Functoins and Limits

Chapter
FUNCTIONS & LIMITS

1
Function:
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule or a correspondence that assigns to
each element x in X a unique element y in Y. The set X is called domain of f. The set of
corresponding elements y in Y is called the range of f.
Types of Functions:
Some important types of functions are given below.
Algebraic Functions:
Algebraic functions are those functions, which are defined by algebraic
expressions we classify algebraic functions as follows.
(i) Polynomial Function:
A function P of the form
P(x) = anxn + an–1 xn–1 + an–2 xn–2 + ……. + a2x2 + a1x + a0
for all x, where the coefficient an, an–1, an–2, …….. a2, a1, a0 are real numbers and
the exponents are non-negative integers, is called a polynomial function.
The domain and range of P(x) are, in general, subsets of real numbers.
If an  0, then P(x) is called a polynomial function of degree n and a n is the
leading coefficient of P(x).
(ii) Linear Function:
If the degree of a polynomial function is 1, then it is called a linear function. A
linear function is of the form f(x) = ax + b (a  0), a, b are real numbers.
Its domain and range are the set of real numbers.
(iii) Identity Function:
For any set X, a function I: X  X of the form I (x) = x  x  X, is called an
identity function. Its domain and range is the set X itself.
(iv) Constant Function:
Let X and Y be sets of real numbers. A function C: X  Y defined by
C (x) = a,  x  X, a Y and fixed is called a constant function.
(v) Rational Function:
Mathematics (Part-II) 2 (Ch.01) Functions and Limits
P(x)
A function R(x) of the form Q(x) , where both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial
functions and Q(x)  0, is called Rational Function. The domain of a rational function
R(x) is the set of all real numbers x for which Q(x)  0.
Exponential Function:
A function in which the variable appears as exponent (power) is called an
exponential function. The functions y = eax, y = ex, y = 2x etc are called exponential
functions of x.
Logarithmic Function:
If x = ay, then y = logax, where a > 0, a  1 is called Logarithmic Function of x.
(i) If a = 10, then we have log10x which is known as the common logrithim of x.
(ii) If a = e, then we have logex which is known as the natural logarithm of x.
Explicit Function:
If y is easily expressed in terms of the independent variable x, then y is called an
explicit function of x.
For example (i) y = x2 + 2x – 1 (ii) y= x – 1 are explicit functions of x.
Symbolically it can be written as y = f(x).
Implicit Function:
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in terms of the independent
variable x, then y is called an implicit function of x.
For example
xy2 – y + 9
(i) x2 + xy + y2 = 2 (ii) = 1
xy
are implicit functions of x and y. Symbolically it is written as f(x, y) = 0
Parametric Functions:
Some times a curve is described by expressing both x and y as functions of a third
variable „t‟ or „‟ which is called a parameter. The equations of the type x = f(t) and y = g (t)
are called the parametric equations of the curve.
The functions of the form
(i) x = at2, y = at (ii) x = a cost, y = a sin t
(iii) x = a cos , y = b sin  (iv) x = a sec , y = b tan 
are called parametric functions. Here the variable „t‟ or „‟ is a parameter.
Hyperbolic Functions:
ex – e–x
(i) sinhx = is called hyperbolic sine function. Its domain and range
2
are the set of real numbers.
ex + e–x
(ii) coshx = is called hyperbolic cosine function. Its domain is the set
2
of all real numbers and the range is the set of all numbers in the interval
[1, + ).
sinhx ex – e–x
(iii) tanhx = coshx = ex + e–x
coshx ex + e–x
(iv) cothx = sinhx = ex – e–x
1 2
(v) sechx = coshx = ex + e–x
1 2
(vi) cosechx = sinhx = ex – e–x
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:

(i) sinh–1x = ln (x + x2 + 1 ) , for all x
(ii) cosh–1x = ln (x + x2 – 1 ) , x > 1
1 1+x
(iii) tanh–1x = 2 ln  1 – x  , | x | < 1
 
1 x+1
(iv) coth–1x = 2 ln  x – 1  , | x | < 1
 
1 1 – x2 
(v) sech–1x = ln  x +  ,0<x<1
 x 
1 1 + x2 
cosech–1x = ln  x + 
|x|  ,x0
(vi)

Even Function:
A function f(x) is said to be an even if f(–x) = f(x), for every number x in the
domain of f.
Odd Function:
A function f(x) is said to be an odd if f(–x) = – f(x), for every number x in the
domain of f.
EXERCISE 1.1
Q.1 Given that:
(a) f(x) = x2  x (b) f(x) = x + 4
Find: (i) f(2) (ii) f(0)
(iii) f(x  1) (iv) f(x2 + 4)
Solution:
(a) f(x) = x2  x
(i) f(2) = (2)2  (2)
= 4+2 = 6 Ans.
(ii) f(0) = (0)  0
2
= 0 Ans.
(iii) f(x  1) = (x  1)2  (x  1)
= x2  2x + 1  x + 1
= x2  3x + 2 Ans.
(iv) f(x + 4) = (x + 4)  (x + 4)
2 2 2 2
= x4 + 8x2 + 16  x2  4
= x4 + 7x2 + 12 Ans.
(b) f(x) = x+4
(i) f(2) = 2 + 4 = 2 Ans.
(ii) f(0) = 0+4 = 4 = 2 Ans.
(iii) f(x  1) = x1+4 =
(iv) f(x + 4) = x + 4 + 4 = x2 + 8
2 2
Ans.
f(a + h)  f(a)
Q.2 Find and simplify where,
h
(i) f(x) = 6x  9 (ii) f(x) = sin x
(iii) f(x) = x3 + 2x2  1 (iv) f(x) = cos x
Solution:
(i) f(x) = 6x  9
f(a + h) = 6(a + h)  9
f (a + h) = 6a + 6h  9
f(a) = 6a  9
f(a + h)  f(a) 6a + 6h  9  (6a  9)
=
h h
6a + 6h  9  6a + 9
= h
6h
= h
= 6 Ans.
(ii) f(x) = sin x (Lahore Board 2008)
f(a + h) = sin (a + h)
f(a) = sin a
f(a + h)  f(a) sin(a + h)  sina
=
h h
a + h + a a + h  a
2cos   sin  
 2   2  p + q p – q
=  sin p – sin q = 2 cos   sin  2 
h  2   
2 2a + h h
h cos  2  sin 2
=
2 2a h h
= cos  +  sin 2
h  2 2  
2  h h
= cos  a +  sin 2 Ans.
h  2  
(iii) f(x) = x3 + 2x2  1
f(a + h) = (a + h)3 + 2(a + h)2  1
= a3 + h3 + 3a2h + 3ah2 + 2(a2 + 2ah + h2)  1  [(a + b) 3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2]
= a3 + h3 + 3a2h + 3ah2 + 2a2 + 4ah + 2h2  1
f(a) = a3 + 2a2  1
f(a + h)  f(a) a3 + h3 + 3a2h + 3ah2 + 2a2 + 4ah + 2h2  1  (a3 + 2a2  1)
=
h h
a3 + h3 + 3a2h + 3ah2 + 2a2 + 4ah + 2h2  1  a3  2a2 + 1
= h
3 2 2 2
h + 3a h + 3ah + 4ah + 2h
= h
2 2
h(h + 3a + 3ah + 4a + 2h)
= h
= h + (3a + 2)h + 3a2 + 4a
2
Ans.
(iv) f(x) = cos x

f(a + h) = cos (a + h)
f(a) = cos a
f(a + h)  f(a) cos (a + h)  cosa
=
h h
a + h + a a + h  a
2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
= h
  p + q p  q
 cosp  cosq = 2 sin  2  sin  2 
    
2 2a + h h
= h sin  2  sin 2
   
2 2a h h
= h sin  2 + 2 sin 2
   
2  h h
= h sin a + 2 sin 2 Ans.
   
