Geofoam Projectbook Final 56 256 PDF

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW GEOFOAM MATERIAL USING WASTE EPS BEADS,CEMENT&BAGASSE ASH
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GEOFOAM:
Geofoam is the generic family name for any closed-cell foam material or product used in a
geotechnical application .Expanded Polystyrene, EPS, geofoam is a super-lightweight, closed
cell, rigid, plastic foam. Its unit weight puts it in a separate category compared to other types
of engineering lightweight materials. In 1950, expanded polystyrene was invented (BASF,
1997). Geofoam has now been successfully utilized in a number of countries all over the
world. Some of these countries are Norway, The Netherlands, the United States, Japan,
Germany and Malaysia. In Norway the first road insulation project with EPS geofoam was
performed in 1965 (Aabee, 2000) and the first road embankment project utilizing EPS
geofoam was completed in 1972 (Frydenlund, 1991) when the National Road 159 Flom
Bridges project involved replacing one meter of ordinary fill material with blocks of EPS in
embankments adjoining a bridge founded on piles to firm ground. The embankments were
resting on a 3m thick layer of peat above 10m of soft, sensitive clay. Before using EPS
geofoam, settlement rates were of the order of 20-30 cm annually and accelerating due to
frequent adjustments of the road level. Settlement was successfully halted after using EPS
geofoam. In the Netherlands the first EPS geofoam projects start early seventies (van Dorp,
1996).
1.2. HISTORY OF GEOFOAM
The first use of EPS Geofoam was in Oslo, Norway in 1972. Geofoam was used in the
embankments around the Flom Bridge in an effort to reduce settlements. Due to the success
of the Oslo geofoam project, the first International Geofoam Conference was held in Oslo,
Norway in 1985 for engineers to exchange knowledge, research results, share new
applications, and discuss case histories. Since then, two more conferences were held
in Tokyo, Japan and Salt Lake City, US, in 1996 and 2001, respectively. The most recent
conference was held in June 2011 in Lillestrom, Norway Between 1985 and 1987, Japan used
over 1,300,000 m3 (46,000,000 cu ft) of geofoam in 2,000 projects. Testing and use of
geofoam in these projects demonstrated the potential advantages of geofoam as a lightweight
fill. For example, Geofoam was placed beneath runways in Japanese airports, proving the
material can sustain heavy and repeated pressure. Geofoam was first used in the United States
in 1989 on Highway 160 between Durango and Mancos, Colorado. An increase in rainfall
DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 1

caused a landslide, destroying part of the highway. Geofoam was used to create highway
side slope stabilization to prevent any similar issues. The use of geofoam versus conventional
restoration resulted in an 84% reduction to the total cost of the project. The largest geofoam
project in the United States took place from 1997 to 2001 on Interstate 15 in Salt Lake City,
Utah. Geofoam was chosen to minimize that amount of utilities that would need to be
relocated or remodeled for the project. A total of 3,530,000 cu ft (100,000 m3) of geofoam
was used, and approximately $450,000 was saved by eliminating the need to relocate utility
poles. From 2009 to 2012, a Vaudreuil based expanded polymer manufacturing company
provided over 625,000 m3 (22,100,000 cu ft) of geofoam for a new segment of highway 30 in
the province of Quebec (Canada), in the Montreal area, making it the largest geofoam project
in North America till date.

CHAPTER-2
PROPERTIES OF EPS GEOFOAM AND SUGARCANE

BAGASSE ASH
2.1 PROPERTIES OF GEOFOAM

EPS geofoam is a lightweight material with a good insulation and energy abs-sorption
characteristics. On the other hand, its strength and stiffness are comparable to some types of
soils.
2.1.1 Density
2.1.2 Compression
2.1.2(a) Compressive Strength and Stress Strain Curve
2.1.2(b) Initial Elastic Modulus
2.1.2(c) Poisson’s Ratio
2.1.2(d) Loading Rate Effect
2.1.2(e) Cyclic Loading
2.1.3 Tension
2.1.4 Flexural
2.1.5 Creep
2.1.6 Interface Friction
2.1.7 Thermal Resistance
2.1.8 Ultraviolet Effect
2.1.9 Flammability
2.1.10 Water Absorption
2.1.11 Resistance to Attacks
2.1.12 Energy Absorption

2.1.13 Inertness Properties
2.1.14 Acoustical properties
2.1.15 Durability
2.1.16 Environmental Effect
2.1.1 Density
EPS geofoam density can be considered the main index in most of its proper-ties.
Compression strength, shear strength, tension strength, flexural strength, stiff-ness, creep
behavior and other mechanical properties depend on the density. The cost of manufacturing
an EPS geofoam block is considered linearly proportional to its density. Non-mechanical
properties like insulation coefficients are also density de-pendent. EPS densities for practical
civil applications range between 11 and 30 kg/m3. For other applications like insulation
higher densities are more efficient (van Dorp, 1988). With its lightweight property, geofoam
blocks can be easily handled after manufacturing, during curing, transportation or placement
in the field. Two workers can handle a 0.6m X 1.2m X 2.4 m half size block of an average
weight of 35 kg for 20 kg/ m3 density EPS geofoam. In the United States, manufacturers and
designers working with EPS geofoam are familiar with density classification used by thermal
insulation standards, C 578-95. Table-1 shows 5 EPS types, which are categorized by ASTM
C 578-95. Table-2.2 and Table-2.3 show EPS densities used in two other countries.
2.1.2 Compression
2.1.2(a) Compressive Strength and Stress Strain Curve
Figure 2.1 shows the uniaxial compression stress strain curve of EPS geofoam for two
different densities. The two densities shown are considered the extreme values for most
engineering applications done so far. Specimens are 0.05m cubes tested at a displacement
rate of 0.005m/min. From the figure the stress strain curve can be simply divided into two
main straight lines connected with a curved portion. The slope of the straight-line portions
increase with density. The stress at any strain level increases also with the density. The bead
size has no important effect on the compressibility of cut specimens (BASF Corp., 1968).

