LECTURE 6

QUANTUM PHYSICS II

Instructor: Shih-Chieh Hsu

 Development of Quantum Mechanics
2

¨ In 1862, Kirchhoff coined black body

radiation or known as cavity radiation
¤ The experiments raised the question of the failure
of classical EM theories

¨ In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovers photoelectric

effect
¤ Another experiment raised the concern of the wave and
particle nature of the light.
 Theory of quantization of light
3

¨ In 1900, Max Planck resolves the blackbody

radiation issues by introducing “quantum” concept
of the discrete energy element
¤ The energy element is discrete and the energy is
proportional to the frequency
¤ The invention of Planck constant h

¨ In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect by

using Max Planck’s light quantization concept
¤ Photon  is  introduced  by  Gilbert  N.  Lewis  in  1926
 More Quantization System
4

¨ In 1909, Robert Millikan conducted

oildrop experiment and showed
that electric charge is quantized.

¨ In 1911, Ernest Rutherford’s Gold Foil

Experiment disproved the plum
pudding model of the atom.
 Bohr’s classical model of H
5

¨ Niels Bohr proposed a model of

the hydrogen atom that
successfully predicted the
observed spectra.
¤ The electron of the hydrogen atom
moves in a circular orbit around
the positive nucleus according to
Coulomb’s law and classical
mechanics like the planets orbiting
around Sun.
 Flaw in the classical model
6

¨ Classical EM theory says that an electron in a

circular orbit is accelerating, so it would radiate an
EM wave and loses its energy.
¨ This atom would quickly collapse as the electron
spirals into the nucleus and radiates away the
energy.
 Spectral Lines
7

http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/inorganic-­chemistry/spectral-­lines.html
 Hydrogen Spectrum
8
 Bohr’s semi-classical model (1913)
9

Energy  Quantization
In  Aton

En energy  level

|ΔEn|  =  hf=hc/λ
10

Old Quantum Theory

 Old Quantum Theory
11

¨ In 1913, Niels Bohr explains the spectra

line of the hydrogen atom – using
quantization ideas.

¨ 1918-1923 expansion of quantum

mechanics research works! e.g.
Stern-Gerlach demonstrated spin
property of electrons in 1920

Stern Gerlach
 Three Failures of Classical Physics
12

¨ Black Body Radiation.

¨ The Hydrogen Atom

¨ Photoelectric Effect.
13

New Quantum Theory

 New Quantum Theory
14

¨ In 1924, Louise de Broglie proposes

matter wave theory.

¨ In 1925, Matrix Mechanics is invented

¤ Heisenberg Uncertainty
was proposed in 1927

Werner Heisenberg Max Born Pascual Jordan

 Completion of Quantum Mechanics
15

¨ In 1925, Erwin Schrödinger invented wave

mechanics and non-relativistic Schrödinger
equation as generalization of de Broglie’s
theory

¨ 1927, Paul Dirac began the process of

unifying quantum mechanics with special
relativity by proposing the Dirac equation
for the electron.
 de Broglie hypothesis
16

¨ In 1924 Louis de Broglie hypothesized:

¤ Since light exhibits particle-like properties and act as a
photon, particles could exhibit wave-like properties and
have a definite wavelength.
¨ The wavelength and frequency of matter:
h E
λ= f =
p h
¤ For macroscopic objects, de Broglie wavelength is too
small to be observed.
 Example 1
17

¨ One of the smallest composite microscopic particles

we could imagine using in an experiment would be a
particle of smoke or soot. These are about 1 µm in
diameter, barely at the resolution limit of most
microscopes. A particle of this size with the density of
carbon has a mass of about 10-18 kg. What is the de
Broglie wavelength for such a particle, if it is moving
slowly at 1 mm/s?

h h h 6.626 ×10−34 Js
λ = = = −18 = = 6.626 ×10 −13
m
p mv 10 kg ×10 m / s 10 kg ×10 m / s
−3 −18 −3

h = 6.626 ´ 10-34 J·∙s = 4.136 ´ 10-15 eV·∙s

 Diffraction of matter
18

¨ In 1927, C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer first observed the

diffraction of electron waves using electrons scattered from a
particular nickel crystal.
¨ G. P. Thomson (son of J. J. Thomson) showed electron diffraction
when the electrons pass through a thin metal foils.
¨ Diffraction has been seen for neutrons, hydrogen atoms, and
alpha particles.
¨ In all cases, the measured l matched de Broglie’s prediction.

X-ray diffraction electron diffraction neutron diffraction

 Interference and diffraction of matter
19

¨ If the wavelengths are made long enough (by using very slow
moving particles), interference patters of particles can be
observed.
¨ These figures show the build up of the electron two-slit
interference pattern as the electrons arrive at the detector.
 Electron microscope
20

¨ When viewing details of objects with visible light, the

details can be resolved only if they are larger than the
wavelength of the light.
¨ In electron microscopes, beams of electrons, with small
wavelength is used to “see” small objects.

