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TLP PLUS -2019

TEST -11
SYNOPSIS

GEOGRAPHY
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Table of Contents
1. What is Pacific Decadal Oscillation? What are its effects? Discuss. .................. 3

2. Explain the process of river capture. Discuss the conditions favourable for
river capture. ...................................................................................................... 4

3. How do changes in coastal dynamics alter the balance of ecosystem? What are
its implications? Discuss. .................................................................................... 5

4. Discuss the factors that cause salinity in ocean. How do levels of salinity
change in the oceans with time and depth? Analyse. .......................................... 7

5. What is coal seam gas? How is it extracted? Discuss. ...................................... 9

6. What are marine heat waves? How do they impact the marine ecosystem?
Discuss. ............................................................................................................ 11

7. What constitute the FMCG sector? What are the most critical locational
factors for the FMCG industries? Discuss. ......................................................... 12

8. Where is Silicon Valley located? Why is it so famous? What are the factors
that make the Silicon Valley a magnet for intelligent minds? Discuss. ............... 14

9. Differentiate between landslides and avalanches? How do they take place?
Where do they occur the most? Explain. ........................................................... 15

10. Examine the short, medium and possible long term implications of Arctic Sea
ice losses. ......................................................................................................... 17

11. How do cloudbursts and flash flooding take place? Where do they occur the
most and why? ................................................................................................. 18

12. What are aquifers? How do they get formed? What are the most critical
threats to the sustenance of aquifers? Examine. ............................................... 20

13. Water budgeting must get an impetus in a water strained country like India.
Do you agree? Substantiate. Also, discuss the elements of water budgeting. .... 21

14. Discuss the trends of industrial fishing in different parts of the world. Do you
find the current pace and levels of fishing sustainable? Critically analyse. ........ 23

15. What is the source of earth's magnetic field? Does earth's magnetic field get
reversed periodically? What can be the possible impacts of such reversal?
Discuss. What are the best records of earth's magnetic field? ........................... 25

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16. What are permafrost? Where can one find them? How do they add stability
to the climate? What are the potential threats to permafrost? Discuss. ............ 27

17. Different parts of India are prone to earthquakes. However, the underlying
causative factors may be different in different regions. Do you agree? Illustrate.
......................................................................................................................... 28

18. What are rural and cottage industries? Discuss their regional diversity in
India. What can be done to promote rural and cottage industries? Suggest ..... 30

19. Which parts of the world have highly advanced electronics industry? Can you
enumerate the reasons behind the emergence of these regions as prominent
manufacturers of electronic goods? .................................................................. 32

20. What are some of the natural processes and it’s living/ non-living
components that impart resilience against climate change? Are they under
threat due to human activities? Analyse. .......................................................... 34


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1. What is Pacific Decadal Oscillation? What are its effects? Discuss.



Introduction

The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-
atmosphere climate variability centred over the mid-latitude Pacific basin. The PDO
is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N. Just
like El Nino/La Nina in the tropical Pacific, PDO has a signature for a longer time (on
the decadal scale) in the sea surface temperatures and its interaction with the
atmosphere, which in turn affects the northeast Indian summer monsoon.

Body

Effects:

• During a "warm", or "positive", phase, the west Pacific becomes cooler and
part of the eastern ocean warms; during a "cool" or "negative" phase, the
opposite pattern occurs.

• Major changes in northeast Pacific marine ecosystems have been correlated
with phase changes in the PDO; warm eras have seen enhanced coastal
ocean biological productivity in Alaska and inhibited productivity off the west
coast of the contiguous United States, while cold PDO eras have seen the
opposite north-south pattern of marine ecosystem productivity.

• The positive phase favours more El Ninos and a stronger Aleutian low and
warm water in the north Pacific off the Alaskan coast. The negative phase
more La Ninas and cold eastern Gulf of Alaska waters.

• PDO is responsible for bringing colder surface water temperatures and thus
beginning the overall cooling effect in recent times in Alaska. This oscillation
has brought a weakening of the ‘Aleutian Low’, the breeding ground for
storms that end up regulating weather systems. With a less active Aleutian
Low, cold winter storms have been sticking around Alaska longer and keeping
the temperatures chilly.

• The Asian Monsoon is also affected, increased rainfall and decreased summer
temperature is observed over the Indian subcontinent during the negative
phase.

• Decreasing monsoon rainfall in North East India is associated with natural
changes in the subtropical Pacific Ocean.

Conclusion

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Thus, PDO is a pattern of Pacific climate variability similar to El Nino-Southern


Oscillation (ENSO) in character, but which varies over a much longer time scale. The
PDO can remain in the same phase for 20 to 30 years, while ENSO cycles typically
only last 6 to 18 months.

2. Explain the process of river capture. Discuss the conditions favourable for river
capture.

Introduction

River capture, stream capture, or stream piracy is a geomorphological phenomenon
occurring when a stream or river drainage system or watershed is diverted from its
own bed, and flows instead down the bed of a neighboring stream.

Body

River capture is a natural process which is more active in the youthful stage of the
valley development because the streams are actively engaged in head-ward erosion
and valley lengthening but river capture also occurs during mature and senile stages
of the valley development through the process of lateral erosion and meander
intersection

The stronger and more powerful streams (in terms of channel gradient, stream
velocity and discharge and kinetic energy) capture the upper courses of weak and
sluggish streams.

The river which captures the course of another river is called the capturing or captor
stream while the part of the stream which has been divested of its course and water
is called the captured stream.

Evidence of River Capture:

• Elbow of capture,
• Cols, or wind gaps,
• Watergaps, and
• Misfit or under-fit streams and valleys.

Conditions for River Capture:

The process of river capture depends on channel gradient, depth of river valley,
volume of water, velocity and discharge, lithological characteristics and geological
structures, stage of cycle of erosion or the stage of river development.

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Conclusion

It may be, thus, inferred that river capture occurs under the following conditions:

• Steep channel gradient,
• Relatively narrow valley so that water may not spread in the otherwise wide
and flat valleys,
• Higher volume of water so that velocity and discharge may be sufficiently
high,
• Soft rocks so that the river may resort to rapid rate of head ward erosion,
• Deeper valley than the valleys of other neighbouring rivers, and
• Low sediment load so that the river may resort to active erosion etc.

3. How do changes in coastal dynamics alter the balance of ecosystem? What are
its implications? Discuss.

Introduction:

Coasts are the areas where land and sea meet and merge, they have always been
vital habitats for the human race. Their appearance and shape is in constant flux,
changing quite naturally over periods of time.

Body:

A coastal ecosystem includes estuaries, coastal waters, and lands located at the
lower end of drainage basins, where stream and river systems meet the sea and are
mixed by tides. The coastal ecosystem includes saline, brackish (mixed saline and
fresh), and fresh waters, as well as coastlines and the adjacent lands.

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Changes in coastal dynamics and balance of ecosystem:



• Erosion: Erosion is a serious problem around the world. It has both
environmental and economic impact. For instance, 23 percent of
Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala) coastline is affected by erosion especially
during south-west monsoon.
• Sedimentation: it has led to expansion of mangroves in New Zealand. It is a
cause of concern there, because it has led to reduced boat access, spread of
smelly mud, loss of water views and poorer fishing and shellfish gathering.
• Salinization of land: due to the proximity to the sea, the coastal regions are
exposed to major risk of progressive salinization of land which affects the
coastal economy.
• Storm surges: coastal regions of India are one of the worst affected regions,
which are exposed to nearly 10 % of the world’s tropical cyclone. It harms the
balance of ecosystem. For example: cyclone Gaja devastated Pt. Calimere
wildlife and Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu.
• Inundation: inundation of low-lying coastal areas by sea-water destroys
vegetation and reduces soil fertility in coastal areas.
• Rise in sea level: one the major impact of climate change is rise of sea level
which will have wide ranging effects on coastal environment.
• Tsunami: the mangroves forests, sand dunes, and coastal cliffs provide best
natural barriers against the effect of Tsunami in coastal areas.