TABLE-2.1 ASTM C 578-95 EPS DENSITIES
TABLE-2.2 EPS TYPES IN JAPAN (AFTER MIKI, 1996)
TABLE-2.3EPS TYPES IN UNITED KINGDOM (AFTER SANDERS, 1996)
There is no defined shear rupture for EPS geofoam under compression. As will be shown
later in chapter six, more than 70 % strains are reached without any break point and the tests
were stopped because the maximum travel of the machine head was reached. The 1%, the
5%, and the 10% strains are common reference strain level, at which the stress is considered
as the strength of the material. Table-2.4, show the compressive strength of EPS geofoam as
given by ASTM C578-95. EPS geofoam under confining compression Sun (1997) reported
that with in-crease in confining stress the strength and initial tangent modulus decrease. Sun
concluded these results based on axial deviator stress strain curves, which are important for
submerged EPS geofoam.

TABLE-2.4 EPS Types in United Kingdom (after Sanders, 1996)
FIGURE 2.1 EPS UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION STRESS STRAIN CURVES
(After Negussey and Elragi, 2000b)
2.1.2(b) Initial Elastic Modulus
The stress strain curve of EPS geofoam has an initial linear portion. The value of the slope of
this initial portion is defined as the initial tangent modulus. Also it is known as Young's
Modulus as well as the modulus of elasticity. EPS geofoam initial modulus is a function of
the density as shown from figure 2.1. For EPS geofoam, as shown from the same figure, there
is no agreement from the researchers on a constant value for each density. For a
20kg/m3density the initial modulus ranges between 5Mpa and 7.75Mpa, which means a 55%
difference. The relation is linear for some researchers (Horvath, 1995b and Miki, H., 1996)
while it's nonlinear for others (Duskov, 1997 and Eriksson and Trank, 1991). The researchers

used specimens with vary dimensions. Duskov, (1990) reported that the back calculated
moduli of elasticity of EPS geofoam were found to be between 13 MPa and 34 MPa under
pulse force. These values were observed to be much higher than the value of the modulus of
elasticity (5MPa) obtained under the semi static loading. Duskov (1997) after testing
20kg/m3 EPS geofoam, reported that low temperatures, water absorption level, and exposure
to freeze-thaw cycles, separately or combined, seem to have no negative influence on the
mechanical behavior of the EPS geofoam that he had tested. Elragi et al. (2000) showed the
effect of sample size on the initial Modulus. For larger specimens, the initial modulus is
higher.
FIGURE 2.2 INITIAL TANGENT MODULUS FOR EPS GEOFOAM
2.1.2(c) Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson's ratio is an index of the lateral pressure of EPS geofoam on adjacent structural
elements, in contact, for a certain applied vertical load on the EPS geofoam mass. Value
range between 0.05 and 0.5 are found in the literature for EPS geofoam as shown in table-2.5.
These values range from material like water (Poisson's ratio equals to 0.5) to rigid materials
like concrete (Poisson's Ratio equals to 0.15) Chapter three presents a solution to this
discrepancy.

TABLE-2.5 EPS Types in United Kingdom (after Sanders, 1996)
2.1.2(d) Loading Rate Effect
The compression behavior of EPS geofoam is strain rate dependent (Negussey, 1997). Higher
strain rates result in higher initial modulus and higher com-press ion strength.
2.1.2(e) Cyclic Loading
EPS geofoam may experience cyclic loading in a number of situations. This can include
traffic loading and dynamic loading. The majority of laboratory testing and field observations
suggest that the cyclic load behavior of block moulded EPS geo-foam is linear elastic
provided that the strains are no greater than approximately 1%. For three loading cycle tests,
the initial tangent modulus in the second and third cycles is much less than those for the first
cycle, when the three cycles are loaded to 10% strain (Eriksson and Trank, 1991). Flaate
(1987) reported that cyclic load tests show that EPS geofoam will stand up to an unlimited
number of load cycles provided the repetitive loads are kept below 80% of the compressive
strength.
2.1.3 Tension
Tensile strength of EPS material can be an indication of the quality of fusion of the prepuffs
and any recycled EPS geofoam used in the process (Horvath, 1995b). From figure 2.3 it can
be seen that the tension strength increases with the density.
2.1.4 Flexural
Flexural strength tests are widely used as a quality control test in EPS geo-foam
manufacturing plants. The maximum stress is calculated assuming the material is linear
elastic up to failure. Although this is not an accurate assumption, the calculated values are

widely used in quality control. The material fails in tension as a crack on the tension side
appears at the moment of failure.
The flexural strength increases with density of the material as shown in table-2.6. From table-
2.6 and figure 2.3 it can be seen that the values of the flexural strength are almost the same as
the tension strength since the mode of failure is tension in the outer points.
FIGURE 2.3 EPS Geofoam Tensile Strength (after BASF, Corp., 1997)
TABLE-2.6 ASTM C 578-95 EPS Flexural Strength
2.1.5 Creep
EPS geofoam is susceptible to time dependent creep deformation when a constant stress
level is applied. A number of parameters affect the creep behavior of EPS geofoam, among
which is the density. Creep deformations decrease with density in-crease (Sun, 1997).
Figure 2.4 represents the results of three 0.05m cube specimens each are subjected to an
unconfined axial stress for a period of over 500 days. The stresses are 30%, 50% and 70% of
the strength of the material. The three specimens are of type VIII and minimum density of
18kg/ m3. It can be seen from the figure that the creep behavior is stress level dependent. For
the lower stresses, very little creep deformation occurred after 500 days.
Both full scale and laboratory creep tests have been performed .A test was done with 2m
height of geofoam loaded to 52.5% of its compressive strength. Results observed in a three
year period show continuous deformation with time. The strain after the three years was
about 1% and slightly increasing with time. The full-scale test was for an EPS bridge
abutment. Stresses in the geofoam abutment ranged between 25 and 60% of EPS strength at
5% strain. Observed deformation after 10 years in operation shows negligible creep.
FIGURE 2.4 EPS Creep Behavior for Different Stress Levels (after Sheeley, 2000)
2.1.6 Interface Friction
Sheeley (2000) did a comprehensive study of geofoam interface shear behavior for small and
large samples. Normal stresses in the range of practical interest were used and different
interfaces were investigated. Geofoam to geofoam interface shearing developed peak and
residual strengths are shown in figure 2.5. The effect of density on interface strength of
geofoam was negligible. There was difference between wet and dry interface strengths in the
range of normal stresses used in practice and for short-term exposure to water. A strong
adhesive bond developed between geofoam and cast in place concrete interfaces and both
peak and residual interface strengths were high. The interface strength between geofoam and