Pollen
grains
Clicker  Question  18-­1
¨ The  electron  microscope  is  a  welcome  addition  to  the  
field  of  microscopy  because  electrons  have  a  
__________  wavelength  than  light,  thereby  increasing  
the  __________  of  the  microscope.
¤ longer;;  resolving  power  
¤ longer;;  breadth  of  field  
¤ shorter;;  resolving  power  
¤ longer;;  intensity
 Classical waves vs. particles
22

¨ A classical wave behaves like a sound wave.

• It exhibits diffraction and interference.
• Its energy is spread out continuously in space and time.

¨ A classical particle behaves like a piece of shot.

¤It can be localized and scattered.
¤It exchanges energy suddenly at a point in space.
¤It obeys the laws of conservation of energy and
momentum in collisions.
¤It does not exhibit interference or diffraction.
 Wave-particle duality
23

¨ Light, normally thought of as a wave, exhibits particle

properties when it interacts with matter.
• photoelectric effect
¨ Electrons, normally thought of as particles, exhibit the wave
properties when they pass near the edges of obstacles.
• interference and diffraction
¨ All carriers of p and E exhibit both wave and particle
characteristics.
¨ In classical physics, the concepts of waves and particles are
mutually exclusive.
 Wave-particle duality
24

¨ The classical concepts of waves and particles do not

adequately describe the complete behavior of any
phenomenon.
Everything propagates like a wave and exchanges energy
like a particle.
¨ Often the concepts of the classical particle and the classical wave
give the same results.

¤ If l is very small,
diffraction and interference are not observable.
¤ If there are a lot of particles,
they can be treated as a wave.
 Clicker  Question  19-­1

¨ If  the  wavelength  of  an  electron  is  equal  to  the  wavelength  of  
a  proton,  then.
1. the  speed  of  the  proton  is  greater  than  the  speed  of  the  electron
2. the  speeds  of  the  proton  and  the  electron  are  equal
3. the  speed  of  the  proton  is  less  than  the  speed  of  the  electron
4. the  energy  of  the  proton  is  greater  than  the  energy  of  the  electron,  
5. both  (1)  and  (4)  are  correct.

2
h h mv p 2
h2
λ= = E= = = 2
p mv 2 2m 2mλ
 Uncertainty principle
26

¨ If we use light with l to measure the position of an object, x, its

uncertainty, Δx, cannot be less than ~l because of diffraction.
¨ If we use photons with pg = h/λ to measure the momentum of
an object, p, Δp of the object cannot be less than ~h/λ since
the photon changes the momentum of the object upon
scattering.
¨ The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that:
It is impossible to simultaneously measure both the
position and the momentum of a particle with unlimited
precision.
 h
ΔxΔpx ≥ , where  ≡
2 2π
 Quantum Mechanics (1923)
27

¨ In quantum mechanics, a particle is described by a wave

function y that obeys a wave equation called the Schrödinger
equation.

2 2    ∂ 
−
2m
( ) () ( )
∇ Ψ r ,t + U r Ψ r ,t = i Ψ r ,t
∂t
( )
You absolutely do not need to memorize the formula.

¨ The solution of the equation by itself has no physical meaning.

However, the probability to find a particle in a certain space-
time is:
 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation
28

¨ Solution of the Schrödinger equation.

2 2    ∂ 
−
2m
( ) () ( ) ( )
∇ Ψ r ,t + U r Ψ r ,t = i Ψ r ,t
∂t
 Wave function
29

¨ The Schrödinger equation describes a single

particle.
¨ The probability density P(x), the probability per unit
volume (or length in 1-D), of finding the particle as
a function of position is given by

()
P x =ψ2 x ()
¨ The probability is probability times unit volume, i.e.
P(x) Δx
 Normalization condition
30

¨ If we have a particle, the probability of finding the

particle somewhere must be 1. Therefore the wave
function must satisfy the normalization condition.
∞ ∞

∫ ( ) ()
2
P x dx = ∫ x dx = 1
ψ
−∞ −∞

¨ For y to satisfy the normalization condition, it must

approach zero as |x| approaches infinity.
 Copenhagen Interpretation
31

¨ 1927, Bohr, Heisenberg, Pauli had converged to a consensus

based on Bohr's concept of complementarity, which states
that a physical phenomenon may manifest itself in two
different ‘complementary' ways depending on the
experiment set up to investigate it.
¨ Thus light, for example, could
appear sometimes as a wave
and sometimes as a particle.
Although mutually exclusive,
both pictures were necessary
to obtain a full description of
the phenomenon.
 Schrödinger’s Cat
32

¨ 1935, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger proposed this

thought experiment, often described as a paradox, to
illustrate what he saw as the problem of the Copenhagen
interpretation of quantum mechanics applied to everyday
objects.
 Schrödinger’s Poor Cat
33

¨ The material doesn’t ¨ The material has decayed.

decay. The cat is alive The cat has been killed by
the poison.
 Schrödinger’s Cat: Live or Dead
34

¨ According to the Copenhagen interpretation,

the cat is both alive and dead. It exists in a
state of “superposition”
 Probability Calculation for a Classical
35
Particle
¨ A classical point particle moves back and forth with
constant speed between two walls at x = 0 and x =
8.0 cm.

