Modern Physics

(PHY1008) Lab Manual VIT-AP

EXPERIMENT-6
Title of the experiment: Solar Cell
Objectives:
To obtain the I-V characteristics and fill factor of a solar cell

Equipment List:
1. Lamp
2. Solar cell
3. Measuring scale
4. Solar cell kit
Brief theoretical background:

Solar cell is a p-n junction. We know that a built-in voltage exists across a p-n junction, but this
voltage cannot deliver current in an external circuit. However, if light is shown on the junction,
there is current in the circuit. This effect is called the photovoltaic effect.

To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the junction be illuminated.
Under this condition, many excess electron-holes pairs are generated in the regions on either side
of the junction via absorption of photons. As the field within the junction is from n-side to p-side,
the excess minority carriers thus generated diffuse to the junction where they are carried across and
become majority carriers – the holes generated on n-side move towards p-side and the electrons
generated on p-side move towards n-side. If the junction is now open circuited the majority carrier
excess charge will build on both sides of the junction (positive charge on p-side and negative charge
on n-side) tending to lower the built-in-voltage from ɸo to some value (ɸo- Vo) as shown in Fig-1.
This change in built-in voltage i.e. Vo appears as a measurable P.D. across the junction, which
thereby behaves as if a source of voltage Vo. If the external circuit is closed, the current will
therefore flow therein. This current will continue so long as there is diffusion of excess electrons
from n-side and of excess holes from p-side. This is turn means that the current will flow so long
as the semi-conductor regions are illuminated. This explains how the incident light sets up the
current flow in the external circuit.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Complete the circuit connections as shown in the Fig-2 below. Then place the light source ‘S’ at
a distance of 12 cm from solar cell.
2. Now find out the open circuit voltage Voc by opening the connecting wire joining –ve of milli-
ammeter to the load (i.e. connecting +ve of cell to the +ve of voltmeter and –ve of cell to the –ve
of voltmeter).
3. Once again complete the circuit connections as shown in Fig-2.
4. Bring load selector switch at SC position and note the reading in the ammeter under short circuit
condition. This maximum current is called short circuit current Isc.
5. Now introduce the load resistance in the circuit (start from low value of resistance) and note
down the current and voltage reading.
6. Repeat the same with different values of load resistances.
7. Draw a graph between V and I (Fig-3).
8.Repeat the experiment with other intensities placing the light source at say, 15 and 18 cm.

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Modern Physics
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9. Calculate the fill factor of the solar cell by using the formula
I V
Fill factor  m m
ISC VOC

Where, Im and Vm are the maximum values of the current and voltage obtained from the I-V graph,
corresponding to maximum power, and Isc and Voc are the short circuit current and open circuit
voltage, respectively.

Laboratory report:
Contains tables wherein the observations are filled‐in by the student

Results:
Fill factor of the given solar cell = ........

Precautions:
1. See that the light from the source falls vertically on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that connections are made properly and ensure good contact.
3. Solar cell should not be short circuited for longer duration while taking down the reading Isc
otherwise the cell will have damaged permanently. (pointer knob should not be kept on SC position
point while instrument is not in use).

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Modern Physics
(PHY1008) Lab Manual VIT-AP

EXPERIMENT-7
Title of the experiment: WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
Objectives:
To determine the wavelengths of the given Light Emitting Diodes (LED s).

Equipment List:
Power supply, LED’s, multi meter.
milli ammeter, patch cords etc.,

Principle: Light emitting diode is special type of semiconductor diode. It consists of heavily doped
P type and N type direct band gap semiconductor. The LED absorbs electrical energy and converts
it into light energy. When the PN junction is in the forward biased the electrons from the N region
migrate into P region and combine with holes. This recombination of electrons and holes results in
the emission of photons.
hc
Formula: Energy of the photons emitted by LED =E = hυ = = eVK
λ
hc
The wavelength of LED is λ= nm
eVK

Where, h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js; c is Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m s-1
e is charge on electron = 1.602 x 10 -19 C; VK is the Knee voltage of the LED.
Experimental Procedure

 Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

 Keep the display in the regulated power supply (RPS) volts mode.
 Keep the current knob at the maximum position, keep the course volts and fine volts knobs at
the minimum position before switching ON the RPS.
 Include the LED1 in the circuit.
 Vary the voltage in convenient steps and note down the current I in the milli ammeter and the
voltage V in multi meter set in voltage mode (0 – 20 V DC). (Note down the few voltmeter
reading for current below 0.5 mA).
 Repeat the above procedure for the second and third LED’s
 Plot a graph of current versus voltage for each LED starting with true origin on x and y axis.
 Draw a tangent at the knee of the graph and extend the tangent to intercept the voltage axis. The
point of intersection is knee voltage VK.
 Note down the knee voltage for each LED from the graph.
 Calculate the wavelength of each LED using the relevant formula.

Result: The wavelength of LED’s are found to be

Sl. No Colour of LED Wavelength (nm)

1
2
3

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Diagram: Model Graph:

RR

Current mA
++ +
V + +
Ba _

LED 1

LED 2
-
- - -

- mA +
Knee Voltage
Voltage V V
hc
Formula: Energy of the PhotonE = hυ = = eV
λ

hc
The wavelength of LED is λ= nm
eVK

Where, h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js

c is Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m s-1
e is charge on electron = 1.602 x 10 -19 C
VK is the Knee voltage in V of the LED, (to be measured).

Table:
Sl No. LED 1 LED 2 LED 3
Colour: Colour: Colour:
Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current
V mA V mA V mA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Result: The wavelengths of LED’s

Colour of LED Wavelength (nm)

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Modern Physics
(PHY1008) Lab Manual VIT-AP

EXPERIMENT-8
Title of the experiment: BANDGAP OF A THERMISTOR
Objectives:

To determine the energy gap (Eg) of a Thermistor.

Equipment List:
Glass beaker, Thermistor, Multi meter, Thermometer.

Principle: A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. Thermistor’s are made of semiconducting

materials such as oxides of Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese and Zinc. They are available in the form of
beads, rods and discs.
b
The variation of resistance of thermistor is given by R  a e T where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants for

a given thermistor. The resistance of thermistor decreases exponentially with rise in temperature. At
absolute zero all the electrons in the thermistor are in valence band and conduction band is empty.
As the temperature increases electrons jump to conduction band and the conductivity increases and
hence resistance decreases. By measuring the resistance of thermistor at different temperatures the
energy gap is determined.

4.606  k  m
Formula : Eg  eV
1.6 1019
Where Eg = Energy gap of a given thermistor in eV.
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 x 10-23 J/K .
m = Slope of the graph.

Procedure:
 Make the circuit connection as shown in the figure.
 Keep the multi meter in resistance mode (200 Ω range).
 Insert the thermometer in a beaker containing thermistor and note down the resistance at room
temperature.
 Immerse the thermistor in hot water at about 90○C.
 Note down the resistance of the thermistor for every decrement of 2°C upto 60○C.
 Plot the graph of log R versus 1/T and calculate the slope ‘m’.
 Calculate the energy gap of a given thermistor using relevant formula.

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Diagram: Model Graph:

Multimeter Ω
A

Log R
Slope=AB/BC

Thermometer
C
B
AB×Scale on y-axis
Slope=
BC ×Scale on x-axis
Thermistor

1/T

Formula: Eg = 4.606  k  m Joules

4.606  k  m
Eg = eV
1.6 1019
Where Eg = Energy gap of a given thermistor in eV
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 x 10-23 J/K
m = Slope of the graph
Table:

Temp t○C Temp T(K) R Log R 1/T

(Ω)
85

Result: The energy gap (band gap) of the given thermistor is __________eV.