Q.3 Express the following: (Lahore Board 2009-2010)
(a) The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A.
(b) The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
(c) The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
Solution:
x
(a) Let,
Length of square = x x x
Width of square = x
x
Perimeter of a square = P = x + x + x + x
P = 4x  (1)
Area of a square = A = x  x
A = x2
x = A
Put x = A in equation (1)
P = 4 A
Shows perimeter P of a square as a function of its area A.
(b) Let „r‟ be the radius of the circle.
Area of a circle = A = r2  (1)
Circumference of a circle = C = 2r C
C r
r =
2
C
Put r = in equation (1)
2
C2
2
C
A =   =
2 42
C2
A =
4
Shows area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
(c) Let x be the each side of cube. (Gujranwala Board 2008)
Volume of cube = V = x  x  x
V = x3  (1)
Area of base = A = x  x
x
A = x2
x
x = A x
Put, x = A in equation (1)
V = ( A)3
V = A3/2
Shows volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
Q.4 Find the domain and the range of the function g defined below and sketch of
graph of g.
(i) g(x) = 2x  5 (ii) g(x) = x2  4
(iii) g(x) = x + 1 (Lhr.Board-2011) (iv) g(x) = |x  3|
6x + 7  x  2  x  1  x<3
(v) g(x) =  (vi) g(x) = 
x  3  x > 2 2x + 1  3  x
x2 + 3x + 2 x2  16
(vii) g(x) = , x  1 (viii) g(x) = ,x4
x+1 x4
Solution:
(i) g(x) = 2x  5
Domain of g(x) = Set of all real numbers
Range of g(x) = Set of all real numbers
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
g(x) = 2x  5 7 9 7 5 3 –1 1
y
1
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
y
(ii) g(x) = x  4 2
(Lahore Board 2008)
Domain of g(x) = R  (2, 2)
Range of g(x) = [0, + )
x –4 –3 –2 2 3 4
g(x) = x2  4 2 3 5 0 0 5 2 3
y
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
(iii) g(x) = x + 1
Domain of g(x) = [1, +)
Range of g(x) = [0, + )
x –1 0 1 2 3 4
g(x) = x + 1 0 1 2 3 2 5
y
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
(iv) g(x) = |x  3|
Domain of g(x) = (, +)
Range of g(x) = [0, + )
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
g(x) = |x  3| 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
1
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
y
 x  2
6x + 7
(v) g(x) = 
x  3
 x > 2
Range of g(x) = (, +)
x<–2 –2 –3 –4 –5
g(x) = 6x + 7 –5 – 11 – 17 – 23
x>–2 –1 0 1 2 3 3
g(x) = x – 3 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1
1
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16
-17
y
 x  1
 x<3
(vi) g(x) = 
 3x
2x + 1
Range of g(x) = (, 2)  [7, +)
x<3 –2 –1 0 1 2
g(x) = x – 1 –3 –2 –1 0 1
x>3 3 4 5 6
g(x) = 2x + 1 7 9 11 13
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x x
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
-3
y
2
x + 3x + 2
(vii) g(x) = , x  1
x+1
x2 + 2x + x + 2
g(x) = x+1
x(x + 2) + 1(x + 2)
= x+1
(x + 2)(x + 1)
= = x+2
x+1
Domain of g(x) = R  {1}
Range of g(x) = R  {1}
x –3 –2 0 1 2
g(x) = x + 2 –1 0 2 3 4
y
2
Break
1
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
y
x  16 2
(viii) g(x) = , x  4
x4
(x + 4)(x  4)
= = x+4
x4
Domain of g(x) = R  {4}
Range of g(x) = R  {8}
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 5 6
g(x) = x + 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
y
12
11
10
9 Break
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y
Q.5 Given f(x) = x3  ax2 + bx + 1.
If f(2) = 3 and f(1) = 0. Find the values of a and b.
Solution:
f(x) = x3  ax2 + bx + 1  (1)
Put x = 2 in equation (1)
f(2) = (2)3  a(2)2 + b(2) + 1
= 8  4a + 2b + 1
f(2) = 9  4a + 2b
Put x = 1 in equation (1)
f(1) = (1)3  a(1)2 + b(1) + 1
= 1  a  b + 1
f(1) = a  b
Since f(2) = 3
9  4a + 2b = 3
4a + 2b = 3  9
2(2a  b) = 12
12
2a  b =
2
2a  b = 6  (2)
And
f(1) = 0
a  b = 0
a = b
a = b  (3)
Put a = b in equation (2)
2(b)  b = 6
2b  b = 6
3b = 6
6
b = = 2
3
Put b = 2 in equation (2)
a = (2)
a = 2
 a = 2  b = 2 Ans.
Q.6 A stone falls from a height of 60m on the ground, the height h after x second
is approximately given by h(x) = 40  10x2.
(i) What is the height of the stone when.
(a) x = 1 sec (b) x = 1.5 sec (c) x = 1.7 sec
(ii) When does the stone strike the ground?
Solution:
(i) h(x) = 40  10x2  (1)
(a) Put x = 1 sec in equation (1)
h(1) = 40  10(1)2
= 40  10
= 30m Ans.
(b) Put x = 1.5 sec in equation (1)
h(1.5) = 40  10 (1.5)2
= 40  10 (2.25)
= 40  22.5
= 17.5m Ans.
(c) Put x = 1.7 sec in equation (1)
h(1.7) = 40  10 (1.7)2
= 40  10 (2.89)
= 40  28.9
= 11.1 m Ans.
(ii) When then the stone strike the ground.
then h (x) = 0
0 = 40 – 10x2
2
10x = 40
40
x2 = 10
x2 = 4
x = 2 sec Ans.
Q.7: Show that the Parametric equations.
(i) x = at2, y = 2at represent the equation of Parabola y2 = 4ax
x2 y2
(ii) x = acos, y = bsin represent the equation of ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
x2 y2
(iii) x = asec, y = btan represent the equation of hyperbola 2 – 2 = 1
a b
Solution:
(i) x = at2 .............. (i) , y = 2at ............... (ii)
From equation (ii)
y
t = 2a
Putting it in (i)
2 2
 y  y 
x = a  2a = a 4a2
   
2
y = 4ax Hence proved.
(ii) x = acos y = bsin
x y
a = cos b = sin
Squaring on both sides Squaring on both sides
x2 y2
a2 = cos  .... (i) b2 = sin  .... (ii)
2 2
Adding equation (i) & equation (ii)

x2 y2
a2 + b2 = cos  + sin 
2 2
= 1 Hence proved.
(iii) x = asec y = btan
x y
a = sec b = tan
Squaring on both sides Squaring on both sides
x2 y2
a2 = sec  .... (i) b2 = tan  .... (ii)
2 2
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i)

x2 y2
a2 – b2 = sec  – tan 
2 2
= 1 + tan2 – tan2
= 1 Hence proved.
Q.8 Prove the identities:
(i) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cos hx (Lahore Board 2006)
(ii) 2
sech x = 1  tanh2x
(iii) cosech2x = coth2x  1
Solution:
(i) sinh2x = 2 sinhx cos hx
R.H.S = 2sinhx coshx
x x
e  e  e + e 
x x
= 2 2   2 
   
