Kohistan–Ladakh Arc

Introduction

The Kohistan–Ladakh Arc in the Himalaya–Karakoram region represents a

complete section of an oceanic arc where the rocks from mantle to upper crustal
levels are exposed. Generally this arc was regarded as of Jurassic–Cretaceous age
and was welded to Asia and India by Northern and Southern Sutures respectively.
Formation of this arc, timings of its collisions with Asia and India, and position of
collision boundaries have always been controversial. Most authors consider that
the arc collided with Asia first during 102–75 Ma and then with India during 55–
50 Ma, whereas others suggest that the arc collided with India first at or before 61
Ma, and then the India–arc block collided with Asia ca 50 Ma.

Figure 1 Simplified geological map of the Northwest Himalaya showing major tectonic
units of the Indian Plate, undifferentiated rocks of the Kohistan– Ladakh Arc sequence,
and the southern margin of the Asian Plate
KOHISTAN–LADAKH ARC SEQUENCE

The Kohistan–Ladakh Arc, an example of a juve- nile crust, was formed by

magmatic addition at an intra-oceanic convergent margin in the Neo- Tethys
Ocean. It represents a complete section of an oceanic arc where rocks from mantle
to upper crustal volcanic and sedimentary levels are exposed (Fig. 2). Sedimentary
sequences (Yasin Group) of Aptian Albian age (120–99 Ma) indicate that
formation of this arc began in the Lower Cretaceous. The bulk of igneous
infrastructure formed between 90 and 110 Ma. Generally this arc was subdivided
into six main units (Fig. 2) from bottom to top (south to north)

(i) Jijal ultramafic–mafic complex

(ii) Kamila amphibolites
(iii) Chilas ultramafic–mafic complex;
(iv) Kohistan batholith;
(v) Jurassic– Cretaceous metavolcanics and meta-sedimentary units of the
Jaglot and Chalt Groups, and
(vi) Aptian–Albian volcano–sedimentary Yasin Group

Figure 2 Geological sketch map showing the major lithological units of the Kohistan arc
sequence.
INDIAN PLATE SEQUENCE

Rocks of the Indian Plate sequence, south of the Southern Suture, are the Higher
Himalayan crystalline basement and cover sequences, the Lesser Himalayan
sequence, and the Siwalik molasse (Fig. 2). The Higher Himalayan crystal- line
sequence mainly consists of pelitic, felsic, and psammitic schists and gneisses,
metacarbonates, and amphibolites with local eclogitic lenses or sheets (Greco etal.
1989; Rehman etal. 2007). The grade of metamorphism increases from stau- rolite
to kyanite to sillimanite in schists and gneisses, and from high- to ultrahigh-
pressure (UHP) eclogite facies grade in the mafic rocks (O’Brien et al. 2001;
Kaneko et al. 2003). The pro- tolith of the Higher Himalayan crystalline felsic–
pelitic and calcareous rocks was reported as Lower Paleozoic to Triassic whereas
the protolith of the basic rocks (amphibolites and eclogites) was reported as
Permian

Collision with indian and Asian plate

FORMATION OF KOHISTAN–LADAKH ARC

We now present major stages of the formation of the KLA. The oldest known
magmatic activity in the KLA was possibly the formation of the Matum das pluton
(ca 150 Ma) in a rift- related extension environment represented by an extremely
depleted oceanic magmatic component in the Tethys crust.

The start of the subduction processes is marked by the formation of the

ultramafic–mafic Jijal complex. Dhuime et al. (2007, 2009) suggested that the
mafic–ultramafic rocks of the Jijal complex were formed from a two-component
origin (recycled sediment 􏰃 subducted altered oceanic crust) during the initiation
of subduction of the Indian Plate oceanic lithosphere. Their assigning of a two-
component source to the Jijal complex was based on isotopic signatures of the Jijal
gabbros, coupled with strong negative anomalies in the high field strength
elements and fluid mobile element enrichment.
Fig. 3 Illustration showing main lithological units of the KLA, and its timing of collision
with Asia and India. For simplicity and due to larger uncertainties, the time events for the
possible accretion of minor blocks to India are not plotted. Geological time intervals and
terms used are adopted after the International Stratigraphic Chart of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy

GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

TIMING OF COLLISION OF KOHISTAN WITH ASIA AND INDIA

The timing of the collision of the KLA with Asia and India can be deduced from:
(i) deformational features along the Northern Suture zone; (ii) ending of marine
sedimentation in the Southern Suture zone; (iii) paleomagnetic records preserved
in rocks of the KLA, the Indian Plate, and the Asian Plate; (iv) drifting rate of the
Indian Plate towards the north; (v) position of the collision con- tacts; and (vi) the
geochemical constraints on the collision contacts.

fig #Stable Eurasia with various pole proposals for the block at 55 Ma
Chagai–Raskoh arc magmatic arc

Introduction

The Chagai–Raskoh arc is located in western Pakistan and extends into Iran and
Afghanistan. The arc forms an elongate body trending EW and is roughly 500km long by
150km wide. Activity along the arc began in the Late Cretaceous and continued through into
the Quaternary.The oldest volcanic rocks in the arc belong to the Sinjrani and Kuchakki
Formations. These rocks are primarily basalts and andesites which form both pillow
sequences and massive flows. Geochemically these units are very similar. They are tholeiitic
lavas with typical island arc characteristics and an N-MORB source.

MAGMATIC EVOLUTION OF THE CHAGAI-RASKOH ARC

The Chagai-Raskoh magmatic arc occurs in the western part of Pakistan. In the
regional geotectonic scenario this arc belongs to an ancient Tethyan convergence zone,
which was initiated probably during Early Cretaceous, due to an intra-oceanic
convergence in Ceno Tethys. In this Magmatic arc several episodes of magmatism
occurred during the Late Cretaceous to Quaternary. The Late Cretaceous and Paleocene
volcanism is dominated by basaltic-andesites with minor basalts and andesites with their
volcaniclastic counterparts, whereas Eocene onwards volcanism is generally dominated
by andesites with minor dacites and their volcaniclastic equivalents. The mafic
mineralogy (augite-biotite), anorthite contents (An68-15) and phenocrysts to groundmass
ratios (20 : 80 - 45 : 55) in the volcanics rocks generally show progressive evolution
towards younger volcanics.

Regional Evidence

The Chagai-Raskoh arc is one of the metallogenically most important mountain

belts of Pakistan, as many important metal deposits including porphyry (Mo-Au-Ag),
manto and vein type copper, stratiform and skarn type iron, volcanogenic gold and
sulphur, kuroko type lead-zinc- silver-copper are associated with the magmatic rocks.
The volcaonogenic iron and manganese ore deposits are associated with Late Cretaceous
lava flows. The Kuruko type sulphide deposit is also found in the Late Cretaceous dacite
porphyry stock intruded into the Late Cretaceous volcanics. The Skarn type iron ore is
associated with the Eocene pyroxene-diorite. Large to giant porphyry Cu-Mo-Au
deposits are generally associated with the Oligocene-Miocene tonalite, quarts-diorite and
granodiorite porphyry stocks. The gold, sulfur and travertine deposits are assoc iated with
the Quaternary volcanics of the Chagai arc.
Figure 5. Geological map of Chagai-Raskoh arc terrane, Balochistan, Pakistan