geomembrane surfaces was low. Substitution of a concrete load distribution slab with a
geomembrane may therefore result in a much weaker interface. Although values of 0.65 were
reported for EPS geofoam to EPS geofoam interface, 0.5 can be considered a conservative
coefficient of friction as Nomaguchi (1996) obtained from both static and dynamic tests.
FIGURE 2.5 EPS Interface Friction (after Sheeley, 2000)
2.1.7 Thermal Resistance
EPS geofoam consists of approximately 98% air and 2% polystyrene (BASF Corp., 1997).
The air entrapped within the geofoam is a poor heat conductor, there-fore, making EPS
geofoam excellent for heat insulation. The R-value measures thermal resistance of
substances. R-values for typical soil and concrete in general are much less than 0.1 m3. Figure
2.6 shows the R-values of EPS geofoam as given in ASTM C 578-95 and the range of 0.5-
0.8 m3 for EPS geofoam is much higher than the R-values of typical soil and concrete. The R-
value of geofoam increases with the density. The curves tend to level horizontally with
increasing the density. Van Dorp, 1988 mentioned that it reaches its maximum around a foam
density of 35kg/ m3. The R-value tends to decrease with temperature increase as shown in the
same figure. Another factor that will affect the thermal resistance of EPS geofoam is the

amount of moisture absorption (Negussey, 1997). R-value degrades or de-creases with

moisture absorption while aging has no effect on the R-value (Hunts-man, 1999). This is
because the closed cell structure of EPS contains only air.
2.1.8 Ultraviolet Effect
Exposing the expanded polystyrene geofoam to ultraviolet will yellow the surface and a
powder like texture will appear. Sheeley, (2000) tested the effect of this new surface on the
interface friction between foam blocks and concluded that ultra-violet degradation diminished
the peak interface strength between geofoam and cast in place concrete. Power washing
removed with commercially available equipment effectively the degradation and improved
the adhesion bond strength.
FIGURE 2.6 ASTM C 578-95 EPS R-Values
2.1.9 Flammability
Expanded polystyrene geofoam is combustible and should not be exposed to open flame or
other ignition sources. Combustion products are carbon monoxide, car-bon dioxide, water
and soot. The manufacturer can include fire-retarding additives during production, which will
increase cost by 5 – 10% if procedures generating heat and flame are required near geofoam
(Sun, 1997). The fire retardant is mainly to de-crease the potential of fire spread from a small
flame source. The melting temperature of polystyrene is 1500C (Mandal, 1995).

2.1.10 Water Absorption
The water absorption of expanded polystyrene is low. Although water absorption decreases
as density increases .Fusion is the most important factor influencing the moisture resistance
of expanded polystyrene. Good fusion reduces the amount of water absorption. For 9 –12
years of service, equilibrium values of 8-9 % volume have been found in EPS fills below the
ground water table (van Dorp, 1988).
2.1.11 Resistance to Attacks
Chemical resistance of thermoplastic expanded polystyrene is dependent on time,

temperature, and applied stress in functional use (Huntsman, 1999). Chemical attack usually
results in the softening and cracking of the plastics. Expanded Polystyrene has the same
resistance to chemical reagents as general-purpose polystyrene. Most acids and their water
solutions do not attack polystyrene; however strong oxidizing acids do. The thin cell walls
and large exposed surface of expanded polystyrene make it sensitive to attack by solvents.
Since it has no nutritional value, expanded polystyrene does not attract ants, termites, or
rodents; however it is not resistant to them. Habitation by insects can be a problem for
geofoam, as they can burrow through geofoam to reach food or to establish a comfortable
home. Marine borers can also attack polystyrene as they do wood. Fungal attack has not been
observed on expanded polystyrene. EPS does not support bacterial growth as well. The main
reason is that expanded polystyrene can-not supply nutrients for fungal or bacterial growth.
2.1.12 Energy Absorption
EPS geofoam is utilized in packaging, as its energy absorption characteristics provide good
protection. From the stress strain curves of EPS groom shown in figure 2.1 it can be seen that
the area under the curve, which represents the strain energy absorbed by the material
increases with density. Sliding between the EPS geofoam blocks is another way to produce
damping (Kuroda, et al., 1996).

2.1.13 Inertness Properties
Polystyrene is completely inert. Any corrosion of metals in contact with expanded

polystyrene will be caused by other factors (R-control, 1999).
2.1.14 Acoustical properties
Expanded polystyrene, when used in combination with other building materials effectively
reduces the transmission of airborne sound through partitioned walls, ceilings and floors
(Huntsman, 1999). EPS has the advantage of being lightweight and effective in thicknesses as
low as 0.625 cm it can replace thicker, heavier materials.
2.1.15 Durability
No deficiency effects are to be expected from EPS fills placed in the ground for a normal life
cycle of 100 years, Aabie (2000). Aabie added that this should hold true provided possible
buoyancy forces resulting from fluctuating water levels are properly accounted for, the blocks
are properly protected from accidental spills of dissolving agents and the applied stress level
from dead loads is kept below 30-50% of the material strength.
2.1.16 Environmental Effect
EPS geofoam is made of polystyrene beads and polystyrene is not biodegradable and
chemically inert in both soil and water. Therefore EPS geofoam will not contaminate the
ground or ground water. Adding to this, EPS is widely used for food containers. If EPS is
burned either accidentally or intentionally as a part of a waste to energy program, the
products of composition are primarily carbon dioxide and water. EPS is a recyclable material
and 5% of volume of the manufactured geofoam is traditionally recycled geofoam. Raw
beads, prepuffs, regrind and small moulded parts can obstruct sewers and waterways. They
have been found in the digestive tracts of fish (Huntsman, 1999). The plastic foam insulation
producers faced a major setback issue for their industry because of ozone depletion caused by
the use of low thermal conductivity blowing gases such as chlorofluorocarbon 11 and 12
(CFC-11 and CFC-12). Industry has obtained an acceptable immediate solution by using
hydro chlorofluorocarbon (HCFCs) 141b and 142b for polyisocyanurate and polystyrene,
respectively. The phase out of HCFCs may be required within the next 10 years, but other
chemicals, such as hydro fluorocarbons (HFC-134a and HFC-245fa) exist and could become
the next generation of blowing agents (McElroy, 1998).
An important benefit of EPS geofoam is that it now does not use CFC or HCFC in its
manufacture as most other polymeric foam does. (Horvath , 1993 and GeoTech, 1999).
Extruded polystyrene, a member of the geofoam family, and the main competitor to EPS in
insulation applications does have ozone-depleting gases as the blowing gas in its
manufacturing.
2.2 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
The Cement – KCP OPC 53 used in our project was tested as per IS: 12269 - 1987
specifications and the results are given in Table-2.7.
Sl. Name of the Test Req. as per IS: 12269 - 1987 Test Results
No
1 Fineness of Cement Not less than 90 % 93%
Residue of Cement Not more than 10% 7%
2 Standard Consistency --- 29%
3 Setting time of Cement in