2x
e e
2x
= 2
= sin h2x
= L.H.S. Hence proved.
(ii) sec h x = 1  tan h2x
2
R.H.S = 1  tan h2x

x 2
e  e 
x
= 1 x x
e + e 
(ex  ex)2
= 1 x
(e + ex)2
(ex + ex)2  (ex  ex)2
=
(ex + ex)2
e2x + e2x + 2ex . ex  (e2x + e2x  2ex . ex)
=
(ex + ex)2
e2x + e2x + 2  e2x  e2x + 2
=
(ex + ex)2
4
= x
(e + ex)2
2
 2 
=  x x
e + e 
= (sec hx)2
= sech2x
= L.H.S Hence proved
(iii) cosec h2x = cot h2x  1
R.H.S = cot h2x  1
x x 2
e + e 
=  x x  1
e  e 
(ex  ex)2
= x 1
(e + ex)2
(ex + ex)2  (ex  ex)2
=
(ex  ex)2
e2x + e2x + 2ex ex  (e2x + e2x  2ex . ex)
=
(ex  ex)2
e2x + e2x + 2  e2x  e2x + 2
=
(ex  ex)2
4
= x
(e + ex)2
2
 2 
=  x x
e  e 
= (cosechx)2 = cosech2x
= L.H.S Hence proved
Q.9 Determine whether the given function f is even or odd:
(i) f(x) = x3 + x (ii) f(x) = (x + 2)2
x1
(iii) f(x) = x x2 + 5 (iv) f(x) = , x  1
x+1
x3  x
(v) f(x) = x2/3 + 6 (vi) f(x) = 2
x +1
Solution:
(i) f(x) = x3 + x
f(x) = (x)3 + (x)
= x3  x
= (x3 + x)
= f(x)
 f(x) is an odd function.
(ii) f(x) = (x + 2)2
f(x) = (x + 2)2
  f(x)
 f(x) is neither even nor odd function.
(iii) f(x) = x x2 + 5
f(x) = x (x)2 + 5
= x x2 + 5
= f(x)
x1
(iv) f(x) = , x  1
x+1
x  1 (x + 1)
f(x) = =
x + 1 (x  1)
x+1
=   f(x)
x1
 f(x) is neither even nor odd function.
(v) f(x) = x2/3 + 6
f(x) = (x)2/3 + 6
= [(x)2]1/3 + 6
= (x2)1/3 + 6
= x2/3 + 6
= f(x)
 f(x) is an even function.
x3  x
(vi) f(x) = 2
x +1
(x)3  (x)
f(x) =
(x)2 + 1
x3 + x
= x2 + 1
(x3  x)
= x2 + 1
= f(x)
Composition of Functions:
Let f be a function from set X to set Y and g be a function from set Y to set Z.
The composition of f and g is a function, denoted by gof, from X to Z and is defined by.
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = gf(x) for all x  X
Inverse of a Function:
Let f be one-one function from X onto Y. The inverse function of f, denoted by
1
f , is a function from Y onto X and is defined by.
x = f –1 (y) ,  y  Y if and only if y = f(x),  x  X
EXERCISE 1.2
Q.1 The real valued functions f and g are defined below. Find
(a) fog (x) (b) gof (x) (c) fof (x) (d) gog (x)
3
(i) f(x) = 2x + 1 ; g(x) = , x  1
x1
1
(ii) f(x) = x + 1 ; g(x) = , x  0
x2
1
(iii) f(x) = ; x  1 ; g(x) = (x2 + 1)2
x1
2
(iv) f(x) = 3x4  2x2 ; g(x) = , x  0
x
Solution:
3
(i) f(x) = 2x + 1 ; g(x) = , x  1
x1
(a) fog (x) = f(g(x))
 3 
= f 
x  1
 3 
= 2 +1
x  1
6
= +1
x1
6+x1
=
x1
x+5
= Ans.
x1
(b) gof(x) = g(f(x))
= g(2x + 1)
3 3
= = 2x Ans.
2x + 1  1
(c) fof(x) = f(f(x))
= f(2x + 1)
= 2(2x + 1) + 1
= 4x + 2 + 1
= 4x + 3 Ans.
(d) gog(x) = g(g(x))
 3 
= g 
x  1
3
= 3
1
x1
3
=
3  (x  1)
x1
3(x  1)
=
3x+1
3(x  1)
= Ans.
4x
1
(ii) f(x) = x + 1 ; g(x) = , x  0
x2
(a) fog(x) = f(g(x))
1
= f  2
x 
1
= x2 + 1
1 + x2 1 + x2
= = Ans.
x2 x
= g ( x + 1)
1 1
= 2 = x+1 Ans.
( x + 1)
= f( x + 1)
= x+1+1 Ans.
1
= g x2
 
1 1
= 2 = = x4 Ans.
 
1 1
x2 4
  x
1
(iii) f(x) = ; x  1 ; g(x) = (x2 + 1)2
x1
= f((x2 + 1)2)
1
=
(x + 1)2  1
2
1
=
x + 1 + 2x2  1
4
1 1
= 2 2 = Ans.
x (x + 2) x x2 + 2
 1 
= g 
 x  1
2 2
 1  
=   + 1
 x  1 
1 + x  1
2 2
 1 
=  + 1 =  
x  1   x1 
2
 x 
=   Ans.
x  1
 1 
= f 
 x  1
1
=
1
1
x1
1 x1
= = Ans.
1 x1 1 x1
x1
= g((x2 + 1)2)
= [{(x2 + 1)2}2 + 1]2
= [(x2 + 1)4 + 1]2 Ans.
2
(iv) f(x) = 3x4  2x2 ; g(x) = , x  0
x
2
= f 
 x
4 2
2 2
= 3   2 
 x  x
16 4
= 3  x2   2 x
   
48 8
= x2  x
48  8x
= x2
8(6  x)
= Ans.
x2
= g(3x4  2x2)
2
=
3x  2x2
4
2 2
= = Ans.
x (3x  2)
2 2
x 3x2  2
= f(3x4  2x2)
= 3(3x4  2x2)4  2(3x4  2x2)2 Ans.
2
= g 
 x
2
=
2/ x
x
= 2 2
x
= 2 2
2
= 2 x Ans.
Q.2 For the real valued function, f defined below, find:
(a) f 1(x)
(b) f 1(1) and verify f(f 1(x)) = f 1 (f(x)) = x
(i) f(x) = 2x + 8 (Lahore Board 2007,2009) (ii) f(x) = 3x3 + 7
2x + 1
(iii) f(x) = (x + 9)3 (iv) f(x) = ,x>1
x1
Solution:
(i) f(x) = 2x + 8
(a) Since y = f(x)
x = f1(y)
Now,
f(x) = 2x + 8
y = 2x + 8
2x = 8y
8y
x = 2
8y
f 1(y)= 2
Replacing y by x
8x
f 1(x)= 2
Replacing y by x.
8x
f1(x) = 2
(b) Put, x = 1
8  (1) 8+1 9
f 1(1) = = =
2 2 2
8–x
f (f –1 (x)) = f  2 
 
8–x
= –2 2  +8
 
= –8+x+8
= x
f –1 (f (x)) = f –1 (– 2x + 8)
8 – (– 2x + 8)
= 2
8 + 2x – 8
=
2
2x
= 2 =x
f (f 1(x)) = f 1 (f(x)) = x Hence proved.