Implications of Changes in coastal dynamics:



• Heavy damages to property in coastal areas during storms.
• High casualties in coastal areas during tsunami as happened in coast of India
on Dec.26, 2004.
• Salt water intrusion leads to coastal land salinization and affect the soil
fertility.
• Salinity in irrigation water may affect the physical and chemical properties of
soil, resulting in surface soil compaction and erosion.
• Salinity and water-logging in coastal areas can also have serious impact on
infrastructure, buildings and houses.
• Large scale pumping of groundwater in coastal region may lead to intrusion
of sea water in the fresh water aquifers and may render the water unfit for
human consumption.
• Halophyte plants, such as mangroves have adapted it to saline conditions,
they grow in coastal regions.

Conclusion:

The approved Coastal Regulation Zone notification 2018 will lead to enhanced
activities in the coastal regions thereby promoting economic growth while also
respecting the conservation principles of coastal regions. It will not only result in
significant employment generation but also a better life and add value to the
economy of India.
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4. Discuss the factors that cause salinity in ocean. How do levels of salinity change
in the oceans with time and depth? Analyse.

Introduction:

Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered by water. Ocean water occupies 97.3%
of this three-fourth of water. All waters in nature, whether rain water or ocean
water, contain dissolved mineral salts. Salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in sea water. It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm)
dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. It is usually expressed as parts per
thousand or ppt.

Body:

Highest salinity in water bodies:
• Lake Van in Turkey- 330.
• Dead Sea-238.
• Great Salt Lake-220.

The factors affecting ocean salinity:

• Evaporation: generally, salinity is higher at places having high rate of
evaporation. For example: Red sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water
owing to high evaporation.
• Precipitation: Regions with higher rate of precipitation have lower level of
salinity as seen in the equatorial regions.
• Temperature: there is a direct relation between temperature and salinity.
The regions with high temperature have a high rate of salinity. For example:
tropical regions have higher salinity than region between Arctic Circle and the
North Pole (Frigid Zone).
• Fresh water flow: ocean salinity is low in the coastal region where fresh river
water meets it. For instance, at the mouth of river Ganga salinity is found to
be lower than the average surface salinity.
• Freezing and thawing of ice: the salinity of ocean water increase with the
freezing of polar region. In summers the salinity of water reduces near the
polar region, because of influx of water by melting of glaciers.
• Wind: Salinity is also influenced by the wind, which transfers water from an
area to another.
• Ocean current: the ocean currents also contribute to the salinity variations.
For example: Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean increases salinity of water
along the western margins of Atlantic Ocean.

Changes in salinity with time:

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• The slowly shifting global salinity field is known to be affected by changes in


the hydrological cycle, including changes in evaporation and precipitation
rates, ocean currents, river discharge, and other forces.
• From 2004-2013, seawater became increasingly salty in the western Indian
Ocean and near the equator in the western and central tropical Pacific, as
well as in the high evaporation areas of the eastern subtropical Pacific in both
hemispheres.
• Meanwhile, much of the North Atlantic and eastern tropical South Pacific is
freshening.
• Studies incorporating both observations and climate model simulations of
global warming indicate that over time, precipitation will increase in rainy
areas and evaporation will increase in dry areas, making fresh areas of the
ocean fresher and salty areas of the ocean saltier.

Changes in salinity with depth (Vertical Distribution of Salinity):

• Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the
location of the sea. Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice
or evaporation, or decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the
rivers.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is
‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity
between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the
halocline, where salinity increases sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its
density to increase.
• High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This
leads to stratification by salinity.

Conclusion:

Experts have reported that the north Atlantic waters were freshening, with salt
levels decreasing – a mild version of the scenario depicted in the Hollywood film The
Day After Tomorrow where massive amounts of fresh water shut down warm ocean
currents and cause temperatures to plunge.

Research have shown that global warming leading to torrential rain, fresh-water
flooding has reduced the salinity and harming the marine bio-diversity. Example,
“fresh water coral bleaching” in north-east Queensland.

Additional Info:

Dissolved salts in sea water (gm of Salt per kg of water)

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5. What is coal seam gas? How is it extracted? Discuss.

Introduction:

Coal is the most plentiful fuel in the fossil family. Coal seam gas is natural gas found
in coal deposits, typically 300-600 metres underground. During the formation of
coal, large quantities of gas are generated and stored within the coal on internal
surfaces. Because coal has a large internal surface area, it can store up to seven
times as much gas as a conventional natural gas reservoir of equal rock volume.

Body:
Extraction of Coal Seam Gas (CSG):
• Coal seam gas is held in place by water pressure. To extract it, wells are
drilled through the coal seams and the water pressure is reduced by
extracting some of the water.
• The above process releases natural gas from the coal. The gas and water are
separated.
• The gas is piped to compression plants for transportation via gas transmission
pipelines.
• Horizontal drilling technique is also used as an alternative for mining CSG.
This technique occurs at deep levels underground and reduces the number of
visible vertical wells located above grounds. Once the coal seam has been
located, the well bore is encased and pressure-cemented at ground level.
Smaller holes are drilled horizontally into the coal seam to stimulate
pathways through which the gas can flow into the well, eliminating the need
for hydraulic fracturing.
• In some cases, hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’, is used to extract coal seam
gas. Hydraulic fracturing is the process of injecting fluid under high pressure
into a coal seam to widen existing fractures and create new ones. A
‘proppant’ such as sand is mixed with the injected fluid, carried into the
fracture and serves to keep the fractures open once the fracture treatment is
complete and the pressure is released. This enhances the removal of water

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and extraction of coal seam gas. Not all coal seam gas extraction operations
involve hydraulic fracturing.

Diagram showing Extraction of Coal Seam Gas (CSG)



Potential advantages of Coal Seam Gas:

• CSG has potential of delivering infrastructure and investment, providing new
jobs and strengthening and diversifying regional economies.
• Mining companies have focus on preserving water resource.
• CSG mining requires less than fifteen percent of the area required for an
open cut mining.
• Methane gas is a useful energy source that can be used close to its extraction
point or can be piped to homes and industry.
• It can also be piped to a liquefied natural gas plant (LNG) where it can be
processed into LNG for export worldwide.
• It produces 50% lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to black coal and
70% less than brown coal.

Disadvantages of CSG:

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• To produce gas from coal seams, water must be extracted first, lowering the
pressure so the gas can flow out of the coal. The volume of groundwater
extracted can vary significantly between individual wells, coal seams and coal
basins, depending on geological conditions.
• Groundwater extraction may affect the quality and reduce the quantity of
groundwater in adjacent aquifers that may be used for town water supply,
irrigation, or by springs and other ecosystems.
• Environmental impacts may also occur from the storage and disposal of
extracted groundwater and the effects of chemicals used in drilling and
hydraulic fracturing.
• Encroachment on good farming land, disruption of other land uses and
industries.
• Health impacts on workers and nearby residents.
• Damage to biodiversity.