minutes
a) Initial setting time

b) Final Setting time Not less than 30 min 159 minutes
Not more than 600 min (10 hrs) 450 minutes
4 Compressive strength of cement

mortar cubes in N/mm2
a) at 3 days
b) at 7 days Not less than 27.0 N/mm2 28.66 N/mm2
c) at 28 days
Not less than 37.0 N/mm2 40.66 N/mm2
Not less than 53.0 N/mm2 54.20 N/mm2
5 Specific Gravity ------ 3.1
6 Unit weight ------ 1410 kg/m3
Table-2.7 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

2.3 PROPERTIES OF SUGACANE BAGASSE ASH
Ordinary Portland cement is recognized as a major construction material throughout the

world. Researchers all over the world today are focusing on ways of utilizing either industrial
or agricultural waste, as a source of raw materials for industry. This waste, utilization would
not only be economical, but may also result in foreign exchange earnings and environmental
pollution control. Industrial wastes, such as blast furnace slag, fly ash and silica fume are
being used as supplementary cement replacement materials. Currently, there has been an
attempt to utilize the large amount of bagasse ash, the residue from an in-line sugar industry
and the bagasse-biomass fuel in electric generation industry. When this waste is burned under
controlled conditions, it also gives ash having amorphous silica, which has pozzolanic
properties. A few studies have been carried out on the ashes obtained directly from the
industries to study pozzolanic activity and their suitability as binders, partially replacing
cement. Therefore it is possible to use sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) as cement replacement
material to improve quality and reduce the cost of construction materials such as mortar,
concrete pavers, concrete roof tiles and soil cement interlocking block.
COMPONENET MASS %
SiO2 78.34
Al2 8.55
Fe2O 3.61
CaO 2.15
Na2O 0.12
K2O 3.46
MnO 0.13
TiO2 0.50
BaO <0.16
P2O5 1.07
LOSS OF IGNITION 0.42
TABLE-2.8 Composition of Bagasse

The sugarcane bagasse consists of approximately 50% of cellulose, 25% of hemicelluloses

and 25% of lignin. Each ton of sugarcane generates approximately 26% of bagasse (at a
moisture content of 50%) and 0.62% of residual ash. The residue after combustion presents a
chemical composition dominates by silicon dioxide (SiO2).

CHAPTER-3
APPLICATIONS OF GEOFOAM
3.1 APPLICATIONS OF GEOFOAMS

Traditional earth materials are heavy and can cause settlement, instability or lateral pressures.
Other fill materials such as formed concrete, waste tires, soil, woodchips, wood fibre, etc.,
have higher densities, are variable in their makeup and are not engineered, due to field
execution variables. They also have limitations in handling and can be weather sensitive, thus
requiring staged construction and/or preloading, surcharging and draining, etc. Geofoam
maximizes onsite installation efficiency. Geofoam can arrive at the job site prefabricated and
ready to place. It is easily inventoried and handled. Installation is easy.
Geofoam can provide a lightweight solution to your project. Geofoam has been successfully
used in the following applications. Geofoam can effectively be used in various engineering
applications like
 Embankment and Pavements
 Road widening
 Railways
 Foundation for runways
 Side-hill fill
 Below ground walls of structures
 Tunnels
 Retaining walls and abutments
 Lightweight Roads
 Foundations Fill
 Retaining Walls
 Weight Reduction
 Bridge Abutments
 Side Hills
 Side Hills with retaining walls
 Stadium Seating
 Plaza Decks
 Vegetative Roofs

 Lightweight Roads
FIGURE 3.1 LIGHT WEIGHT ROADS
 Foundations Fill
FIGURE 3.2 FOUNDATIONS FILL

 Retaining Walls
FIGURE 3.3 RETAINING WALLS
 Weight Reduction
FIGURE 3.4 WEIGHT REDUCTION

 Bridge Abutments
FIGURE 3.5 BRIDGE ABUTMENTS
 Side Hills
FIGURE 3.6 SIDE HILLS

 Side Hills with retaining walls
FIGURE 3.7 SIDE HILLS WITH RETAININGWALLS
 Stadium Seating
FIGURE 3.8 STADIUM SEATING

 Plaza Decks
FIGURE 3.9 PLAZA DECKS
 Vegetative Roofs
FIGURE 3.10 VEGETATIVE ROOFS

 Embankment and Pavements
FIGURE 3.11 EMBANKMENT AND PAVEMENTS
 Road widening
FIGURE 3.12 ROAD WIDENING

 Railways
FIGURE 3.13 RAILWAYS
 Foundation for runways
FIGURE 3.14 FOUNDATION FOR RUNWAYS

 Below ground walls of structures
FIGURE 3.15 BELOW GROUND WALLS OF STRUCTURE
 Tunnels
FIGURE 3.16 TUNNELS

 Retaining walls and abutments
FIGURE 3.17 RETAINING WALLS AND ABUTMENTS

3.2 ADVANTAGES OF GEOFOAMS

Advantages of using geofoam include:
 Low density/high strength: Geofoam is 1% to 2% the density of soil with equal strength.
 Predictable behavior: Geofoam allows engineers to be much more specific in the design
criteria. This is very different than other lightweight fillers, such as soil, that can be very
variable in composition.
 Inert: Geofoam will not break down, so it will not spread into surrounding soils. This
means that geofoam will not pollute the surrounding soil. Geofoam can also be dug up
and reused.
 Limited labour required for construction: Geofoam can be installed by hand using simple
hand tools. This eliminates the investment and operating cost of heavy machinery.
 Decreases construction time: Geofoam is quick to install and can be installed during any
type of weather, day or night, resulting in faster installation time.
3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF GEOFOAMS

Disadvantages of using geofoam include:
 Fire hazards: Untreated geofoam is a fire hazard.