(ii) f(x) = 3x3 + 7
(a) Since y = f(x)
=> x = f –1 (y)
Now
f(x) = 3x3 + 7
y = 3x3 + 7
3x3 = y–7
y–7
x3 = 3
1
 y – 7
x =  3 3
 
1
 y – 7
f –1 (y) =  3  3
 
Replacing y by x
1
–1  x – 7
f (x) =  3  3
 
(b) Put x = –1
1
–1  – 1 – 7
f (–1) =  3  3
 
1
 – 8
=  3 3
 
 1

–1   x  7  3

f (f (x)) = f 
 3  
 
3
 1

 x  7 
= 3   +7
3
 3  
 
 x – 7
= 3  3 +7
 
= x–7+7 = x
f –1 (f (x)) = f –1 (3x3 + 7)
3 1
 3x + 7 – 7 3
=  
 3 
3 1
 3x 
=  3 3
 
1
3 3
= (x ) = x
(iii) f(x) = (– x + 9)3
(a) Since y = f(x)
x = f –1 (y)
Now
f(x) = (– x + 9)3
y = (– x + 9)3
1
3
y = –x+9
1
3
x = 9–y
Replacing y by x
1
–1 3
f (x) = 9 – x
(b) Put x = –1
1
–1 3
f (– 1) = 9 – (– 1)
1
1
f(f (x)) = f (9 – x ) 3
1
3
= [ – (9 – x ) + 9]3
1
= ( – 9 + x3 + 9)3
 13 3
= x  = x
f 1(f (x)) = f –1 ((–x + 9)3)
1
3 3
= 9 – [(– x + 9) ]
= 9 – (– x + 9)
= 9+x–9
= x
2x + 1
(iv) f(x) = , x>1
x–1
(a) Since y = f (x)
x = f –1(y)
Now
2x + 1
f(x) = x–1
2x + 1
y = x–1
y(x – 1) = 2x + 1
yx – y = 2x + 1
yx – 2x = 1 + y
x(y – 2) = y + 1
y+1
x = y–2
y+1
f –1(y) = y – 2
Replacing y by x
x+1
f –1(x) = x – 2
(b) Put x = –1
–1+1
f –1(–1) =
–1–2
0
= –3 = 0
x + 1 
f (f 1 (x)) = f x – 2 
 
 x +1 
2  +1
 x2
=
x +1
1
x2
2(x + 1) + (x – 2)
x–2
= x + 1 – (x – 2)
x–2
2x + 2 + x – 2
= x+1–x+2
3x
= 3 = x
2x + 1
f 1 (f (x)) = f 1  x – 1 
 
2x +1
+1
x 1
=
2x +1
2
x 1
2x + 1 + x – 1
x–1
= 2x + 1 – 2(x – 1)
x–1
3x
= 2x + 1 – 2x + 2
3x
= 3 = x

Q.3 Without finding the inverse, state the domain and range of f1.
x1
(i) f(x) = x + 2 (ii) f(x) = ,x4
x4
1
(iii) f(x) = , x  3 (iv) f(x) = (x  5)2 , x  5
x+3
Solution:
(i) f(x) = x + 2
Domain of f(x) = [2, +)
Range of f(x) = [0, +)
1
Domain of f (x) = Range of f(x) = [0, +)
Range of f1(x) = Domain of f(x) = [2, +)
x1
(ii) f(x) = ,x4
x4
Domain of f(x) = R  {4}
Range of f(x) = R  {1}
1
Domain of f (x) = Range of f(x) = R  {1}
Range of f1(x) = Domain of f(x) = R  {4}
1
(iii) f(x) = , x  3
x+3
Domain of f(x) = R  {3}
Range of f(x) = R  {0}
1
Domain of f (x) = Range of f(x) = R  {0}
1
Range of f (x) = Domain of f(x) = R  {3}
(iv) f(x) = (x  5) , x  5
2
(Gujranwala Board 2007)
Domain of f(x) = [5, +)
Range of f(x) = [0, +)
1
Domain of f (x) = Range of f(x) = [0, +)
1
Range of f (x) = Domain of f(x) = [5, +)
Limit of a Function:
Let a function f(x) be defined in an open interval near the number „a‟ (need not at a)
if, as x approaches „a‟ from both left and right side of „a‟, f(x) approaches a specific number
„L‟ then „L‟, is called the limit of f(x) as x approaches a symbolically it is written as.
Lim f(x) = L read as “Limit of f(x) as x  a, is L”
xa
Theorems on Limits of Functions:
Let f and g be two functions, for which Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = M, then
xa xa
Theorem 1: The limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
Lim [f(x) + g(x)] = Lim f(x) + Lim g(x)
xa xa xa
= L+M
Theorem 2: The limit of the difference of two functions is equal to the difference of
their limits.
Lim [f(x)  g(x)] = Lim f(x)  Lim g(x)
xa xa xa
= LM
Theorem 3: If K is any real numbers, then.
Lim [kf(x)] = K Lim f(x) = kL
xa xa
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of the functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
Lim [f(x) . g(x)] = [Lim f(x)] [Lim g(x)] = LM
xa xa xa
Theorem 5: The limit of the quotient of the functions is equal to the quotient of their
limits provided the limit of the denominator is non-zero.
Lim f(x)
 f(x)  xa L
Lim g(x) = Lim g(x) = M , g(x)  0, M  0
xa  
xa
Theorem 6: Limit of [f(x)]n, where n is an integer.
Lim [f(x)]n = [Lim f(x)]n = Ln
xa xa
The Sandwitch Theorem:
Let f, g and h be functions such that f(x)  g(x)  h(x) for all number x in some
open interval containing “C”, except possibly at C itself.
If, Lim f(x) = L and Lim h(x) = L, then Lim g(x) = L
xc xc xc
Prove that
If  is measured in radian, then
sin
Lim = 1
0 
Proof:
Take  a positive acute central angle of a circle with radius r = 1. OAB represents
the sector of the circle.
B
C
1
r=

A
0 D
r= 1
|OA| = |OC| = 1 (radii of unit circle)

From right angle ODC
|DC|
Sin = |OC| = |DC| ( |OC| = 1)
From right angle OAB
|AB|
Tan = |OA| = AB ( |OA| = 1)
In terms of , the areas are expressed as
1 1 1
Area of OAC = 2 |OA| |CD| = 2 (1) sin = 2 sin
1 1 1
Area of sector OAC = 2 r2 = 2 (1)() = 2 
1 1 1
Area of OAB = 2 |OA| |AB| = 2 (1) tan = 2 tan
From figure
Area of OAB > Area of sector OAC > Area of OAC
1 1 1
tan >  >
2 2 2 sin
1 sin  sin
2 cos > 2 > 2
1
As sin is positive, so on division by 2 sin, we get.
1 
> > 1 (0 <  < /2)
cos sin
i.e.
sin
cos < <1

When,   0 , cos  1
sin
Since is sandwitched between 1 and a quantity approaching 1 itself.