Conclusion:

The extraction of Coal Seam Gas is in line with achieving the Sustainable
Development Goal- 7 which is not only about “clean energy”, but also about
“sustainable, reliable, modern, accessible, and affordable” energy.

6. What are marine heat waves? How do they impact the marine ecosystem?
Discuss.

Introduction

Marine heat waves (MHWs) are periods of extreme warm sea surface temperature
that persist for days to months and can extend up to thousands of kilometres.
Marine heat waves can occur in summer or winter - they are defined based on
differences with expected temperatures for the location and time of year.

Body

Facts:
• High-profile marine heat waves like “the blob,” a huge mass of warm water
that was present off the U.S. West Coast from 2014-2016.
• The blob was responsible for massive die-offs of everything from
invertebrates to marine mammals.
• Three regions were particularly hard hit by warming waters, such as: coral
reefs in the Caribbean, sea grass in Australia, and kelp forests off the coast of
California

Causes of marine heat waves:

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• Ocean currents: The most common drivers of marine heat waves


include ocean currents which can build up areas of warm water and air-sea
heat flux, or warming through the ocean surface from the atmosphere.
• Winds: Winds can enhance or suppress the warming in a marine heat wave,
and climate. Example El Niño can change the likelihood of events occurring in
certain regions.

Impact on marine ecosystem



• Ecosystem structure: Marine heat waves affect ecosystem structure, by
supporting certain species and suppressing others. For example, after the
2011 marine heat wave in Western Australia the fish communities had a
much more “tropical” nature than previously and switched from kelp forests
to seaweed turfs.
• Habitat of species: Marine heat waves can change the habitat ranges of
certain species, such as the spiny sea urchin off south-eastern Australia which
has been expanding southward into Tasmania at the expense of kelp forests
which it feeds upon.
• Outside normal range: Rogue animals can also find their way well outside
their normal range, following the warm waters of a marine heat wave, such
as this tropical fish found off Tasmania during the 2015/16 marine heat wave.
• Economic losses: Marine heat waves can cause economic losses through
impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. In 2011 in Western Australia, the
marine heat wave impacted the abalone fishery in the north of the state and
in 2015/16 the marine heat wave off south-eastern Australia led to high
levels of abalone mortality in Tasmania.
• Biodiversity changes: Biodiversity can be drastically affected by marine heat
waves. In 2016, marine heat waves across northern Australia led to severe
bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef and have been speculated to be linked to
mangrove die-offs in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
• Foundation species are lost: As heat waves have increased, kelp forests, sea
grass meadows and coral reefs have been lost. These foundation species are
critical to life in the ocean. They provide shelter and food to many others, but
have been hit on coasts from California to Australia to Spain.
• Fishing: Ocean warming has cut sustainable fish catches by 15% to 35% in
five regions, including the North Sea and the East China Sea, and 4% globally,
according to study.

Conclusion

Climate-conscious fishery management and monitoring ocean warming in real time
are tools that can help minimize impacts from warming events in the meantime.

7. What constitute the FMCG sector? What are the most critical locational factors
for the FMCG industries? Discuss.

Introduction
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Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) or Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) are


products that are sold quickly and at a relatively low cost. Examples include non-
durable household goods such as packaged foods, beverages, toiletries, over-the-
counter drugs, and other consumables.

Body

Location factors for FMCG industries:

• Near to customers: Fast-moving consumers’ goods are nondurable products
that sell quickly at relatively low cost.
• Affordability in India’s rural areas: Rural India is estimated to account for
more than 700 million consumers or 70 percent of the Indian population and
50 percent of the total FMCG market.
• Near to raw materials: Paper pulp, sugar, fermentation, food processing,
vegetable oils and vanaspathi, vegetables and fruits should be available at the
vicinity. Example: mega food parks are near to villages.
• Robust supply chain: High volume, high rotation, low price, huge network
and distribution from the headquarters to the POS are the defining words
that lift the FMCG sector, simultaneously making it complex for us to
understand the workflow involved.
• Routing and logistics: Location Intelligence helps in choosing the right
location that balances the supply and the demand of the products. The
location is chosen after giving a deep study of the demographics in the area
and understanding the demand per product.
• Distributors: The need for an effective location to adopt an efficient
transport network to control and manage the demand & supply.

Challenges to FMCG:

• Big data: 95% of the data being generated and sold to eager marketers and
analysts is useless. The smarter organizations will buy only the relevant data
(manage information costs), deduce the correct linkages to consumer
behaviour and use it effectively to develop products, manage trade and
communicate effectively to consumers.
• Media: With the advent of digital media and increase in delivery channels,
tapping the most spot-on growth opportunities has become more
complicated in an already complex system.
• Online Grocery Shopping: This is growing rapidly in most developed markets
albeit off a small base
• Difficult to sustain in the market: Organizations that can demonstrate
sustainability across their total ecosystem will benefit from stronger
consumer bonding scores.
• External factors: Like weather or events in the city going to impact sales – If
it is going to be colder than usual temperatures, certain products will be sold
more and If there is a football event there will be an increase in demand for
certain beverages and snacks.

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Conclusion

The focus on agriculture, MSMEs, education, healthcare, infrastructure and tax
rebate under the Union Budget 2019-20 is expected to directly impact the FMCG
sector. These initiatives are expected to increase the disposable income in the hands
of the common people, especially in the rural area, which will be beneficial for the
sector.

8. Where is Silicon Valley located? Why is it so famous? What are the factors that
make the Silicon Valley a magnet for intelligent minds? Discuss.

Introduction

Silicon Valley is the nick name for northern California area in US. It derives its name
from large number of software and hardware companies based there primarily
working on silicon chips. Bangalore in Karnataka is known as India’s Silicon Valley.

Body

Factors that make silicon a magnet for intelligent minds:

• Closer relationship between academia, the private sector, and government:
These 3 powerful sectors converge together to create an environment that’s
unlike any other in the world. With Stanford University and Berkeley at the
epicentre of the valley, there’s a permanent flow of new entrepreneurs and
talented tech specialists being minted each year. When one takes into
account all of these factors – and then integrate them with the fact that
launching a business is fairly easy under California law, including the fact that
non-compete agreements are void in the state – one can see why businesses
get started, attract intelligent minds and thrive in Silicon Valley.

• Great number of wealthy investors and funding institution: The amount of
both personal and institutional wealth in the valley makes it the best location
for business growth. There are thousands of companies and investors in the
area who organize as angel investors and venture capitalists, looking to invest
their money to work instead of paying hefty taxes on earnings to the U.S.
government annually. As a result, they want to pour funds into a variety of
different businesses, with the hope that a handful will return high dividends
in the following years.

• Availability of amenities: The amazing access to attractive business
amenities in the area is also worth mentioning. The valley itself and nearby
San Francisco (where many young techies make their homes) have tons of
amenities that make the Bay Area an attractive destination for investors,
conventions, and more. These amenities include world-class hotels at
surprisingly fair prices, large conference centres, some of the world’s most

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highly-rated restaurants, famous sports teams and lots of entertainment


options.
• Encouragement from past success stories: Much of Silicon Valley’s present
success is rooted in the incredible past success stories. As both an
entrepreneur or investor, there’s something about being surrounded by
success stories that contribute to imagining future victories for beginners. It’s
as if the accomplishments of past entrepreneurs make the thought of
obtaining great results further down the road, that much more palpable.
• Joint industry strength: presence of various types of industries in close
proximity give a combined support.
• Climate: climate is always very pleasant which makes it attract the capital
and work force. For instance, it is never sub-zero like New York, Chicago,
same thing with the Bangalore.