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Modern Physics
(PHY1008) Lab Manual VIT-AP

EXPERIMENT-9
Title of the experiment: Hysteresis Loop Tracer (B-H experiment)
Objectives:

• Study of the hysteresis loop for a given ferromagnetic material on a CRO using a Solenoid
• To determine the ferromagnetic constants: saturation magnetization, coercivity, retentivity,
permeability and susceptibility by tracing B-H curve.
Equipment List:

1. CRO
2. Ferromagnetic Sample
3. Solenoid
4. Hysteresis Loop Tracer

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Experimental Procedure

1. Take sample holder and insert a ferromagnetic sample in the lower side.
2. Now insert this sample holder in the solenoid.
3. Connect the mains cord to instrument (Hysteresis Loop Tracer) on the back side.
4. Before switch ‘On’ the Hysteresis Loop Tracer, connect DIN connector cable of sample holder
to the Input of the Hysteresis Loop Tracer.
5. Connect solenoid to Solenoid socket of Hysteresis Loop Tracer using three pin connector
cable.
6. Connect ‘Y’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop Tracer to CRO ‘Y’ terminal with the help of BNC
to 4 mm connector cable and other terminal of its cable to the ‘E’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop
Tracer.

7.Similarly connect ‘X’ terminal of Hysteresis Loop Tracer to CRO ‘X’ terminal with the help
of BNC to 4 mm connector cable and other terminal of its cable to the ‘E’ terminal of Hysteresis
Loop Tracer.
Note: Here red terminal of both cables should be connected to ‘Y’ and ‘X’ terminals respectively
of Hysteresis Loop Tracer and black terminal of both cable should be connected to ‘E’ terminal
to Hysteresis Loop Tracer.
8. Keep CRO in ‘XY’ mode.
9. After installation of complete setup, Switch ‘On’ the Hysteresis Loop Tracer and CRO.
10. Adjust the magnetic field intensity with the help of Magnetic Field knob of the tracer.
11. Here magnetic field in Gauss will displays on DPM in accordance to the intensity of magnetic
field.
12. Now the Hysteresis Loop of the taken sample will be displayed on CRO.
13. Adjust this Hysteresis Loop on the CRO screen using both Volts/Div knobs (X & Y) such
that you can read all parameters of this loop easily.

Observations:
Equipment diameter of pickup coil = 3.21 mm
gx = 100 (Total gain of both amplifier)
gy = 1 (Gain of amplifier)
0 = 1
Cross Sectional Area of Sample (As) = 1.074
Cross Sectional Area of pickup coil (Ac) = 7.088
Therefore, Area ratio = (As/ Ac) = 0.133 mm
Demagnetizing Factor (N) = C/a = 0.0029

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Calculation:

Loop Width = …… mm
= ……mm (after dividing by the multiplying factor 3) (As per calibration process loop width is
multiplied by 3)
Note: Here Loop Width is a distance between both intersection points on horizontal axis (x) in
mm which is multiplied by position of X channel’s Volt/Div knob.

Tip to Tip Height =…..V

Note: Here Tip to Tip Height is a distance between both peak points of loop on vertical axis (Y)
in cm (Division) which is multiplied by position of Y channel’s Volt/Div knob.

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Intercept = …..V
Note: Here Intercept is a distance between both intersection points on vertical axis (Y) in cm
(Division) which is multiplied by position of Y channel’s Volt/Div knob.

Results:

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Modern Physics
(PHY1008) Lab Manual VIT-AP

EXPERIMENT-10
Title of the experiment: Magnetic Susceptibility of a Paramagnetic Material
Objectives:
To determine the magnetic susceptibility () of the given paramagnetic solution using Quincke’s
method
Equipment List:

1. Electromagnet and power supply

2. Gauss meter and Hall probe
3. Paramagnetic salt (Manganese sulphate (MnSO4.H2O))
4. Digital balance
5. Specific gravity bottle and distilled water
6. Quincke’s tube
7. Travelling microscope
Theory:
The Quincke’s method is used to determine the magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic salt
dissolved in the aqueous solution. The magnetic dipoles of the paramagnetic material are
oriented in random direction without applying an external magnetic field. However, by the
application of external magnetic field, the dipoles try to orient themselves in the direction of
field. This minimizes the magnetic potential energy density of the system
1
U    a  H 2
2
: permeability of the solution
The change in the potential energy of the system causes a force of attraction between the
dipoles. The force experienced by the dipoles is the negative gradient of the change in potential
energy of the system
1 d
F 0  r  ra  H 2
2 dx
As r= +1
The force on the magnetic dipoles and hence on the liquid column of the paramagnetic salt
solution is
1 d
F 0     a  H 2
2 dx