So by the sandwitch theorem it must also approach 1.
i.e.
sin
Lim = 1
0 
Theorem: Prove that
n
 1
Lim 1 + n = e
n  +  
Proof:
Taking
1 n(n  1) 1 n(n  1)(n  2) 1
n 2 3
 1
1 + n = 1 + nn + 2! n + n + 
      3!  
1  1 1  1  2
= 1 + 1 + 2! 1  n + 3! 1  n 1  n + 
    
Taking Lim on both sides.
n  +
n
 1 1 1 1 1
Lim 1 + n = 1 + 1 + 2! + 3! + 4! + 5! + 
n  +  
= 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.166667 + 0.0416667 + 
= 2.718281 
As approximate value of e is = 2.718281
2
 1
 Lim 1 + n = e
n  +  
Deduction:
Lim (1 + x)1/x = e
x0
We know that.
n
 1
Lim 1 + n = e
n  +  
1 1
Put x = then = n
n x
As n  + , x0
 Lim (1 + x)1/x = e
n  +
Theorem:
Prove that:
ax  1
Lim x = logea
xa
Proof:
Taking,
ax  1
Lim x
xa
Let ax  1 = y
ax = 1 + y
x = loga (1 + y)
As, xa , y0
a 1
x
y
Lim x = Lim log (1 + y)
xa y0 a
1 1
= Lim 1 = Lim 1
y0 y0
y loga(1 + y)
y
loga(1 + y)
1
= log e  Lim (1 + y)1/y = e
a y0
= logea
Deduction
x
e –1
Lim  x  = logee = 1
x0  
We know that
x
a –1
Lim  x  = logea
x0  
Put a = e
x
e –1
Lim  x  = logee = 1
x0  
Important results to remember
1
(i) Lim (ex) =  (ii) Lim (ex) = Lim  –x =0
x+ x– x  –  e 
a
(iii) Lim x = 0 , where a is any real number.
x+  
EXERCISE 1.3
Q.1 Evaluate each limit by using theorems of limits.
(i) Lim (2x + 4) (ii) Lim (3x2  2x + 4)
x3 x1
(iii) 2
Lim x + x + 4 (iv) Lim x x2  4
x3 x2
2x3 + 5x
(v) Lim ( x3 + 1  x2 + 5) (iv) Lim
x2 x2 3x  2
Solution:
(i) Lim (2x + 4) = Lim (2x) + Lim (4)
x3 x3 x3
= 2 Lim x + 4
x3
= 2(3) + 4 = 6 + 4 = 10 Ans.
(ii) Lim (3x  2x + 4) = Lim (3x )  Lim (2x) + Lim (4)
2 2
x1 x1 x1 x1
= 3 Lim x  2 Lim x + 4
2
x1 x1
= 3(1)  2(1) + 4
2
= 32 +4
= 5 Ans.
(iii) Lim x2 + x + 4 = [Lim (x2 + x + 4)]1/2
x3 x3
= [Lim x2 + Lim x + Lim 4]1/2
x3 x3 x3
2 1/2
= (3 + 3 + 4)
= (9 + 7)1/2 = (16)1/2 = (42)1/2 = 4 Ans.
(iv) Lim x x2  4 = [Lim (x)] [Lim (x2  4)1/2]
x2 x2 x2
= 2 [Lim (x2  4)]1/2
x2
= 2 [Lim x2  Lim 4]1/2
x2 x2
= 2 (4  4) 1/2
= 2(0)1/2
= 0 Ans.
(v) Lim ( x3 + 1  x2 + 5) = Lim (x3 + 1)1/2  Lim (x2 + 5)1/2
x2 x2 x2
= [Lim (x + 1)] 3 1/2
 [Lim (x2 + 5)]1/2
x2 x2
3
= [Lim x + Lim 1] 1/2
 [Lim x2 + Lim 5]1/2
x2 x2 x2 x2
= (8 + 1)  (4 + 5) 1/2 1/2
= (9)1/2  (9)1/2 = (32)1/2  (32)1/2 = 3  3

= 0 Ans.
3
Lim (2x + 5x)
2x3 + 5x x  2
(vi) Lim =
x  2 3x  2 Lim (3x  2)
x  2
2 Lim x3 + 5 Lim x
x  2 x  2
=
3 Lim x  Lim 2
x  2 x  2
3
2(2) + 5(2)
=
3(2)  2
2(8)  10 16  10 26 13
= = = = 4 Ans
6  2 8 8
Q.2 Evaluate each limit by using algebraic techniques.
x3  x 3
3x + 4x
(i) Lim (ii) Lim  2 
x  1 x + 1 x1  x + x 
x3  8 x3  3x2 + 3x  1
(iii) Lim 2 (iv) Lim (Lhr. Board 2009)
x2 x + x  6 x1 x3  x
3
x + x 
2
2x2  32
(v) Lim  2  (vi) Lim
x  1  x  1  x4 x  4x
3 2
x  2
(vii) Lim (Lhr. Board 2006)
x2 x2
x+h  x xn  an
(viii) Lim (Lhr. Board 2004) (ix) Lim
h0 h xa xm  am
Solution:
x3  x 0
(i) Lim 0 form
x  1 x + 1  
x x
3
x(x2  1)
Lim = Lim x + 1
x  1 x + 1 x  1
x(x + 1)(x  1)
= Lim
x  1 x+1
= Lim x(x  1)
x  1
= 1 (1  1)
= 1 (2) = 2 Ans.
3 3
3x + 4x 3(1) + 4(1)
(ii) Lim  x2 + x  = (1)2 + 1
x1  
3+4 7
= 2 = 2 Ans.
x3  8 0
(iii) Lim   form (Gujranwala 2007, Lahore Board 2008)
x2 x2 + x  6 0
x3  8 (x)3  (2)3
Lim = Lim 2
x2 x2 + x  6 x2 x + 3x  2x  6
(x  2)(x2 + 2x + 4)
= Lim [ a3  b3 = (a  b) (a2 + ab + b2)]
x2 x(x + 3)  2(x + 3)
(x  2)(x2 + 2x + 4)
= Lim
x2 (x + 3)(x  2)
2
(2) + 2(2) + 4 4 + 4 + 4 12
= = = Ans.
2+3 5 5
x3  3x2 + 3x  1 0
(iv) Lim 0 form (Lahore Board 2009)
x1 x3  x  
x3  3x2 + 3x  1 (x  1)3
Lim = Lim
x1 x3  x x1 x(x  1)
2
(x  1)3
= Lim
x1 x(x + 1)(x  1)
(x  1)2
= Lim x(x + 1)
x1
(1  1)2 0
= 1(1 + 1) = 2 = 0 Ans.
3 2
x + x  0
(v) Lim  2  0 form
x  1  x  1   
3 2
x + x  x2 (x + 1)
Lim  2 
= Lim
x  1  x  1 x  1 (x + 1)(x  1)
x2
= Lim
x  1 x  1
(1)2 1
= = Ans.
1  1 2
2x2  32 0
(vi) Lim 3 0 form
x4 x  4x  
2
2x  32
2
2(x2  16)
Lim 3 = Lim 2
x4 x  4x x4 x (x  4)
2
2(x + 4)(x  4)
= Lim
x4 x2(x  4)
2(x + 4)
= Lim
x4 x2
2(4 + 4) 2(8)
= (4)2 = 16
16
= 16 = 1 Ans.
x  2 0
(vii) Lim 0 form (Guj. Board 2006)
x2 x2  
x  2 x  2 x+ 2
Lim = Lim 
x2 x2 x2 x2 x+ 2
( x)2  ( 2)2
= Lim
x2 (x  2)( x + 2)
x2
= Lim
x2 (x  2)( x + 2)
1 1 1
= Lim = = Ans.
x2 x+ 2 2+ 2 2 2
x+h  x 0
(viii) Lim 0 form (Lahore Board 2006)
h0 h  
x+h  x x+h  x x+h + x
Lim = Lim 
h0 h h0 h x+h + x
( x + h)2  ( x)2
= Lim
h0 h( x + h + x)
x+hx
= Lim
h0 h( x + h + x)
h
= Lim
h0 h( x + h + x)
1 1
= =
x+0+ x x+ x
1
= Ans.
2 x
xn  an 0
(ix) Lim m   form
xa x  a 0
m
We know that:
xn  an
Lim = nan1 , where n is an integer and a > 0
xa xa
Now,
xn  an
xn  an xa
Lim m m = Lim m m
xa x  a x0 x a
xa
nan1 n n
= m1 = m an1m+1 = m anm Ans.
ma
Q.3 Evaluate the following limits:
sin 7x sin xo
(i) Lim (ii) Lim (L.B 2003)
x0 x x0 x
1  cos sin x
(iii) Lim (L.B 2009 (s)) (iv) Lim
 0 sin x   x
sin ax x
(v) Lim (vi) Lim
x0 sin bx x0 tanx
1  cos2x 1  cosx
(vii) Lim (viii) Lim (L.B 2009)
x0 x2 x0 sin2x
sin2 secx  cosx
(ix) Lim (L.B 2007) (x) Lim
 0  x0 x
1  cos p
(xi) Lim (L.B 2004,06) (G.B 2005, 2006)
 0 1  cos q
tan  sin
(xii) Lim (L.B 2003, 2004) (G.B 2005)
 0 sin3
Solution:
sin 7x 0
(i) Lim 0 form
x0 x  
sin 7x sin 7x
Lim x = Lim 7x  7
x0 x0
= 17 = 7 Ans.
o
sin x 0
(ii) Lim 0 from
x0 x  
x
sin 180
sin x o
 