Challenges of Silicon Valley

• Immigration: Due to high rates of migration from across world, there has
been uproar from locals against immigration.
• Various security threats: Internal security has become a grave concern.
• Environmental degradation.
• Loss of local culture and identity.

Conclusion

In present era, though innovation is no longer geographically centred, brain drain is a
reality for majority of the country and concentration of intelligentsia are still in
limited pockets. A free and slightly supporting environment can create more no of
Silicon Valley’s across globe.

9. Differentiate between landslides and avalanches? How do they take place?
Where do they occur the most? Explain.

Introduction:

A landslide is a downward and outward movement of slope materials like rocks, soil
and so on under the influence of gravity. Gravity and accumulation of soft soil, debris
and rocks on a steep slope are the primary reason for a landslide.

The word avalanche is derived from the French word “avalance” meaning descent.
An avalanche is a mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris which travels down
mountain sides, destroying all in its path

Body:

Landslides:

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• High slope: Primary reason is high slope of landform where land is loose.
• Loss of vegetation: on the sloppy areas increases the possibility of landslides.
• High rainfall: makes foundation weak by percolation of water beneath.
• Earthquake: shakes the foundation and causes landslide.
• Bombarding/blasting for development purpose: This is done for projects like
dam creation, mining in nearby areas. Blasting weakens the foundation of
surrounding areas and leads to landslide. Recently this problem was
highlighted in Uttarakhand where after repeated warning from CAG,
permission has been granted for many development projects which took
such type of activities.

Regions prone to landslides:

• According to Geological Survey of India, roughly 15% of the country’s
landmass is prone to landslides.
• The National Disaster Management Authority lists the Himalayan states,
Arakan-Yoma belt in the north east, Meghalaya plateau, Western Ghats and
Nilgiri hills as landslide vulnerable areas.
• Himalayan Region – Habitable regions include J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim
etc., are highly prone to tectonic events, young fold mountains, so the
geological equilibrium has not been reached,
• Western Ghat region including Nilgiris: (high rainfall and overexploitation,
habitations and developmental activities.

Avalanche

Natural:

• Overloading: Overloading is an important trigger, the weight of the snow
increases until it overcomes cohesion to the snow pack underneath
• Temperature: Temperature has an effect on the cohesion of snow; a rise in
temperature weakens the bonds creating weakness, whilst a fall in
temperature increases the brittleness and tension of a slab.
• Slope Angle: Slope angle is important as most avalanches occur on slopes
between 25 and 400C, although avalanches have been noted on slopes as
gentle as 150C and as steep as 60oC.
• Vibrations: Vibration is a physical trigger cause by thunder, a gunshot, by
explosions or other loud noises such as shouting.
• Tectonic activities: tectonic activities like earthquakes and landslides can also
cause the snowpack to crumble leading to an avalanche.

Anthropogenic:

• movement of skiers, animals, snowmobiles, trekkers, notice from heavy
machinery.
• explosions done on or near the snow surface for construction purposes.

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• Wars, military exercises and explosions.



Mountain ranges across the world are prone to avalanches like: Himalayas of India,
Alps of Europe, Andes mountains of South America, Rockies and Appalachian
Mountains of North America.

Conclusion:

In order to mitigate the impacts for above activities, effective government
regulation, citizen and community participation as well as co-operation is needed.

10. Examine the short, medium and possible long term implications of Arctic Sea
ice losses.

Introduction:

There has been a stunning decline in the sea ice covering the northern polar regions,
a more than 50 percent drop in extent in the summer, and an even steeper
reduction in ice volume. Just a few decades ago, ice 10 to 12 feet thick covered the
North Pole, with sub-surface ice ridges in some parts of the Arctic extending down to
150 feet. In 2017, that ice is long gone, while the total volume of Arctic sea ice in late
summer has declined, according to two estimates, by 75 percent in half a century.

Body:

Implications of Arctic sea ice melt:

• Few scientists understand that the Arctic sea ice “death spiral” represents
more than just a major ecological upheaval in the world’s Far North.
• The decline of Arctic sea ice also has profound global climatic effects, or
feedbacks, that are already intensifying global warming and have the
potential to destabilize the climate system.
• Sea ice, in summer, reflects roughly 50 percent of incoming radiation back
into space.
• Its replacement with open water — which reflects roughly 10 percent of
incoming solar radiation — is causing a high albedo-driven warming across
the Arctic.
• As ocean and air temperatures in the Arctic rise, this adds more water vapor
to the atmosphere, since warmer air holds more moisture. Water vapor is
itself a greenhouse gas, trapping outgoing long-wave radiation and holding
heat closer to the surface of the earth.
• Melting Greenland ice sheet raises sea levels- In fact, the loss of reflective sea
ice is part of the reason Arctic temperature has risen three times faster than
the global average in recent decades.
• Thawing permafrost amplifies warming- Scientists are concerned carbon
dioxide and methane released from the carbon-rich permafrost could cause

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additional warming by adding to greenhouse gases already in the


atmosphere.
• Ocean circulations could change- Another impact of Arctic and Greenland ice
melt could be that the freshwater runoff into the ocean disrupts part of a
major circulation system known as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation (AMOC). The AMOC carries warm surface water northward, giving
Europe its mild climate.
• Melting sea ice can influence winter weather- As temperatures rise faster in
the Arctic than at lower latitudes, this changes large-scale temperature and
pressure gradients.
• Sea-level rise is projected to have serious implications for coastal
communities and industries, islands, river deltas, harbors, and the large
fraction of humanity living in coastal areas worldwide.
• Sea-level rise will increase the salinity of bays and estuaries. It will increase
coastal erosion, especially where coastal lands are soft rather than rocky.
• In Southeast Asia, many very large cities including Bangkok, Bombay,
Calcutta, Dhaka, and Manila are located on coastal lowlands or on river
deltas.

Note: Majority of points related to implications are covered, segregate them into
Short, Medium and along and place them accordingly.

Conclusion:

The top of the world is turning from white to blue in summer as the ice that has long
covered the north polar seas melts away. This monumental change is triggering a
cascade of effects that will amplify global warming and could destabilize the global
climate system.

11. How do cloudbursts and flash flooding take place? Where do they occur the
most and why?

Introduction

A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation, sometimes with hail and
thunder, which normally lasts no longer than a few minutes but is capable of
creating flood conditions. Rainfall rate equal to or greater than 100 mm (3.97 inches)
per hour is a cloudburst.

A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry
lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe
thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over
ice sheets or snowfields. Flash floods may occur after the collapse of a natural ice or
debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-made dam.

Body

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Cloudbursts do happen in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of them
occurring in mountainous zones; it has to do with the terrain.

Cloudbursts happen when saturated clouds are unable to produce rain because of
the upward movement of very warm current of air. Raindrops, instead of dropping
down, are carried upwards by the air current. New drops are formed and existing
raindrops gain in size. After a point, the raindrops become too heavy for the cloud to
hold on to, and they drop down together in a quick flash.

It is not essential that cloudbursts occur only when a cloud clashes with a solid body
like a mountain. One such cloud burst in the Himalayan region occurred when the
monsoon winds were rising along the slope of the Himalayas and were sucked
further by the ascending jet streams resulting in a very heavy downpour that caused
devastating floods and landslides in June 2013.

Cloudbursts can also occur when hot water vapour laden winds mix with the cold
winds resulting in sudden condensation. Hilly terrains aid in heated air currents rising
vertically upwards in two ways

• By allowing water laden winds to rise
• By allowing water laden winds to absorb more moisture
• And by allowing the jet stream to easily withdraw the convection aided
orographic winds to be attenuated, thereby, increasing the probability of a
cloudburst situation.