The force acting on the total column of the salt solution is obtained by integrating this force
fordx height of the salt solution with its area of cross-section A, which is to be balanced with
the hydrostatic pressure on the liquid column
1
0  A H 2  A h  g
2

(The above equation is obtained after neglecting the density and susceptibility of air)
Rearranging the above relation, the susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is obtained as

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2 0  g h
 sol . 
B2

where B = 0H

Schematic of Quincke’s tube arrangement

Experimental Procedure

1. Prepare 50 ml MnSO4.H2O salt solution by mixing 10 g salt (concentration-1).

2. Measure the mass of empty specific gravity bottle (m1) using the digital balance.
3. A known volume of the water (like 25 ml) is taken into specific gravity bottle and
measure its mass (m2)
4. Remove the distilled water from the bottle, dry it and fill the bottle with same volume
(25 ml) of the salt solution, and measure its mass (m3).
5. Calculate the difference (m2-m1) and (m3-m1).
6. Calculate the density of the solution
 mass of solution  m3  m1
sol.   water  
 mass of water  m2  m1
7. The poles of the electromagnet are set to a distance of about 5 to 7 mm and the power
supply is switched on.
8. Switch on the gauss meter and insert the Hall probe at the center of the poles. Orient the
probe so that it gets exposed to maximum magnetic field and hence maximum value of
the field is measured in the gauss meter
9. Increase the current in the power supply of electromagnetic up to 4.0 A with a step of
0.25 A and measure the magnetic field in gauss meter. Tabulate the measurements in
Table.1. These readings are used to obtain the calibration curve (B vs. I) for the
electromagnet.
10. Insert the narrow limb of the quincke’s tube at the centre of the poles and pour the salt
solution in the wider limb till the level of solution in narrow tube comes to the middle of
the poles
11. Focus the travelling microscope on the meniscus of the solution and measure its height
12. Increase the current in electromagnet and observe the respective height and note down in
Table 2. Calculate the change in height of the solution different applied magnetic
13. Clean the quincke’s tube and repeat the experiment (steps 10, 11 and 12) for another
concentration of the solution by dissolving 20 g of salt in 50 ml of distilled water and
tabulate the observations in another Table similar to Table 2.

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Pre‐laboratory Assignment:
Student is expected to answer these questions to become eligible to carry out the experiment
1. What is a paramagnetic material?
2. What is susceptibility of a magnetic material?

Calculation:
Mass of empty specific gravity bottle, m1 =
Mass of specific gravity bottle with water, m2 =
Mass of specific gravity bottle with salt solution, m3 =
Density of water, water= 1000 kg/m3
 mass of solution  m3  m1
Density of solution, sol.   water   =..............
 mass of water  m2  m1

Draw the graph of B vs. I and obtain the calibration curve of the electromagnet

Draw the graph of h vs. B2 and obtain the slope (h/B2) of the graph

Using the slope of the graph h vs. B2, calculate the paramagnetic susceptibility of salt solution
2  g h
from the relation sol.  0 sol.
B2

Laboratory report:
Contains tables wherein the observations are filled‐in by the student
Table 1. Calibration of Electromagnet
S.No. Current, I Mangetic flux, S.No. Current, I Magnetic Flux,
B B

Table 2. Height of the solution for different magnetic flux

Meniscus Meniscus Change in
Magnetic
S.No. Current, I B2 Position position for height,
flux, B
for B=0, a B0, b h=b-a

Results:
Susceptibility of MnSO4.H2O = --------------

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Post‐lab Questions:
1. What are the sources of errors in the experiment?
2. How does the concentration affect the measurement?
3. What is the susceptibility of water?

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