Lim = Lim  180  1 = 180 radian
x0 x x0 x
180 x
x = 180 radian
 
= 1  180 = 180 Ans.
1  cos 0
(iii) Lim 0 form
 0 sin  
1  cos 1  cos 1 + cos
Lim = Lim 
 0 sin  0 sin 1 + cos
1  cos 
2
= Lim
 0 sin (1 + cos)
sin2
= Lim
 0 sin (1 + cos)
sin
= Lim
 0 1 + cos
0 0
= = = 0 Ans.
1+1 2
sin x 0
(iv) Lim   form
x   x 0
Put x = t  x = t
As x , t0
sin x sin (  t)
Lim = Lim
x x t0 t
sint
= Lim t
t0
= 1 Ans.
sin ax 0
sin bx 0
(v) Lim form (G.B 2007)
x0
sinax
sin ax ax  ax
Lim sin bx = Limx0 sinbx
bx  bx
x0
sinax
ax  a
= Lim sinbx
bx  b
x0
1a a
= = b Ans.
1b
x 0
(vi) Lim   form (L.B 2008)
x0 tanx 0
x x
Lim tanx = Lim sinx
x0 x0
cosx
cos x
= Lim sinx
x0
x
1
=1 = 1 Ans.
1  cos2x 0
(vii) Lim 0 form
x0 x2  
1  cos2x 2sin2x
Lim = Lim ( cos2x = 1  2sin2x => 2 sin2x = 1  cos2x)
x0 x2 x0 x2
2
sinx
= Lim 2 x 
x0  
2
= 2(1) = 2 Ans.
1  cosx 0
sin2x 0
(viii) Lim form
x0
1  cosx 1  cosx
Lim = Lim
x0 1  cos x
2 2
x0 sin x
1  cosx
= Lim
x0 (1 + cosx)(1  cosx)
1
= Lim 1 + cosx
x0
1 1
= 1+1 = 2 Ans.
sin2 0
(ix) Lim 0 form
 0   
sin 
2
sin
Lim = Lim  sin
 0   0 
= 10 = 0 Ans.
secx  cosx 0
(x) Lim 0 form (G.B 2007)
x0 x  
1
 cosx
secx  cosx cosx
Lim = Lim
x0 x x0 x
1  cos2x
cosx
= Lim
x0 x
2
sin x
= Lim x cosx
x0
sinx sinx
= Lim .
x0 x cosx
sinx
= Lim x tanx = 1  0 = 0 Ans.
x0
1  cos p 0
(xi) Lim   form (G.B 2006)
 0 1  cos q 0
We know that:
cos2 = 1  2 sin2

cos = 1  2 sin2 2
p
cosp = 1  2 sin2 2
p q
2sin2 2 = 1  cos p and 2sin2 2 = 1  cos q
p
2 sin2 2
1  cos p
Lim = Lim
 0 1  cos q  0 q
2 sin2 2
2
sin p 
 2  p
 p 2 
 2 
= Lim 2
 0
sin 2 q
q
  2
 q 
 2 
2 2
sin 2  p22
p
sin 2 
p
  .   . p2
 p  4  p 
 2   2 
= Lim 2 = Lim 2
 0
sin 2  q22
q  0
sin 2 
q
  .   . q2
 q  4  q 
 2   2 
(1)2 . p2 p2
= (1)2 . q2 = q2 Ans.
tan  sin 0

(xii) Lim 0 form (L.B 2005)
 0 sin3  
sin
 sin
tan  sin cos
Lim = Lim
 0 sin3  0 sin3
 1 
sin   1
cos 
= Lim
 0 sin 
3
1  cos
cos
= Lim
 0 sin2
1  cos
= Lim
 0 cos (1  cos )
2
1  cos
= Lim
 0 cos(1 + cos)(1  cos)
1 1 1
= Lim = 1(1 + 1) = 2 Ans.
 0 cos(1 + cos)
Q.4 Express each limit in terms of e:
2n n/2
 1  1
(i) Lim 1 +  (ii) Lim 1 + 
n  +  n n  +  n
n n
 1  1
(iii) Lim 1   (iv) Lim 1 + 
n  +  n n  +  3n
n
 4
(v) Lim 1 +  (vi) Lim (1 + 3x)2/x
n  +  n x0
2
(vii) Lim (1 + 2x2)1/x (viii) Lim (1  2h)1/h
x0 h0
e1/x  1
x
 x 
(ix) Lim   (L.B 2003,04) (x) Lim 1/x , x<0
x   1 + x x0 e + 1
e1/x  1
(xi) Lim 1/x , x > 0 (L.B 2005)
x0 e + 1
Solution:
2n n 2
 1  1 
(i) Lim 1 +  = Lim 1 + n 
n  +  n n  +  
2
= e Ans.
n/2 n 1/2
 1  1 
(ii) Lim 1 +  = Lim 1 + n 
n  +  n n  +  
1/2
= e Ans.
n 1
  1  
n
 1
(iii) Lim 1   = Lim 1 +   
n  +  n n  +  n 
1
= e Ans.
n 3n 1/3
 1  1 
(iv) Lim 1 +  = Lim 1 + 3n 
n  +  3n n  +   
1/3
= e Ans.
n n/4 4
 4  1 
(v) Lim 1 +  = Lim 1 + n/4 
n  +  n  n  +   
4
= e Ans.
(vi) Lim (1 + 3x)2/x = Lim [(1 + 3x)1/3x]23
n0 n0
6
= e Ans.
2 1/x2 2
(vii) Lim (1 + 2x ) = Lim [(1 + 2x2)1/2x ]2
x0 x0
2
= e Ans.
(viii) Lim (1  2h) 1/h
= Lim [(1 + (2h)1/2h]2
h0 h0
= e– 2 Ans.
x x
 x  1 + x
(ix) Lim   = Lim   (G.B 2006) (L.B 2007)
x   1 + x x  x 
x
1 x
= Lim x + x
x  
x 1
 1 
= Lim 1 + x  = e1 Ans.
x    
e1/x  1
(x) Lim 1/x , x<0 (G.B 2005)
x0 e + 1
Put, x = t , where t>0
As, x0 , t0
e  1
1/x
e1/t  1
Lim e1/x + 1 = Lim 1/t
x0 t0 e + 1
e1/0  1 e  1
= =
e1/0 + 1 e + 1
01 1
= 0+1 = 1 = 1 Ans.
e1/x  1 
(xi) Lim 1/x , x>0  
x0 e + 1 
1
e1/x (1  e1/x)
e1/x  1
Lim e1/x + 1 = Lim
x0 x  0 1/x 1
e (1 + e1/x)
1
1  e1/x
= Lim
x0 1
1 + e1/x
1
1 
e
= 1
1+ 
e
1
1
 10
= = 1+0 = 1 Ans.
1
1+