Cloudbursts can happen in deserts due to enhanced convection.

While Flash Floods can be caused by a number of things, but is most often due to
extremely heavy rainfall from thunderstorms.

Flash Floods can occur due to Dam or Levee Breaks, and/or Mudslides (Debris Flow).
In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when
glaciers have been melted by the intense heat.

The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use
and topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water-
content all determine just how quickly the Flash Flooding may occur, and influence
where it may occur.

Recent flash floods in India

• 2012 Himalayan flash floods
• 2013: Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand.
• 2013: Kedarnath, Uttarakhand.
• 2014 and 2018: Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir.
• 2017: Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Bihar and multiple states in the North East.

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12. What are aquifers? How do they get formed? What are the most critical threats
to the sustenance of aquifers? Examine.

Introduction

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures
or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater can be extracted
using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterisation of
aquifers is called hydrogeology.

Body

How are aquifers formed?

Aquifers tend to be formations with porosity (voids in the rock) and permeability
(open pathways between the voids so that water can flow through the rock).

Aquifers can form in sandstone, gravel-stone (conglomerate} and limestone. Aquifers
could also form along faults and in fractures in all kinds of rock. Coal beds are
another type of aquifer.

To be a good aquifer, sandstone should be clean, meaning that that should little or
no clay or shale or silica between the sand grains. In other words, it should be poorly
cemented. Shale and clay between the sand grains would plug up the pore spaces
and prevent water from residing there, making for a poor aquifer.

Limestone and its close kin dolomite are also a source of aquifers. In this case the
porosity and permeability are caused by the rock partially dissolving to form open
spaces in the rock ranging from microscopic pores to large caverns.

Most critical threats to sustenance of aquifers:

• Areas where a rapidly growing population is placing greater demand on
limited aquifer resources — pumping can, in these places, exceed the
aquifer's ability to recharge its groundwater supplies.

• When pumping of groundwater results in a lowering of the water table, then
the water table can drop so low that it's below the depth of a well. In those
cases, the well "runs dry" and no water can be removed until the
groundwater is recharged — which, in some cases, can take hundreds or
thousands of years.

• When the ground sinks because of groundwater pumping, it is called
subsidence. Land subsidence is a threat to aquifers and also to infrastructure
on the surface.

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• In addition to groundwater levels, the quality of water in an aquifer can be
threatened by saltwater intrusion (a particular problem in coastal areas),
biological contaminants such as manure or septic tank discharge, and
industrial chemicals such as pesticides or petroleum products. And once an
aquifer is contaminated, it's notoriously difficult to remediate.

Conclusion

To protect aquifer one must prevent contamination as it is far less expensive than
cleaning up contaminated groundwater. Farmers can help by limiting their use of
fertilisers and pesticides. Also, avoiding dumping of chemicals on the ground, down a
well, or into a septic system.

13. Water budgeting must get an impetus in a water strained country like India. Do
you agree? Substantiate. Also, discuss the elements of water budgeting.

Introduction

• A water budget is a water management tool used to estimate the amount of
water a landscape will require. It can be calculated for a single irrigation
event, on a weekly or monthly basis, or even annually.
• The water budget takes into account reference evapotranspiration data,
plant types, purpose and functionality of the landscape, irrigated landscape
area, irrigation efficiency, water quality, and rainfall.

Body

Why water budgeting is crucial for a country like India?

• Groundwater plays an important role in our lives and India’s economy, but it
is disappearing fast. There is mounting evidence that we are extracting more
than can be naturally replenished. In the hard-rock aquifers of peninsular
India, drilling 800 ft or deeper is becoming the norm.

• Scientific evidence also points to over-exploitation. The Central Ground
Water Board classifies all blocks in India based on the fraction of recharge
that is extracted and trends in long-term groundwater levels. Since 2004,
almost a third of blocks have been classified “over-exploited” or “semi-
critical”.

• Groundwater is inherently difficult to monitor and control, in part because of
its invisibility, which also perpetuates the illusion that each well is
independent. The myth is enshrined in Indian groundwater law that allows
landowners to extract as much as they want. In reality, not only is
groundwater within an aquifer interconnected, but aquifers and rivers are

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also interconnected. So depleting groundwater means drying rivers. Despite


this, groundwater and rivers are regulated by different agencies that do not
properly account for the linkages between them, often double counting the
quantum of the resource.

• Much of the current action on the ground is through techno-economic fixes.
These have clear benefits in terms of reducing pumping costs and using local
aquifers instead of building big, expensive dams. But what they do not do is
create “new” water.

• Boosting recharge through rainwater harvesting structures such as small
check dams is a popular measure. However, any water that recharges is
water that does not flow downstream. Often users located near check dams
simply extract more water, while users further downstream wonder why
their rivers and tanks are drying up.

• Another technological solution is to improve efficiency through subsidised
drip irrigation or energy-saving pumps. Again, these have often resulted in
farmers increasing their irrigation area with no decrease in water extracted.

• Techno-economic fixes do not address the underlying “zero-sum game”
nature of water resource use. Ultimately, the water management problem is
that of allocating the water available each year among users — both people
and the ecosystem. Without understanding how much water is available,
how much is being used and by whom, solving India’s water crisis is going to
be a non-starter.

• The way forward is comprehensive water budgeting, simultaneously in each
watershed and the river basin as a whole. Water budgets at the watershed
level will inform communities about how much water they have, so it can be
equitably shared within communities. Water budgets for the river basin will
inform communities how much must be left for downstream users, ensuring
that water resources are allocated between communities fairly and
transparently.

Conclusion

Given the zero-sum nature of the game and the impossibility of creating “new”
water, it is likely that we cannot restore the water balance in severely depleted
regions without painful cuts in water use. However, there are some glimmers of
hope. Water users everywhere are worried about the disappearing resource and
willing to engage. The trick lies in combining technology (low-water-use crops,
xeriscaping) and economic incentives that reduce actual water use (“cash-for-blue”
schemes) without reducing productivity or quality of life. This needs a strong water
governance system based on awareness building, science and a commitment to
fairness and sustainability.

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14. Discuss the trends of industrial fishing in different parts of the world. Do you
find the current pace and levels of fishing sustainable? Critically analyse.

Introduction:

Commercial fishing is the activity of catching fish and other seafood for commercial
profit, mostly from wild fisheries. Large-scale commercial fishing is also known as
industrial fishing or a fishery for non-food purposes.
Industrial fishing requires high level of technology and investment in fishing fleets.
The fishing fleets generally include purse seiners, trawlers, mid-water trawlers,
factory boats, and others.

Body:

Trends in global fisheries production

• A third of assessed global fish stocks are overfished and this proportion is
steadily increasing (WWF).
• According to the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2013-2022, in the next
decade, increased demand for fish will continue to stimulate production,
which is expected to reach about 172 million tonnes in 2021.
• As in recent years, this increase is likely to be mainly driven by aquaculture,
which is expected to increase by 33 percent over the period 2012–2021
compared to a small 3 percent growth in capture fisheries.
• Overall, the decline in global catch per unit effort suggests a decrease in the
biomass of many fished populations, likely by over 50 percent.
• The expansion of fishing capacity has been such that the World Bank and FAO
estimated in 2009 that the total global catch could be achieved with only half
of the effort actually employed.
• More specifically, some of the most traded fish (for example, tuna and cod-
like species) are reported to be currently overfished in many parts of the
oceans. Examples of highly traded fish include Namibian hake and Atlantic
bluefin tuna (BFT).
• Stock assessment scientists report that bigeye tuna stocks in the Western
Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) are currently being overfished.
• Similarly, there has been a significant depletion of yellowfin tuna stocks in
some areas of the WCPO due to fishing.