 Vulnerable to petroleum solvents: If geofoam comes in contact with a petroleum solvent,
it will immediately turn into a glue-type substance, making it unable to support any load.
 Buoyancy: Forces developed because of buoyancy can result in a dangerous uplift force.
Cars were crushed against the ceiling after floodwaters raised polystyrene below the floor
of a car park in Crayford on 9 October 2016.
 Susceptible to insect damage: Geofoam can be treated to resist insect infestation. When
geofoam is used for insulating buildings where wood is present damage to the geofoam
can be limited by use of insect treatment. On the other hand in traditional lightweight fill
for road construction no known evidence of insect damage has been documented.

CHAPTER-4
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GEOFOAM AND
MODIFIED GEOFOAM
4.1. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GEOFOAM
Resin Bead Manufacture
The primary raw material used for manufacturing EPS geofoam is called a polystyrene
polymer.
The word Polymer comes from the Greek "poly" meaning many, and "meros", parts or units.
A polymer is a group of many units. You combine many "monomers" to create a polymer.
Polymer is often used as a synonym for "plastic", however many biological and inorganic
molecules are also polymeric. Plastic more commonly refers to the way a material behaves
under applied forces, or behaves when it melts and flows.
Polystyrene is a "thermoplastic" that can be heated and formed, then re-heated and re-formed
repeatedly. The shape of the polymer molecules is generally linear, or slightly branched,
allowing them to flow under pressure when heated above the effective melting point.
Polystyrene is an "amorphous" polymer with bulky molecular chains or large branches or

functional groups that tend to be stiff and will not fold up tight enough to form crystals. Other
common amorphous polymers include polycarbonate, acrylic, and ABS. Amorphous
polymers have low shrinkage, good transparency, gradual softening when heated, average to
poor chemical resistance, high surface friction, and average to low wear resistance.
Polystyrene is formed by chemical reaction in large vessels (shown below) under heat and
pressure. Other ingredients are added to control how the polymer is formed and to produce
the proper molecular length and desired properties. This chemical process is called
"polymerization".

FIGURE 4.1 POLYMERIZATION TANKS
An expanding agent (typically pentene) and a fire retardant are added to the polymerization
process during manufacture to produce "modified" resin beads used for manufacturing EPS
geofoam. The polymerization reaction begins with the addition of a catalyst that breaks a
double bond between molecules and creates two bonding sites. These sites quickly bond to
other monomer or polymer molecules. The polymerization reaction continues until the
catalyst is used up. The length of molecules is determined by the number of monomer
molecules which can attach to a chain molecule before the catalyst is consumed and all
molecules with available bonding sites have reacted.
Resin beads manufacturers are able to supply EPS geofoam manufacturers with a range of
resin bead diameters and additives. Resin beads that contain pentane are typically shipped in
corrugated boxes with a specially designed liner as required by the Federal Department of
Transportation.
Bead Expansion
EPS geofoam is manufactured from modified resin beads that are typically 0.01 in. to 0.1 in
diameter. A finite amount of resin beads is added to an expansion vessel. The resin beads are
expanded into "pre-puffs" by injecting steam that softens the polymer and partially or

completely vaporizes the expanding agent. The photograph below shows the relative size
difference between resin beads and expanded resin beads, or pre-puffs.
FIGURE 4.2 RESIN BEADS AND EXPANDED RESIN BEADS OR PRE-PUFFS
The amount and duration of heat application determines the density of the pre-puff and the
amount of residual expanding agent left in the pre-puff. The figure shown below shows
measurement of the pre-puff density.
FIGURE 4.3 MEASUREMENT OF THE PRE-PUFF DENSITY
Automatic controls determine when the desired pre-puff size or volume has been reached.
The expanded beads are then released into a bed dryer to remove moisture that is detrimental
to the moulding process. The pre-puffs are then stored in fabric storage bags (shown below)
to allow them to stabilize to atmospheric temperature and pressure.

FIGURE 4.4 FABRIC STORAGE BAGS
Recycle Content Addition

Most thermoplastic polymers, including EPS geofoam, can be recycled. Thermo set
polymers, however, can only be recycled for use as inert filler placed within another material.
Manufacturers of EPS geofoam typically recycle by grinding and mixing a pre-determined
percentage of industrial scrap, called regrind, with virgin pre-puff material prior to block
moulding. The percentage of recycled material is typically limited to 5 percent or less for
EPS geofoam, resulting in a final product with predictable engineering properties.
Block Moulding
The block moulding process involves forming the pre-puffs into a solid block mass. An
example of a modern block mould is shown below.
FIGURE 4.5 MODERN BLOCK MOULD
First, a pre-determined amount of pre-puffs are injected into the block mould. Steam is then
injected into the mould under controlled pressure to soften the polymer structure of the pre-

puff. The heat from the steam and the applied pressure causes the pre-puffs to further expand.
Since the block mould is a confined environment, the expanding pre-puffs reduce the void
space between individual particles and fuse (bond) together to form an expanded polystyrene
(EPS) block. The block is then ejected from the block mould onto a conveyor system
(photograph below) where it is commonly measured for density and/or trimmed using a hot
wire cutting system.
FIGURE 4.6 CONVEYOR SYSTEMS
Geofoam is generally made with expanded polystyrene (EPS) which relatively costly. In
order to reduce its cost, it is ideal to modified Geofoam. In this study, an attempt has been
made to work modified Geofoam which is made crushing waste (discarded) thermocol sheets
mixed with cement slurry. Thermocol sheets are widely used for packaging and these are kept
aside after their usage. After crushing sheets are converting into small beads and these beads
are sieved through IS: 4.75mm sieve. Waste EPS beads passed through 4.75 mm sieve are
used throughout the study.
FIGURE4.7 FLOW CHART OF MANUFACTURING OF GEOFOAM

4.2MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF MODIFIED GEOFOAM
4.2.1 LITERATUR REIEW ON MODIFIED GEOFOAM

A modified geofoam has been prepared by mixing the geofoam beads, fly ash, cement and
water in proper proportions. This work has been carried out in Indian Institute of Technology,
Bombay by Prof. J. N. Mandal. In this work the geofoam beads, fly ash, cement and water are
mixed in proper proportions and thus the modified geofoam block is prepared.
You can say new geomaterial, because we are using here the waste material, that means fly
ash and as well as that, if we find that geofoam material or expanded polystyrene material is
expensive. So, alternative to that geofoam material, so you can make use of the new
generation geomaterial which is also very light and which also can provide very good
compression effect.
4.2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW GEOFOAM MATERIAL BY USING

