ
h1 = 407.143
kg

h2 = h @ 21.74 bar &S1 = S2

kJ
h2 = 441 kg

h3 = h4 = hf @ 55°C

54 268.891

55 x

56 271.754

X = 270.3225

kJ
h3 = h4 = 270.3225 kg

v1 = vg @ 5°C

L
v1 = 40.3556 kg

35
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCES (COP)

RE ℎ −ℎ
COP = = ℎ1 − ℎ4
W 2 1

kJ
407.143−270.3225
kg
= kJ
441−407.143
kg

COP = 4.041128866

REFRIGERATING CAPACITY

Q = mCpΔT

20000𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (3.4675 𝑘𝑔−℃) (30℃ − 5℃)
24ℎ𝑟𝑠(3600 )
ℎ𝑟

Q = 20.06655093 kW

REFRIGERATING EFFECT

RE = h1 − h4

kJ kJ
= 407.143 kg – 270.3225 kg

kJ
RE = 136.8205 kg

36
 MASS FLOW RATE

𝑄𝑒
𝑚𝑟 =
𝑅𝐸
𝑘𝐽
20.06655093
𝑠
= 𝑘𝐽
136.8205
𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑔
= 0.1465562201 𝑠

COMPRESSOR POWER

𝑊𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟 (h2 − h1 )

𝑘𝑔 kJ kJ
= 0.1465562201 (441 kg – 407.143 kg)
𝑠

𝑊𝑐 = 4.961953944 kW

HEAT REJECTED AT THE CONDENSER

Qc = h2 − h3

kJ kJ
= 441 kg – 270.3225 kg

kJ
Qc = 170.6775 kg

37
 TOTAL HEAT REJECTED AT THE CONDENSER

Qc = mr (h2 − h3 )

kg kJ kJ
= 0.1465562201 (441 kg – 270.3225 )
s kg

Qc = 25.01384926 kW

VOLUME FLOW RATE

V = mr v1

kg L
= 0.1465562201 (40.3556 kg )
s

L
V = 5.914364196 s

FRICTION OF VAPOR IN THE MIXTURE AT ENTRANCE TO THE COMPRESSOR

h4 = hf + xhfg

= hf + x(hg − hf )

kJ kJ kJ kJ
270.3225 kg = 205.899 kg + x(407.143 − 205.899 )
kg kg

X = 0.3201263143

38
 CHAPTER 5
Conclusion

Mango fruits can be precooled with different techniques such as liquid nitrogen
augmentation of a mechanical refrigeration system, hydro cooling or air cooling.

Mango can be successfully ripened without using any harmful chemicals. The technical
details given in this paper will help to setup new industries for preservation of these
fruits using refrigeration, Insulations and ethylene ripening equipment will help to ripen
the fruits safely. This will also help the farmers and fruit traders to follow the safe
practice and in a larger perspective a commercially feasible and healthy fruits to the
humans. The local refrigeration suppliers can only provide "standard" types of
commercial systems.

The storage life of fresh perishable foods such as meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits can
be extended by several days by storing them at temperatures just above freezing,
usually between 1 and 4°C. The storage life of foods can be extended by several
months by freezing and storing them at subfreezing temperatures, usually between
18°C and 35°C, depending on the particular food

39