Because  the  probability  density  is  uniform,  the  probability  

of  a  particle  being  in  some  range  Δx in  the  region  0  <  x <  
8.0  cm  is  P0Δx.  
 Probability Calculation for a Classical
36
Particle
¨ What is the probability density P(x)? .

The  probability  density  P(x)  is  

uniform  between  the  walls  and  
zero  elsewhere:

probability  density  x  Total  length  =  1  =  P0  x  8cm  

 Probability Calculation for a Classical
37
Particle
¨ What is the probability of finding the particle at the
point where x equals exactly 2 cm?
On  the  interval  0  <  x <  8.0  cm,  the  
probability  of  finding  the  particle  in  
some  range  Δx is  proportional  to  
P0Δx =  Δx/(8  cm).
The  probability  of  finding  the  particle  
at  the  point  x =  2  cm  is  zero  because  
Δx is  zero  (no  range  exists).
Alternatively,  because  an  infinite  number  of  points  exists  
between  x =  0  and  x =  8  cm,  and  the  particle  is  equally  likely  to  
be  at  any  point,  the  chance  that  the  particle  will  be  at  any  one  
particular  point  must  be  zero.
 Probability Calculation for a Classical
38
Particle
¨ What is the probability of finding the particle
between x = 3.0 cm and x = 3.4 cm?

Because  the  probability  density  

is  uniform,  the  probability  of  a  
particle  being  in  some  range  Δx
in  the  region  0  <  x <  8.0  cm  is  
P0Δx.  
 A particle in a box
39

¨ Consider a particle of mass m confined to a one-

dimensional box of length L.
¤ Classical Mechanics: The particle with any values of energy
and momentum bounces back and forth between the walls
of the box.
¤ Quantum Mechanics: The particle is described by a wave
function y, and y2 describes the probability of finding the
particle in some region.
 A particle in a box: conditions for y
40

¨ The particle is somewhere in the box.

L
2
()
∫ x dx = 1
ψ
0

¨ The particle is not outside the box.

()
ψ x = 0 for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L
¨ y is continuous everywhere.

()
ψ 0 = 0 and ψ L = 0 ( )
¤ This is the same boundary condition as the condition for standing waves
on a string fixed at x = 0 and x = L and satisfies following equation
 A particle in a box: allowed wavelengths
41

¨ The boundary condition

restricts the allowed
wavelengths for a particle
in a box.
¨ The box length L equals an
integral number of half
wavelengths.
λn
L = n ; n = 1,2,3,
2
Standing wave condition
 A particle in a box: allowed energies
42

2
mv 2 p h2 λn
E= = = L=n ; n = 1,2,3,
2 2m 2mλ 2 2

¨ The standing wave condition yields

the allowed energies.
2
h
En = n 2 2
= n 2
E1
8mL
¨ The lowest allowed energy, E1, is
called ground state energy.
¨ Note that E1 is not zero, and
depends on the size of the box.
 Electron bound to an atom
43

¨ If an electron is constrained to be within an

atom, the electron is confined in one of the
allowed energy states.
¨ The electron can make a transition to and from
one energy state, Ei, to another, Ef, by the
emission of a photon (if Ei > Ef).
¨ The frequency and wavelength of the emitted
photon are:

Ei − Ef c hc
f = λ= =
h f Ei − Ef
 Quantum number
44

¨ The number “n” is called a quantum number.

¨ It characterizes yn for a particular state and for the
energy of that state, En.
¨ For a particle in a 1-D box, a quantum number arises
from the boundary condition on y :
y (0) = 0 and y (L) = 0.
¨ For a particle in a 3-D box, three quantum numbers
arise, one associated with a boundary condition in
each dimension.
 Standing wave functions: probability densities
45

¨ The probability per unit length of finding the particle as a

function of position is yn2(x).
¨ The particle is most likely to be found near the maxima. The
particle cannot be found where y2 = 0.
¨ For very large values of n, the maxima and minima are so
closely spaced that y2 cannot be distinguished from its
average value. The particle is equally likely to be found
anywhere in the box, the same as in the classical result.
 Large quantum number
46