Current pace and levels of fishing is not sustainable



The United Nations recently predicted that human activities — such as industrial
farming, fishing, will drive nearly a further one million species of plants and animals
to extinction in a few decades. This biological extinction is thousands of times faster
than what was seen in ancient history.

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• The combined effects of the sheer volume of fishing, and the fishing gear and
techniques applied, has resulted in a number of environmental impacts,
including
o overfishing of fish stock;
o destruction of fish habitat;
o the fishing down of marine food webs;
o ecological disruption; and
o by catch problems.
• Even when the volume of target stock taken is sustainable, the modification
of the population structure and dynamics of the target stock, such as
depletion of spawning stocks or alteration of spawning or migratory
behavior, can have a negative impact on the marine ecosystem.
• Further, fishing impacts the marine habitat through the use of fishing
techniques such as bottom trawling, and ghost fishing by lost and abandoned
nets and traps.
• The use of fishing gear such as trawls and dredges may modify or destroy
habitats, thereby reducing seabed complexity and removing macrobenthic
organisms that provide shelter.
• It is suggested that fishing may even eliminate trophic groups or keystone
species, thereby altering the overall community structure of an ecosystem.

Current pace and levels of fishing is sustainable



• Norway’s Fisheries are currently offering a sustainable fish supply of skrei, a
seasonal Norwegian cod to U.S. markets. In order to be labeled skrei, strict
conditions have been put in place. The cod must be caught wild and full
grown, between January and April, and packed within 12 hours of being
caught. Norway’s sustainable fishing operations make them the world’s
second-largest seafood exporter, behind only China.
• In 1995, Barbados implemented the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries to address the issue of habitat degradation and loss of fish
population and achieved the desired results. Native marine species have
been protected and the country’s fishing industry has remained intact,
proving that policies that support sustainability can be effective.
• South Korea is another country that is taking the lead in establishing
sustainable fisheries. South Korea and the Food and Agriculture Organization
have agreed to work closely together to promote responsible fishing and
aquaculture in the developing world by covering a broad spectrum of policy,
governance and management issues in fisheries and aquaculture.
• Iceland is famous for its fish and has become the poster country for
developing a quota system for its fishermen, which ensures responsible and
sustainable fishing and responsible fishing practices.

Conclusion:

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Global fisheries management UNCLOS, which was adopted by the Third United
Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1982 and entered into force in 1994, is
arguably the fundamental law guiding international fisheries management. Marine
resources are essential to the food security of much of the world’s population and
Sustainable Development Goal 14 looks to conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas and marine resources.

15. What is the source of earth's magnetic field? Does earth's magnetic field get
reversed periodically? What can be the possible impacts of such reversal? Discuss.
What are the best records of earth's magnetic field?

Introduction:

Earth’s magnetic field (and the surface magnetic field) is approximately a magnetic
dipole, with the magnetic field S pole near Earth’s geographic North Pole and the
other magnetic field N pole near the Earth’s geographic South Pole. A magnetic field
extends infinitely, though it weakens with distance from its source. The Earth’s
magnetic field, also called the geomagnetic filed, which effectively extends several
tens of thousands of kilo-meters into space, forms the Earth’s magnetosphere.

Body:

Source of Earth’s magnetic field:

• The Geomagnetic Core Field: the dominant component is the so called main
field, generated by a hydrodynamic dynamo operating in the Earth’s fluid
core.
• The magnetic field of the lithosphere: the second internal contribution of the
Earth’s magnetic field comes from the lithosphere, induced from magnetized
rocks.
• External magnetic field: the third contribution, often varying rapidly in time,
comes from the Earth, from current system in the ionosphere and
magnetosphere, driven by the activity of the Sun.
• The Oceanic magnetic field: it is the faintest amongst the magnetic field,
generated due to ocean circulation.

Reversal of Earth’s magnetic field:

• The World Magnetic Model is a joint product of the British Geological Survey
and the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The
two agencies were planning to report changes in the magnetic north pole, as
they do every five years, at the end of 2019. But the pole has moved so
quickly they had to release the information much sooner.
• Scientists have found that the magnetic north pole is moving at a speed of
about 55 kilometres every year. One hundred years ago, the pole was located
near the coast of northern Canada. It crossed the International Date Line, the

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imaginary line running through the Pacific Ocean from the North Pole to the
South Pole, in 2017. Now, the magnetic north pole is in the middle of the
Arctic Ocean and moving towards Russia.
• While the rapid movement of Earth’s magnetic North Pole may cause
concern over the potential flip of magnetic poles, there is no evidence that
such a flip is imminent. Geologists can interpret magnetic minerals in rocks
around the world to reveal the history of magnetic reversals on Earth.
• Earth’s magnetic poles have flipped many times in its history, with the latest
reversal occurring 780,000 years ago and 183 times in the past 83 million
years. When Earth’s magnetic poles do flip, it won’t be a catastrophic “end of
the world” scenario. From examining fossil records, there is no evidence that
a magnetic field reversal causes increased extinctions, volcanic activity, etc.

Impact of Reversal of Earth’s magnetic field:

• The school compass won’t get affected by this change; it will reorient itself to
the new magnetic pole.
• Being less precise in nature the old compasses would no longer be in use’.
• The modern sophisticated compasses are digitalized and hence more
accurate.
• The entire aviation and shipping sector depends on knowing correctly the
position of magnetic north pole.
• For firing the missiles, military will require precise location.
• For civilian applications also, the compasses have to be recalibrated to reflect
the change in the magnetic north pole.

Best records of Earth’s magnetic field:

The only time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to
produce the phenomena such as aurora and geomagnetic storms.

• The magnetic North Pole is the source of the aurora borealis, the dramatic
lights that appear when solar radiation bounces off the Earth’s magnetic
field.
• This happens at the South Pole as well. In the southern hemisphere, the lights
are called the aurora australis.
• Geomagnetic storms result when the pressure of plasmas contained inside
the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the
geomagnetic field.

Conclusion:

Earth’s magnetic field not only protects earth from solar wind but also helps in
migration of birds during winter. Perhaps the most horrifying effect of losing Earth’s
magnetic field might be losing the air we breathe.

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16. What are permafrost? Where can one find them? How do they add stability to
the climate? What are the potential threats to permafrost? Discuss.

Introduction

Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer below the Earth’s surface. It consists
of soil, gravel, and sand, usually bound together by ice. Permafrost usually remains
at or below 0C (32F) for at least two years.

Body

Location of permafrost:

• Permafrost can be found on land and below the ocean floor. It is found in
areas where temperatures rarely rise above freezing. This means permafrost
is often found in Arctic regions such as Greenland, the U.S. state of Alaska,
Russia, China, and Eastern Europe.
• Permafrost does not always form in one solid sheet. There are two major
ways to describe its distribution: continuous and discontinuous.
• Continuous permafrost: It extends under all surfaces except large bodies of
water in the area. The part of Russia known as Siberia has continuous
permafrost.
• Discontinuous permafrost: It is broken up into separate areas. Some
permafrost, in the shadow of a mountain or thick vegetation, stays all year. In
other areas of discontinuous permafrost, the summer sun melts the
permafrost for several weeks or months. The land near the southern shore of
Hudson Bay, Canada, has discontinuous permafrost.