Continuous Function
A function f is said to be continuous at a number “c” if and only if the following
three conditions are satisfied.
(i) f(c) is defined.
(ii) Lim f(x) exists.
xc
(iii) Lim f(x) = f(c)
xc
EXERCISE 1.4
Q.1 Determine the left hand limit and right hand limit and then find limits of the
following functions at x = c.
(i) f(x) = 2x2 + x  5 , c = 1
x2  9
(ii) f(x) = , c = 3
x3
(iii) f(x) = |x  5| , c = 5
Solution:
(i) f(x) = 2x2 + x  5 , c = 1
Left hand limit
Lim– f(x) = Lim– (2x2 + x  5)
x1 x1
= 2(1)2 + 1  5
= 2  4 = 2 Ans.
Right hand limit
Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ (2x2 + x  5)
x1 x1
= 2(1)2 + 1  5
= 2+15
= 2 Ans.
x 9
2
(ii) f(x) = , c = 3
x3
Left hand limit
x2  9
Limf(x) = Lim
x 3 x 3 x3
(x + 3)(x  3)
= Lim
x 3 x3
= Lim (x + 3)
x 3
= 3 + 3 = 0 Ans.
Right hand limit
x2  9
Lim+f(x) = Lim+
x 3 x 3 x3
(x + 3)(x  3)
= Lim+
x 3 x3
= Lim+ (x + 3)
x 3
= 3 + 3 = 0 Ans.
(iii) f(x) = |x  5| , c = 5
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim |x  5|
x  5 x5
= Lim  (x  5)
x5
=  (5  5) = 0 Ans.
Right hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim+ |x  5|
x  5+ x5
= Lim+ (x  5)
x5
= 55
= 0 Ans.
Q.2 Discuss the continuity of f(x) at x = c:
(i) f(x) = , c = 2 (G.B 2007, L.B 2008)
(L.B 2009, L.B 2006)
3x  1 if x < 1
(L.B 2009, G.B 2007)
(ii) f(x) =  4 if x = 1 , c = 1
 2x if x > 1
Solution:
+ 5 if x  2
2x
(i) f(x) =  , c = 2
4x
+ 1 if x > 2
f(2) = 2(2) + 5
= 4+5
= 9
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim (2x + 5)
x2 x2
= 2(2) + 5
= 4+5 = 9
Right hand limit
Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ (4x + 1)
x2 x2
= 4(2) + 1
= 8+1
= 9
 Left hand limit = Right hand limit
So Lim f(x) exists
x2
 f(2) = Lim f(x) = 9

x2
So the function is continuous at x = 2.

3x  1 if x < 1
(ii) f(x) =  4 if x = 1 , c = 1 (L.B 2006, 2007)
 2x if x > 1
f(1) = 4
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim (3x  1)
x1 x1
= 3(1)  1
= 31
= 2
Right hand limit
Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ (2x)
x1 x1
= 2(1) = 2
So Lim f(x) exists
x1
 f(1)  Lim f(x)
x1
So the function is discontinuous at x = 1.
3x if x  2
f(x) = x  1 if 2 < x < 2
2
Q.3 If (L.B 2011)
3 if x  2
Discuss continuity at x = 2 and x = 2.
Solution:
At x = 2
f(2) = 3
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim (x2  1)
x2 x2
= 2  1= 4  1 = 3
2
Right hand limit

Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ 3
x2 x2
= 3
So, Lim f(x) exists
x2
 f(2) = Lim f(x) = 3
x2
So the function is continuous at x = 2.
At x = 2
f(2) = 3(2) = 6
Left hand limit.
Lim  f(x) = Lim  (3x)
x  2 x  2
= 3(2) = 6
Right hand limit.
Lim + f(x) = Lim + (x2  1)
x  2 x  2
= (2)2  1
= 41
= 3
 Left hand limit  Right hand limit
So, Lim f(x) does not exists.
x  2
 f(2)  Lim f(x)
x  2
So the function is discontinuous at x = 2.
x + 2  x  1
Q.4 If f(x) =  find ‘c’ so that Lim f(x) exists. (L.B 2009 Supply)
c + 2  x > 1 x  1
Solution: (G.B 2008)
Left hand limit
Lim  f(x) = Lim  (x + 2)
x  1 x  1
= 1 + 2 = 1
Right hand limit
Lim + f(x) = Lim + (c + 2)
x  1 x  1
= c+2
Since Lim f(x) exists.
x  1

1 = c+2
c = 12
c = 1 Ans.
Q.5 Find the values m and n, So that given function f is continuous at x = 3:
 mx if x < 3 mx if x < 3
(i) f(x) =  n if x = 3 (ii) f(x) =  2
x if x  3
2x + 9 if x > 3
Solution:
 mx if x < 3
(i) f(x) =  n if x=3 (L.B 2004, 2005)
2x + 9 if x > 3 (G.B 2006, 2009)
f(3) = n
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim (mx)
x3 x3
= 3m
Right hand limit
Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ (2x + 9)
x3 x3
= 2(3) + 9
= 6 + 9
= 3
Since f(x) is continuous at x = 3
 Left hand limit = Right hand limit = f(3)
3m = 3 = n
3m = 3 , 3 = n
3
m = 3 n = 3
m = 1
 m = 1  n = 3 Ans.
mx if x < 3
(ii) f(x) =  2 (L.B 2007)
x if x  3
f(3) = (3)2 = 9
Left hand limit
Lim f(x) = Lim (mx)
x3 x3
= 3m
Right hand limit
Lim+ f(x) = Lim+ (x2)
x3 x3
= 32 = 9
 Left hand limit = Right hand limit = f(3)
3m = 9 = 9
3m = 9
9
m = 3 = 3 Ans.
 2x + 5 – x + 7
 x  2
Q.6: If f (x) =  x–2 (G.B 2004)
k  x =2 (L.B 2009 (s) 2004)
(G.B 2006)
Find value of k so that f is continuous at x = 2.
(L.B 2008)
Solution: (G.B 2008)
f(2) = k
2x + 5 – x + 7  0 
Lim f(x) = Lim  0  form
x2 x2 x–2  
2x + 5 – x + 7 2x + 5 + x + 7
= Lim 
x2 x–2 2x + 5 + x + 7
( 2x + 5)2 – ( x + 7)2
= Lim
x2 (x – 2) ( 2x + 5 + x + 7)
(2x + 5) – (x + 7)
= Lim
x2 (x – 2) ( 2x + 5 + x + 7)
x–2
= Lim
x2 (x – 2) ( 2x + 5 + x + 7)
1
= Lim
x2 2x + 5 + x + 7
1
=
2(2) + 5 + 2 + 7
1
=
4+5+ 9
1 1
= 3+3 = 6
 f(2) = Lim f(x)
x2
1
k = Ans.
6
EXERCISE 1.5
Q.1 Draw the graphs of the following equations.
x2 y2
(i) x2 + y2 = 9 (ii) + = 1
16 4
(iii) y = e2x (iv) y = 3x
Solution:
(i) x2 + y2 = 9
y2 = 9  x2
y =  9  x2
Its domain is 3  x  3+
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y=± 9–x 2 0  2.2  2.8 3  2.8  2.2 0
y
x x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
2
3
y
x2 y2
(ii) +
16 4 = 1
y2 x2
= 1 
4 16
16  x 
2
y = 4  16 
2
 