¨ The fractional energy difference of adjacent states

becomes very small as the quantum number
increases.
¨ For a very large n, energy quantization is not
important.
¨ Bohr’s correspondence principle states:
In the limit of very large quantum numbers, the
classical calculation and the quantum calculation
must yield the same results.
Clicker  Question  19-­2

¨ There  are  three  1-­D  boxes,  B1,  B2,  and  B3,  with  length  
L,  2L,  and  3L,  respectively.  Each  box  contains  an  
electron  in  the  state  for  n = 10.  Rank  the  boxes  
according  the  number  of  maxima  for  the  probability  
density  of  the  electron,  greatest  first.
¤ B1,  B2,  B3
¤ B3,  B2,  B1
¤ B2,  B3,  B1
¤ They  are  all  tie.
 Example 1
48

¨ An electron is in the initial state ni = 3 of an 1-D

box of length 100 pm. If it is to make a quantum
jump to the state nf = 6 by absorbing a photon,
what must be the energy and wavelength of the
photon?
2
h hc hc
En = n 2 2
= n 2
E1 E= →λ=
8mL
2
λ E
h2 (hc)
E6 − E3 2 2
= (6 − 3 ) = 27
8mL2 8(mc 2 )L2
1240ev • nm
(1240eV • nm) 2 = = 1.22nm
= 27 1015.12eV
8(5.11×105 eV )(0.1nm) 2
= 1015.12eV
 Hydrogen Atom
49

an  electron  is  bound  to  a  proton  

by  the  electrostatic  force  of  
attraction
 Timeline
50
51

Backup
 Compton scattering: conservation of p and E
52

¨ From conservation of momentum:

     
pi = ps + pe → pe = pi − ps
     
pe ⋅ pe = ( )(
pi − ps ⋅ pi − ps )
     
= pi ⋅ pi + ps ⋅ ps − 2 pi ⋅ ps
= pi2 + ps2 − 2 pi ps cosθ
¨ From conservation of energy:
Ei + Ee, i = Es + Ee, f
2
2
pi c + me c = ps c + 2 2
(
p c + me c
e
2
)
 Compton equation
53

¨ Combining the momentum and energy conservation

equations, we get
pe2 = pi2 + ps2 − 2 pi ps cosθ
2
2
pi c + me c = ps c + 2 2
p c + me c
e ( 2
)
1 1 1
− = (1 − cosθ )
ps pi me c
h
λs − λi = (1 − cosθ ) ≡ λC (1 − cosθ ) = 2.426 pm(1 − cosθ )
me c
 Expectation Value
54
 Example
55

A  particle  in  a  one-­dimensional  box  of  length  L is  in  the  

ground  state.  Find  the  probability  of  finding  the  particle  (a)  in  
the  region  that  has  a  length  Δx =  0.01L and  is  centered  at  x =  
L   and  (b)  in  the  region  0  <  x <    L.

(a)  0 (b)  1
 Example
56

A  particle  in  a  one-­dimensional  box  of  length  L is  in  the  

ground  state.  Find  the  probability  of  finding  the  particle  (a)  in  
the  region  that  has  a  length  Δx =  0.01L and  is  centered  at  x =  
L/2   and  (b)  in  the  region  0  <  x <    L/4.
 Example 3
57

¨ The photons in a monochromatic beam are scattered

by electrons. The wavelength of the photons that are
scattered at an angle of 135° with the direction of
the incident photon beam is 2.3 percent more than
the wavelength of the incident photons.
a) What is the wavelength of the incident photons?
b) What is the kinetic energy of the electron?
 Harmonic oscillator potential well
58

¨ Consider a particle with mass, m, on a spring with force

constant, k.
¨ Potential energy function for a harmonic oscillator is parabolic.
()
U x = 12 kx 2 = 12 mω 02 x 2
Parabolic well
where ω 0 = k m is the natural
frequency of the oscillator.
¨ Classically, the object oscillates between
±A, and its total energy, E, can have
any nonnegative value, including zero.
1
Eclassic = mω 02 A2
2
 Harmonic oscillator: allowed energies
59

¨ Normalizable yn(x) occur only for discrete values of

the energy En given by
Equally spaced levels: hf0
(
En = n + 1
2 ) hf0
n = 0, 1, 2,

Note that the ground

state energy is not 0.
 Example 3
60

¨ An electron in a harmonic oscillator is initially in the

n = 4 state. It drops to n = 2 state and emits a
photon with wavelength 500 nm. What is the
ground state energy of this harmonic oscillator?

( )
En = n + 12 hf 0

1240ev •nm
E4 − E2 = 2hf 0 = = 4.96eV
500nm
hc = 1240 eV·∙nm = 1.988
´ 10-25 J·∙m

( )
E0 = 0 + 12 hf 0 = 4.96eV / 4 = 1.24eV