Permafrost adds stability to the climate:



• Holds carbon: The world’s permafrost holds 1,500 billion tons of carbon,
almost double the amount of carbon that is currently in the atmosphere.
When permafrost warms and thaws, it releases carbon dioxide and methane
into the atmosphere.
• Methane production: As permafrost thaws, the active layer deepens. The
microbes become active and plant roots can penetrate further down,
resulting in the production of more CO2. The amount of methane generated
depends on how saturated the ground is.
• Soil: A third of the Earth's soil carbon is found in the Arctic tundra soil, stored
in frozen organic matter. If the high northern latitudes warm significantly,
permafrost will thaw, allowing the organic matter within the permafrost to
decompose. The decomposition will release carbon into the atmosphere.
• Health Risk: Microbes that have been frozen in the permafrost for millennia
can come back to life after the thaw. There has already been the re-
emergence of ancient viruses like anthrax, as recently discovered by French
and Russian researchers.

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• Carbon sink: Permafrost responds to climate changes slowly, carbon storage


removes carbon from the atmosphere for long periods of time.
• Heat budget: Albedo of Snow is high which helps balancing heat budget of
earth melting of permafrost will disrupt the balance.

Potential threats to permafrost:



• Anthropogenic causes: The industrial revolution, carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gas emissions have raised temperatures, even higher in the
poles, and as a result, glaciers are rapidly melting, calving off into the sea and
retreating on land.
• Industrial activity: The oil, gas, and mining industries can disrupt
fragile tundra habitats. Drilling wells can thaw permafrost, while heavy
vehicles and pipeline construction can damage soil and prevent vegetation
from returning.
• Fishing: Fishing for krill could be particularly significant as these are at the
bottom of many Antarctic food chains.
• Tourism: With the accompanying pollutants that accompany ships and
aircraft, the possibility of oil spills and the effects of lots of people and
infrastructure on wildlife and the wider environment.

Conclusion

Cutting harmful, planet-warming pollution by switching away from fossil fuels is key
to safeguarding Earth's tundra habitats. Other measures include creating refuges and
protections for certain species and regions while limiting or banning industrial
activity.

17. Different parts of India are prone to earthquakes. However, the underlying
causative factors may be different in different regions. Do you agree? Illustrate.

Introduction

Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements and at the other times
produce slow movements. When the Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the
earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel all around the earth. These vibrations are
called earthquakes

Body

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Places prone to earth quakes:

• Zone-1: Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does
not use Zone 1, no area of India is classed as Zone 1.
• Zone-2: This region is liable to MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik
intensity) VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone.
• Zone-3: This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable
to MSK VII.
• Zone-4: This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable
to MSK VIII. Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
the parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar

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Pradesh, Terai, North Bengal, Sundarbans) and the capital of the


country Delhi fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is
also in zone no-4. In Bihar the northern part of the state like Raxaul, near the
border of India and Nepal, is also in zone no-4.
• Zone-5: It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region
of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar,
the North-East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and
Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.

Causes for earthquakes:



• The Himalayas: According to tectonic plate theory, Indo Australian plate (on
which India is exists) is moving towards north and is sub ducting under
Eurasian plate. This movement obviously causes friction between two plates.
As a result of which lot of energy is released and we experience earthquakes.
• The Indo-Gangetic plain: Indo-gangetic plain is on the foothills of the
Himalayas and is on the southern margin of Indian and Eurasian plates which
are on the collision course due to which a number of earthquakes take place.
Hence the entire plain is under intense seismic activity.
• The Peninsula: Even though far less active seismically, has also seen some
very damaging earthquakes, for instance, the Koyna (1967), Latur (1993) and
Bhuj (2001) earthquakes due to seismic activities.
• Anthropogenic activities: Explosions, reservoir induced seismicity, deep
mining, rigging, extraction of fossil fuels, ground water extraction, and
underground nuclear test.

Conclusion

ESSO-National Centre for Seismology (NCS) is monitoring earthquake activity in and
around the county round the clock through its national seismological network along
with other global/regional seismicity monitoring networks. National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA), Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Ministry of Earth
Sciences and other state Disaster Management Authorities, have also taken up
various initiatives to educate and enhance awareness amongst general public and
school children on the general aspects of earthquakes, their impacts and measures
to mitigate losses caused by them.

18. What are rural and cottage industries? Discuss their regional diversity in India.
What can be done to promote rural and cottage industries? Suggest

Introduction

In rural areas, the business operates towards different industries, which
are agriculture, forest, and handloom industries. The people lived in different areas
of rural India master in unique skills.
A cottage industry is a small-scale, decentralized manufacturing business often
operated out of a home rather than a purpose-built facility. Example: cotton

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weaving, silk weaving, carpet making, leather industry, metal handicrafts and small
food processing industries.

Body

Regional diversity in India:

• Handloom sarees: Kanchipuram silk sarees from Tamilnadu, Banarasi saris
from Varnasi, Baluchuri saris from west Bengal, chanderi silks
Madhyapradesh, Bandhani silks both Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Woollen Textiles: Amritsar, Dhariwal, Ludhiana, Machhilipattanam, Sri Nagar,
Warrangal.
• Metal Crafts: It includes metal work using Zinc, Copper, Brass, Silver, and
Gold. Some of the traditional ancient handicraft styles are Bidriware
(Karnataka), Pembarthi Metal Craft (Warangal), Dhokra (odisha), Kamrupi
(Guwhati).
• Leather industry: Kolhapuri chappals, Kanpur and Agra in Uttarpradesh,
Ambur and Chennai in Tamilnadu.

Promoting rural and cottage industries:



• Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC): It is engaged in promoting
and developing Khadi and Village Industries for providing employment
opportunities in rural areas thereby strengthening the rural economy of the
country.
• Khadi on fashion show: KVIC collaborated with Lakme Fashion Week to
showcase Khadi as a fabric of sustainable development.
• Revival of sick khadi institutions: KVIC implements ‘Strengthening of
Infrastructure of Existing Weak Khadi Institutions and assistance for
Marketing Infrastructure’ scheme.
• Solar Charkha Mission: To harness non-conventional solar energy to further
employment generation.
• Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP) and SFURTI:
PMEGP Scheme, any individual can avail credit from Banks to set up micro-
enterprise in the non-farm sector.
• For women: Under the PMEGP scheme women entrepreneurs are provided
25% and 35% subsidies for the project set up in urban and rural areas
respectively.
• Coir Udyami Yojana (formerly known as REMOT Scheme): It is a credit linked
subsidy scheme, which provides assistance for setting up of coir units with a
maximum cost of project upto Rs.10 lakhs plus working capital.
• Udyam samvad: The aim of the conference was to give wide publicity to the
successful ventures of the MSME Ministry like clusters and tool rooms so that
many more could be set-up in the country

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• International co-operation centre: India-Korea Technology Exchange Centre,


Enhanced Cooperation between India and Morocco, Poland and Russia for
strengthening MSME.

Conclusion

Branding Indian traditional clothes, more importance for Geographical Indicators
(GI), showcasing in international exhibitions, along with empowering villagers and
handicraft workers and upgrading science and technology in manufacturing are need
for the hour.

19. Which parts of the world have highly advanced electronics industry? Can you
enumerate the reasons behind the emergence of these regions as prominent
manufacturers of electronic goods?

Introduction:

Electronics industry refers to the business of creating, designing, producing, and
selling devices such as radios, televisions, stereos, computers, semiconductors,
transistors, and integrated circuits.