WASTE EPS BEADS and CEMENT
This project aims at making modified geofoam by using cement and waste EPS beads mix
and also to overcome disadvantages of geofoams.
COLLECTION OF WASTE DISCARDED THRMOCOL SHEETS
DISCARDED WASTE THERMOCOL SHEETS

Now-a-days waste thermocol is increasing day by day as it is highly used in packing of

electronic devices, glassware etc, as it can absorb sudden impacts and prevents the devices
from being damaged. As in this developing world the electronic devices are increasing
rapidly packing material is also increasing in quantity. In our project we collected and used
waste discarded thermocol to develop a new geofoam material
OBTAINING EPS BEADS FROM WASTE THERMOCOL
CRUSHING OF WASTE THERMOCOL SHEETS
EPS beads are obtained from crushing the waste discarded thermocol sheets as shown above.
The beads thus obtained from crushing of waste thermocol vary in sizes. Hence to maintain
proper gradation we sieved the obtained EPS beads through 4.75mm IS sieve. In our project
we took EPS beads of size less than 4.75mm.

SIEVING OF EPS BEADS THROUGH IS 4.75 MM SIEVE
SIEVED AND COLLECTED EPS BEADS

PREPERATION OF MODIFIED GEOFOAM BLOCKS

Preparation of modified geofoam consists of the following steps.
 Preparation of cement slurry by mixing cement and water
 Mixing of EPS beads with cement slurry
 Casting of geofoam blocks
 Curing of geofoam blocks
Preparation of cement slurry:

Cement slurry is prepared by mixing proper proportions of cement and water as per the
mix design as shown below.

CEMENT SLURRY
Mixing of EPS beads with cement slurry:
MIXING OF BEADS WITH CEMENT SLURRY

EPS beads are mixed with cement slurry to form a foamed concrete (or) a geofoam
material.

Casting of geofoam blocks:
CASTING OF GEOFOAM BLOCKS
The moulds of size 7.05x7.05 cm cubes are used. The inner surfaces of the moulds are coated
with grease and geofoam material is placed in the moulds.

Curing of geofoam blocks:
REMOVED FROM MOULD AFTER 24 hrs
KEPT FOR CURING IN A CURING TANK
The casted geofoam block is cured after 24 hours of casting in a water tank as shown in the
above image.

Testing of geofoam blocks:

The geofoam blocks after curing is tested on a compressive testing machine to find its
compressive strength.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF GEOFOAM BLOCKS

4.2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW GEOFOAM MATERIAL BY USING

WASTE EPS BEADS, CEMENT AND BAGASSE ASH
4.2.3(a) MAKING OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE ASH:
COLLECTED SUGARCANE BAGASSE
Sugarcane bagasse is a waste product from sugar industries, juice shops etc, and this
sugarcane bagasse is collected and dried to get sugarcane bagasse ash by controlled
combustion of sugarcane bagasse.

DRIED SUGARCANE BAGASSE
COMBUSTION OF SUGAR CANE BAGASSE

COMBUSTION OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE TO GET BAGASSE ASH
BAGASSE ASH

4.2.3(b) MODIFIED GEOFOAM BLOCKS MADE OF PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH SUGARCANE BAGASSEASH:
475 g OF CEMENT AND 25g OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE ASH

We can see from the above image 475g of cement and 25g of bagasse ash are almost equal in
volume. Cement and sugarcane bagasse ash are thoroughly blended so that cement and
bagasse ash is mixed nicely and water is added to form cement and bagasse slurry.
THOROUGHLY BLENDED CEMENT AND SUGARCANE BAGASSE ASH

MIXING OF BEADS WITH CEMENT AND BAGASSE SLURRY

To the cement and bagasse slurry beads are added to get the geofoam material. This geofoam
material is placed in a 7.05*7.05 cm cube mould and geofoam blocks are casted. The
geofoam blocks are as shown below.
GEOFOAM BLOCK WITH PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH

BAGASSE ASH

4.3 Series of tests conducted
In this study we used six different mixes named M1, M2, M3, M4, M5 and M6. The
water/cement ratio of the mix is 0.5.
MIX PROPORTION COMPOSITION

M1 1:0.002 1000 g cement , 2 g EPS beads
TABLE -4.1 MIX PROPORTIONS
In our study we made geofoam blocks of the above different mix. The cubes are kept for
curing after 24 hrs of casting in a curing tank and the cubes are tested for their compressive
strength after 28 days of curing. For each mix three cubes are casted. These cubes are tested
on a compressive testing machine and the compressive strength for each mix is taken the
average of the three cubes.
PARTIALREPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH BAGASSE ASH:
In our project we took M5 as optimum mix and made partial replacement of cement with
bagasse. We tried four different replacements for cement.
They are designated as B0 , B1 ,B2 ,B3 ,B4 . For 1:0.016 mix (ie,. M5) four different
replacements are done . They are as mentioned below.

% REPLACEMENT OF
MIX CEMENT WITH BAGASSE
ASH
B0 0
B1 5
B2 10
B3 15
B4 20
TABLE-4.2 REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH BAGASSE PERCENTAGES
The blocks after 24 hrs of casting are kept for curing in the curing tank for 28 days. For each
mix three cubes are casted. After 28 days of curing the cubes are tested in compressive
testing machine and the compressive strength of each mix is found from the average value of
compressive strength of the three cubes.

CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For different mix proportions the mass of the block and its respective density and unit
weights are as follows.
RELATION BETWEEN EPS BEADS CONTENT AND DENSITY
Mass of the Volume of Unit Weight

Mix Cement :EPS beads Density (g/cc) 3
Cube (g) Cube (cc) (kN/m )
M1 1:0.002 545 350.40 1.56 15.26

M2 1:0.004 495 350.40 1.41 13.86
M3 1:0.008 410 350.40 1.17 11.48
M4 1:0.012 360 350.40 1.03 10.08
M5 1:0.016 345 350.40 0.98 9.66
M6 1:0.020 330 350.40 0.94 9.24
TABLE-5.1 RELATION BETWEEN EPS BEADS CONTENT AND DENSITY
From table-5.1 we can see that the density of the geofoam material decreases with the
increase in EPS beads content. Depending upon the requirement of the density of the
geofoam material the design mix is suggested.
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
UNIT WEIGHT
(kN/m3)
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
1:0.002 1:0.004 1:0.008 1:0.012 1:0.016 1:0.020
MIX PROPORTION
FIGURE 5.1 MIX PROPORTION vs UNITWEIGHT GRAPH

16.00
14.00
12.00
UNIT WEIGHT
10.00
(kN/m3)
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
1:0.002
1:0.004
1:0.008
1:0.012
1:0.016
1:0.020
MIX PROPORTION
FIGURE 5.2 VARIATION OFUNITWEIGHT WITH EPSBEADS CONTENT
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION TO FIND THE DENSITIES FOR OTHER MIX

PROPORTIONS
It is not possible to find the densities of geofoam material for every possible mix proportion.
Hence in this study we are giving a mathematical expression to find the densities of other mix
proportions. In this expression EPS beads content is the variable.
18.00
y = -0.0612x4 + 0.9028x3 - 4.3346x2 + 6.1799x + 12.575
16.00 R² = 0.9999
14.00
12.00
UNIT WEIGHT
(kN/m3)
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mix proportion
FIGURE5.3 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION TO KNOW DENSITIES

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF GEOFOAM BLOCKS OF

DIFFERENT MIX
FAILURE LOAD (kN)

AVERAGE
AREA COMPRESSIVE
Ratio C:B FAILURE
(mm2) STRENGTH (MPa)
SAMPLE- SAMPLE- SAMPLE- LOAD
1 2 3 (kN)
M1 1:0.002 147.5 150 150 149.17 4970.25 30.01
M2 1:0.004 80 72.5 75 75.83 4970.25 15.26
M3 1:0.008 40 37.5 45 40.83 4970.25 8.22
M4 1:0.012 35 27.5 32.5 31.67 4970.25 6.37
M5 1:0.016 20 15 20 18.33 4970.25 3.69
M6 1:0.020 12.5 20 15 15.83 4970.25 3.19
TABLE-5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF GEOFOAM BLOCKS
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
1:0.002
1:0.004
1:0.008
1:0.012
1:0.016
1:0.020
FIGURE 5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF DIFFERENT MIXES

70 y = 0.1153x4 - 2.4987x3 + 20.528x2 - 77.714x + 121.52

R² = 0.9988
60
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH(MPa)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CEMENT:BEADS RATIO
FIGURE 5.5 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION TO KNOW COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH
From table-13 we can clearly see that the compressive strength of the geofoam blocks
decreases with increase in EPS beads content. Here a situation of sacrifice arises as we have
to sacrifice compressive strength for density and vice versa.
Present investigation aims at optimising the cost of geofoam material which was developed
by blending of various proportions of waste EPS beads and cement. Water to binding
material ratio is considered as 0.5. We can clearly see from the above results that at high
cement content the compressive strength of the geofoam material is high. As the cement is
costly material, to make it more economical we replaced cement partially with sugar cane
bagasse ash. In our study we tried four different replacement percentages of cement with
sugar cane bagasse ash. In this project we found that with the increase in the replacement of
cement with sugar cane bagasse ash, compressive strength of mixes further increases and
density decreases. In the geofoam material the water content should be increased to get the
required workability for casting of geofoam blocks. With the increase in the sugar cane
bagasse ash content the strength of the block is first increased and then decreases with
increase in the sugarcane bagasse ash content. However the unit weight of the block
decreases with the increase of sugar cane bagasse ash content. The results can be observed
from table-14.

FAILURE LOAD (kN)

% OF COMPRESSIVE Mass of UNIT
AREA DENSITY
MIX % OF CEMENT SUGARCANE STRENGTH the Cube WEIGHT
(mm2) (g/cc)
BAGGASE ASH AVERAGE (MPa) (g) (kN/m3)
SAMPLE-1 SAMPLE-2 SAMPLE-3 FAILURE
LOAD
(kN)
B0 100 0 20 15 20 18.33 4970.25 3.69 360 0.98 9.66
B1 95 5 42 41.5 41 41.50 4970.25 8.35 365 1.042 10.22
B2 90 10 26.45 25.35 25.75 25.85 4970.25 5.20 345 0.985 9.66
B3 85 15 22.6 23.55 22.85 23.00 4970.25 4.63 340 0.97 9.52
B4 80 20 16.12 16.2 16.4 16.24 4970.25 3.27 330 0.942 9.24
TABLE-5.3 UNIT WEIGHT AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT REPLCAED WITH BAGASSE ASH

10.40
10.20
10.00
UINT WEIGHT
in kN/m3
9.80
9.60
9.40
9.20
9.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
BAGASSE ASH CONTENT(in%)
FIGURE 5.6 UNIT WEIGHT VARIATIONS GRAPH

20
15
10
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
10.50
UINT WEIGHT
in kN/m3
FIGURE 5.7 UNIT WEIGHT VARIATIONS BAR CHART

10.40
10.20 y = -0.0007x3 + 0.0298x2 - 0.4333x + 11.733

R² = 1
10.00
UINT WEIGHT
in kN/m3
9.80
9.60
9.40
9.20
9.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
FIGURE 5.8 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION TO FIND UNIT WEIGHT
For different values of X (% of bagasse ash) we get respective values of Y (unit weight) by
using the above equation.
9.00
8.00
7.00
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
6.00
(in MPa)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
FIGURE 5.9 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VARIATION GRAPH

20
15
BAGASSE ASH
10
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (in MPa)
FIGURE 5.10 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VARIATION BAR CHART
9.00
y = -0.0045x3 + 0.186x2 - 2.6351x + 17.436
8.00 R² = 1
7.00
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
6.00
5.00
(MPa)
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20
% OF SUGARCANE BAGGASE ASH
FIGURE 5.11 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION TO FIND COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH
For different values of X (% of bagasse ash) we get respective values of Y (compressive

strength) by using the above equation.