16  x 2
y2 = 4
16  x2
y =  2
Its domain is 4  x  4.
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
9 – x2 0  1.3  1.7  1.9 2  1.9  1.7  1.3 0
y=± 2
x x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1
2
y
(iii) y = e2x
x 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
y = e2x 0.1 0.4 1 2.7 7.4
x x
0
1 0.5 0.5 1
y
(iv) y = 3x
x 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
y = 3x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1 1.7 3 5.2
x x
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
y
Q.2 Graph the curves that has the parametric equations given below.
(i) x = t , y = t2 , 3  t  3 where ‘t’ is a parameter
(ii) x = t  1 , y = 2t  1, 1 < t < 5 where ‘t’ is a parameter
(iii) x = sec , y = tan where ‘’ is a parameter
Solution:
(i) x = t , y = t2 , 3  t  3 where „t‟ is a parameter
t 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x=t 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y = t2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
y
1
x x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y
(ii) x = t  1 , y = 2t  1 , 1 < t < 5 where „t‟ is a parameter
t 0 1 2 3 4
x=t–1 1 0 1 2 3
y = 2t – 1 1 1 3 5 7
1
x x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
y
(iii) x = sec , y = tan where „‟ is a parameter

x2 = sec2 , y2 = tan2
x2  y2 = sec2  tan2
x2  y2 = 1 ( 1 + tan2 = sec2 => 1 = sec2  tan2)
y2 = x2  1
y =  x2  1
x 3 2 1 1 2 3
y = x2 – 1  2.8  1.7 0 0  1.7  2.8

y
1
x x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
2
3
y
Q.3 Draw the graphs of the functions defined below and find whether they are
continuous.
x  1 if x<3 x2  4
(i) y =  (ii) y = , x  2
2x + 1 if x3 x2
 x + 3  x3 x2  16
(iii) y =  (iv) y = , x  4
2  x=3 x4
Solution:
x  1 if x < 3
(i) y = 
2x + 1 if x  3
y = x1 , x<3
x 2 1 0 1 2
y=x–1 3 2 1 0 1
y = 2x + 1 , x  3
x 3 4 5
y = 2x + 1 7 9 11
y
11
10
2 Break Point
x x
0
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
y
Since there is a break in a graph. So this function is not continuous.
x2 – 4
(ii) y = , x 2
x–2
(x + 2)(x – 2)
= , x2
x–2
y = x+2 , x2
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 3 4 5
y –1 0 1 2 3 5 6 7
y
4 Break Point
x x
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
y
Since there is a break in a graph so this function is not continuous.
x + 3 if x  3
(iii) y=
2 if x = 3
y = x+3 if x 3
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 3 4 5
y 0 1 2 3 4 5 7 8
y = 2 if x = 3
y
6 Break Point
2 (3, 2)
x x
0 3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 4 5
-1
-2
y
Since there is a break in a graph. So this function is not continuous at x = 3.

x2 – 16
(iv) y = , x 4
x–4
(x + 4) (x – 4)
= , x 4
x–4
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 5 6
y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
y
11
10
8 Break Point
x x
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
y
Since there is a break in a graph. So this function is not continuous at x = 4.
Q.4 Find the graphical solution of the following equations.
x
(i) x = sin 2x (ii) = cos x (iii) 2x = tan x
2
Solution:
(i) Let y = x = sin 2x
Therefore y = x and y = sin 2x
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
y=x – /2 = – – /3 = – – /6 = – 0 /6 = /3 = /2 = 1.6
1.6 1.05 0.52 0.52 1.05
y = sin 2x
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
y = sin 2x 0 – 0.87 – 0.87 0 0.87 0.87 0
The graphical solution is the points of intersection of two graphs, i.e. x = 0º , 54º
Y
1.6
O
/ -54
X X
-90 O
O O O O 54O 60 O 90O
-60 -30 30
y=
sin
2x
-1
x
y=
-1.6
Y/
x
(ii) Let y = = cos x
2
x
Therefore y = 2 and y = cos x
x
y = 2
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
x – /4 – /6 – /12 0 /6 /6 /4
y=2
= – .79 = – 0.52 = – 0.26 = 0.26 = 0.52 = 0.79
y = cos x
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
y = cos x 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0
The graphical solution is the point on x-axis, which is just below the point of
intersection of two graphs. Hence x = 60º.
Y
y = cos x
/
X O O
X
-90 -60 30
O
60
O
90O
O
-30
x -1
y= /
2
Y/
(iii) Let y = 2x = tan x
Therefore y = 2x and y = tan x
y = 2x
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
y = 2x –  = – 3.14 – 2/3 = – 2.09 – /3 = – 1.05 0 /3 = 1.05 2/3 = 2.09  = 3.14
y = tan x
x – 90º – 60º – 30º 0º 30º 60º 90º
y = tan x  – 1.73 – 0.58 0 0.58 1.73 
The graphical solution is the point of intersection of two graphs, i.e. x = 0º.
Y
3.5
/
X X
-90
O
-60
O
-30
O O 30
O
60
O
90O
x
tan
y= -1
-2
2x
= -3
y
-3.5
Y/

Functoins and Limits

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Functoins and Limits

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Chapter

FUNCTIONS & LIMITS

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:

(iv) f(x) = cos x

Adding equation (i) & equation (ii)

Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i)

R.H.S = 1  tan h2x

f (f 1(x)) = f 1 (f(x)) = x Hence proved.

f (f 1(x)) = f 1 (f(x)) = x Hence proved.

|OA| = |OC| = 1 (radii of unit circle)

= (9)1/2  (9)1/2 = (32)1/2  (32)1/2 = 3  3

tan  sin 0

 f(2) = Lim f(x) = 9

So the function is continuous at x = 2.

Right hand limit

 Left hand limit = Right hand limit

(iii) x = sec , y = tan where „‟ is a parameter

y = x2 – 1  2.8  1.7 0 0  1.7  2.8

Since there is a break in a graph. So this function is not continuous.

Since there is a break in a graph. So this function is not continuous at x = 3.

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