Body:

Parts of the world where highly advanced electronics industries are found:

• Japan has been the undisputed leader in the advanced electronics
manufacturing industry for a long time.
• Although the United States has long been both a technology innovator and a
market leader, in the last decade it has been losing strength in the
marketplace.
• Rising from obscurity 25 years ago, South Korean electronics companies have
come to own a significant share of the world electronics market today.
• Off late, the emerging economy like China have even opened doors for major
investors in electronics market, given the rising product penetration in these
regions.

Reasons behind emergence of these regions as prominent manufacturers of
electronic goods:

a. Japan:

• With eminent components and equipment capabilities, Japan provides much
of the technology needed for the manufacture of advanced electronics
components and products.
• National policies have been established to subsidize R&D and encourage
capital investments in automation and manufacturing facilities. Development

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of component technology and manufacturing ability provides for higher


levels of value added and greater opportunities to gain market positions in
global markets.
• Shortage of skilled labor in electronics businesses is a chronic problem across
Asia. Shortages are most acute in many neighbouring countries. Lack of
experience limits countries' capabilities in R&D and product design. Only
Japan and Taiwan have adequately skilled technicians.
• Production of electronics-based products has been growing in strength as a
basis for industrial development throughout Asia. Japan and the United
States have provided much of the technology needed for Asia's economic
development in electronics businesses. This technological strength comes
from long-term investments in R&D. Japan now invests 3% of its GDP in R&D.
As a result, the majority of technology has come from Japan.
• In the area of fundamental research and development, Japanese electronics
industries lead the world in technological innovations and new product
introductions.
• Japanese manufacturers' experience in consumer electronics has given them
a significant edge over their global competitors in fabricating and deploying
miniaturized connectors and passive chip components.
• Japanese market share in consumer electronics has created the "product
pull" required to justify large investments in manufacturing processes.

b. United States:

• Majority of the technological needs of world has been provided by US, and
the United States invests 2.7% of GDP on R&D. As a result, the majority of
technology has come from the United States, with Korea and Taiwan only
recently building technological strength.
• Proficiency in manufacturing high-technology products is critical to
maintenance of prosperity and leadership in a global marketplace. Majority
of the countries have well educated but inexperienced engineers where US
has advantage.
• North American companies lead the world in several important segments of
the Integrated Circuit [IC] market.

c. South Korea:

• Beginning in the mid-1980s, rising costs prompted Japan to transfer its
electronics manufacturing base to the newly industrialized economies of
Asia, Korea being one of the first beneficiary, which has been an integral part
of the high levels of technology transfer.
• They conduct state-of-the-art R&D projects, support establishing foreign
ventures, and support world-class university science and technology (S&T)
programs.

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• Government support for electronics includes substantial tax benefits for R&D
and product testing, plant improvement or facility construction, and
manpower development.
• Support has also included considerable direct funding of projects in line with
national priorities. Government support is now turning to new priorities such
as information technologies and start-up of a domestic semiconductor
equipment industry.
• Solid public support for science and education (carefully nurtured by
government, industry, media, and the educational establishment) has
provided a strong foundation for technological infrastructure development.
• Educators are focused on developing new creative, independent, and
cooperative thinking skills within the population that will support national
self-reliance in high-technology. They are also upgrading the quality of
training for technicians and engineers and making R&D contributions.

d. China:

• The earliest beneficiaries of Japan's technology transfer, like Korea, and
Taiwan, now find themselves facing cost problems similar to those of Japan in
the early 1990s. This is forcing many manufacturers to move to china. Japan
also invested $2.8 billion in China.
• Labor-intensive manufacturing, as mentioned earlier, is rapidly moving to
China.
• China is forcing its industries to move into higher-value-added products,
development of proprietary technologies, and investment in capital-intensive
businesses such as IC wafer production, IC packaging, or precision
manufacturing.

Conclusion:

With raising costs in China and slow down of chines economy, India has got a huge
opportunity to attract the investment and also India has high number of engineers
who are moving out in search of employment, if investment is drawn towards the
country then we get to gain both in terms of investment and brain gain.

20. What are some of the natural processes and it’s living/ non-living components
that impart resilience against climate change? Are they under threat due to human
activities? Analyse.

Introduction:

Climate scientists have been speaking out for decades about the need to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in order to avoid a significantly warmer and less liveable
future. Now that climate change is finally here, we need to look at ways for resilience
against climate change.

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Body:

However, there are some natural processes that impart resilience against climate
change, they are:

a. Forests:

• Trees and woodlands play an important role in the removal of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Through the biochemical process of photosynthesis
carbon dioxide is taken in by trees and stored as carbon in the trunk,
branches, leaves and roots. Carbon is also stored in the soil and indeed this is
a major sink for carbon in the forest.
• Forests have four major roles in climate change: they currently contribute
about one-sixth of global carbon emissions when cleared, overused or
degraded; they react sensitively to a changing climate; when managed
sustainably, they produce wood fuels as a benign alternative to fossil fuels;
and finally, they have the potential to absorb about one-tenth of global
carbon emissions projected for the first half of this century into their
biomass, soils and products and store them - in principle in perpetuity.

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b. Oceans:
• Oceans are currently the Earth’s greatest carbon sink, meaning they absorb
more carbon than they emit.
• One of the largest unknowns in our understanding of the greenhouse effect is
the role of the oceans as a carbon sink. Much of the carbon dioxide released
into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels is soaked up by the oceans.
• As we burn fossil fuels and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels go up, the
ocean absorbs more carbon dioxide to stay in balance.



c. Permafrost:

• The Arctic has been a sink for atmospheric CO2 since the end of the last Ice
Age and presently accounts for up to 25% of the Earth’s carbon sink.
• Soils in areas of permafrost contain twice as much carbon as there is
currently in the atmosphere.
• The Southern Ocean has a major role to play in locking away (sequestering)
anthropogenic carbon dioxide. To start with, gases dissolve more readily in
cold water than they do in warm water, so cold Antarctic waters can hold
more of the dissolved gas.

d. Mangroves:

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• Mangroves occupy less than 0.1% of the Earth’s surface, but they are
responsible for 8-15 % of the carbon deposited in coastal sediments and 10-
11 % of the total export of terrestrial carbon to the ocean.
• Carbon storage by this halophytic vegetation is a unique ecosystem service
that has great relevance in context to rise of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
• The carbon storage potential of mangroves has been addressed by several
researchers and is keenly related to the peat soils because the anoxic
conditions in deep peat soil inhibit the breakdown of organic matter.
• Thus mangrove ecosystem can contribute to off-setting carbon dioxide
emissions produced by intensive industrialization, urbanization, deforestation
and change in land use pattern.

Threat from Human Activities:

• Human activity is releasing vast amounts of carbon dioxide, principally
through the burning of fossil fuels to power industry, transport, heating etc.
• Land-use changes such as the unsustainable exploitation and destruction of
tropical forests are also having an impact.
• Between 1978 and 2007, data from satellites shows that average extent of
summer sea ice in the Arctic was decreasing at a rate of about 7.4 percent
per decade.
• Over the last 50 years average global temperature has been increasing at a
rate of about 0.13°C (0.23°F) per decade, almost twice the rate of the
twentieth century as a whole. 


Conclusion:

Even though natural process impart resilience to global warming, climate change is
emerging as perhaps the greatest environmental challenge of the twenty-first
century. Unless it is not tackled, we will be losing majority of the land area to
submergence in near future.

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