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigation:
1. Geofoam is a super light material and it has a wide range of applications in the field
of CIVIL ENGINEERING.
2. Geofoams are made with EPS which is manufactured from modified Resin beads.
3. In this investigation an attempt has been made to develop a modified geofoam by
using discarded waste thermocol, cement and bagasse ash.
4. Mixes were prepared by adding various proportions of EPS beads to cement slurry.
The water to cement ratio is fixed 0.5 for all the mixes. It is observed that when EPS
proportion is increasing density is drastically decreased.
5. When adding discarded EPS beads to cement in proportions of 1:0.016 & 1:0.020 unit
weights of the mixes are reduced even less than 10 kN/m3 (i.e. unit weight of water).
6. The mix proportion 1:0.016 (M5) is the optimum mix from view point of both unit
weight and compressive strength.
7. In order to reduce the proportion of cement in mixes, cement has been replaced
partially with bagasse ash for the optimum mix (i.e. M5 mix)
8. When cement is partially replaced with bagasse ash unit weight of the geofoam
material is further decreasing.
9. All the mixes (i.e. M’s and B’s) tested in the present study satisfied the minimum
required compressive strength of a building block (i.e. 3.0 MPa).

REFERENCES
 Mandal, J., (1995) “Geofoam in Civil Engineering” The Indian Textile Journal,
November Issue, Bombay, India, pp. 76-77.
 Matsuda, T., Ugai, K., and Gose, S., (1996) “Application of EPS to Backfill of
Abutment for Earth Pressure Reduction and Impact Absorption” Proceedings of the
International Symposium on EPS Construction Method, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 327-332.
 McCarthy, D., (1998) “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations” Prentice-Hall
Inc., USA.
 McElroy, D., (1998) “Thermal Insulation Works for You” ASTM Standardization
News, July „98, pp. 22-26.
 Miki, G., (1996) “EPS Construction Method in Japan” Proceedings of the
International Symposium on EPS Construction Method, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 1-7.
 Miki, H., (1996) “An Overview of Lightweight Banking Technology in Japan”
Proceedings of the International Symposium on EPS Construction Method, Tokyo,
Japan, pp. 9-30.
 Mimura, C., S., and Kimura, S., A., (1995) “A Lightweight Solution” Geosynthet-
ics‟95 Conference Proceedings, Vol. 1, Nashville Tennessee, USA, pp. 39-51.
 Miyamoto, Y., Duan, M., Iwasaki, S., Deto, H., and Fujiwara, T., (1996)
“Fundamental Study on Continuous Footing Made with EPS Styrofoam” Proceedings
of the International Symposium on EPS Construction Method, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 349-
359.
 Mohamad, E., (1996) “History of EPS as Embankment Fill in Malaysia under PIC and
Its Future” Proceedings of the International Symposium on EPS Construction
Method, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 257-264.
 Negussey, D., and Sun, M., (1996) “Reducing Lateral Pressure by Geofoam (EPS)
Substitution” Proceedings of the International Symposium on EPS Construction
Method, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 201-211.
 Sanders, R. L., (1996) “United Kingdom Design and Construction Experience with
EPS” Proceedings of the International Symposium on EPS Construction Method,
Tokyo, Japan, pp. 235-246.
 Sheeley, M., (2000) “Slope Stabilization Utilizing Geofoam” Master‟s Thesis,
Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.

 R-Control, (1999a) “R-Control Perform Guard EPS Testing- Material Properties”

AFM Corporation, Technical Bulletin, MN, USA, PG EPS No. 6007.
 R-Control, (1999b) “ R-Control Perform Guard EPS and How It Works” AFM
Corporation, Technical Bulletin, MN, USA, PG EPS No. 6008.
 R-Control, (1999c) “Load Chart 2A: Combined Axial & Bending Capacities” AFM
Corporation, MN, USA, Technical Bulletin, SIP No. 2036.
 R-Control, (1999d) “R-Control Perform Guard EPS Testing- Termite & Carpenter
Ant” AFM Corporation, MN, USA, Technical Bulletin, PG EPS No. 6006.

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DEVELOPMENT OF NEW GEOFOAM MATERIAL USING WASTE EPS BEADS,CEMENT&BAGASSE ASH

1.2. HISTORY OF GEOFOAM

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 1

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 2

PROPERTIES OF EPS GEOFOAM AND SUGARCANE

2.1 PROPERTIES OF GEOFOAM

2.1.2(a) Compressive Strength and Stress Strain Curve

2.1.2(b) Initial Elastic Modulus

2.1.2(c) Poisson’s Ratio

2.1.2(d) Loading Rate Effect

2.1.2(e) Cyclic Loading

2.1.6 Interface Friction

2.1.7 Thermal Resistance

2.1.8 Ultraviolet Effect

2.1.10 Water Absorption

2.1.11 Resistance to Attacks

2.1.12 Energy Absorption

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 3

2.1.13 Inertness Properties

2.1.14 Acoustical properties

2.1.16 Environmental Effect

2.1.2(a) Compressive Strength and Stress Strain Curve

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 4

TABLE-2.1 ASTM C 578-95 EPS DENSITIES

TABLE-2.2 EPS TYPES IN JAPAN (AFTER MIKI, 1996)

TABLE-2.3EPS TYPES IN UNITED KINGDOM (AFTER SANDERS, 1996)

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 5

TABLE-2.4 EPS Types in United Kingdom (after Sanders, 1996)

FIGURE 2.1 EPS UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION STRESS STRAIN CURVES

(After Negussey and Elragi, 2000b)

2.1.2(b) Initial Elastic Modulus

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 6

FIGURE 2.2 INITIAL TANGENT MODULUS FOR EPS GEOFOAM

2.1.2(c) Poisson’s Ratio

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 7

TABLE-2.5 EPS Types in United Kingdom (after Sanders, 1996)

2.1.2(d) Loading Rate Effect

2.1.2(e) Cyclic Loading

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 8

TABLE-2.6 ASTM C 578-95 EPS Flexural Strength

2.1.6 Interface Friction

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 10

FIGURE 2.5 EPS Interface Friction (after Sheeley, 2000)

2.1.7 Thermal Resistance

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 11

amount of moisture absorption (Negussey, 1997). R-value degrades or de-creases with

2.1.8 Ultraviolet Effect

FIGURE 2.6 ASTM C 578-95 EPS R-Values

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 12

2.1.10 Water Absorption

2.1.11 Resistance to Attacks

Chemical resistance of thermoplastic expanded polystyrene is dependent on time,

2.1.12 Energy Absorption

DEPARTMENT OF CE,ALIET Page 13

2.1.13 Inertness Properties

Polystyrene is completely inert. Any corrosion of metals in contact with expanded

2.1.14 Acoustical properties

2.1.16 Environmental Effect

2.2 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

1 Fineness of Cement Not less than 90 % 93%

Residue of Cement Not more than 10% 7%

2 Standard Consistency --- 29%