.

, BASlC ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

CHAPTEf1 8
~5
f ..¡DSRSON, S. M., and PERRY, R. L. 1955. Agricultura! Process Engi·
~~ecrin~~ Juhn Wiley & 801:s, New York.
iíi;nKl:\!ER, 1.1.. and HERh.ll\'!ER, H. 1947.
. . . .
Air Conditioning.
..
Chemical
Air Conditioning
rruulish1ng Cu. New York.
N:S:i:-<GS, B.!( aud LEWIS, S. R. 1949. Air Couditioning and Refrigeration.
~ (>:u,riutLional Textbook Co., Scranton, Penna. . . ,
~NN!NGS, B. H. 1970. Environmental Engineering. International I'extbook INTRODUCTION
. Co Scranton, Penna.
r
r'ooLRlCH, W. R., and WOOLRICH, JR., W. R. 1957.
1'he Ronald Press Co., New York.
Air Conditioning. Air conditioning is that brand of engineering that provides us with
the technology to create the ambient conditions desired within an
t enclosed structure. A complete air-conditioning system rnust be
~.,. able to effectively control the temperature, the humidity, the air r.
movement, and the air purity within the enclosure. The actual
processes involved include:
(1) heating and cooling to control temperature,
(2) humidification and dehumidification for controlling humidity,
( 3) distribution of the conditioned air for controlling air move-
ment, and
( 4) filtration or sterilization for controlling air purity.
Determining the design criteria for air-conditioning requirements
was an art until 1911 when Dr. Willis H. Carrier presented his Iarnous
paper entitled Rational Psychrometric Formulae. lt was the work of
Dr. Carrier that finally put air-conditioning technology on a scientific
leve! and provided the basis for further study and development.
Since that time the air-conditioning industry has enjoyecl a rapid
growth rate. Manufacturers quickly recognized the need for air
conditioning for maintaining quality control in the production
processes. The developing food industry utilized air condítiouing to
store and preserve perishable products. Employers realized that the
productivity of workers could be increased by providing comfortable
surroundings.
Today , the principies of air conditioning are used in every facet of
our everyday lives. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the
student with a basic understanding of these principies. An under-
standing of this material will enable the student to design and analyze
a system and specify the mechanical equipment required for air
conditioning. Special attention will be given to (1) the storage of
fresh produce, (2) the production of plants and animals in confine-
ment, and (3) human cornfort.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The design of an air-conditioning system for an enclosed area in-
volves a dynamic set of conditions in which heat and moisture are
continuously being added to or removed from the structure at a
169
l"º BASIC ENGINEERING PRINC!PLES

given rute. The amounl of heat or moisturo produced or absorbed by

a plunt or animal depends on the type , size, age, and activity as well
AIR CONDITION!NG

One important criterion that needs to be careful!y considcred is

171

ns the envircnmental Iactors surrounding the product. At this point,
a brief study of the physiological behavior of plants and animals is
essential to knowledgably analyze and correctly determine design
requirernents.
the rate at which the product will cool. For exarnple, suppose you
have 2000 bushels of freshly pickeJ apples ata temperature of Sü"F -fu., 7 ºC
that yo u wis.h to cool ª.nd store at 31; f¿ The _apples, placed in ho:es
and stacked m the coolmg room, cannot be expected to cool to 31 F
within a matter of hours. Actually , it will take days befo re the

Behavior of Foodstuffs in Storage
All foodstuffs, frorn the moment they are obtained, undergo
deterioration if not properly handled and processed. Sorne items,
like nuts and seeds, can be maintained for a year or longer with no
· special treatment. Other products, such as meats, milk, fruits and
vegetables, have an extremely short useful storage life unless proper
environrnental conditions are provided for their storage.
At this point, it becomes essential to make a distinction between
the two majar methods of food preservation. One method of food
.l),m~¡.
··re:,. (~ <
entire lot is cooled. A rule of thumb that will enable you to malee
I reasonable calculations is as follows:
(1) 90% of the cooling will occur the first 5 days at a uniform
rate;
1 (2) the remaining 10% will occur at a uniform rate over the next
5 days.
Example 8.1 Compute the sensible heat load required to cool , s:
2000 bushels of apples from 80°F to 31 ºF. Apples weigh 4.5.J.b per 2Jo Q " O ·
ll bushel. Using the rule of thumb, the temperature differenLiai is': !.J1 ¡ 1. O I fl

J ó,ó.3Srt.3Uk
preservation is processing (freezing, drying , canning) which arrests ~ The fi,st 5 daIL l'/Ulf ~ ¡
ali living uctivity within and around the product. In many cases
the process itself effects a definite change in the tas te, color, and -:.'45·l6 ~1vshlx.~~S-~rrtperaturedrop == 90% (80:-31°F)
composition of the initial product , The other method of food ~v¡~
.¡¡, .!,
==0.90(49)
j preservation is cooling, which slows down or elimina tes the natural
I processes that cause product deterioration. The two major activities -:::. SS3' o
== 44 F
l .

4l slowed down or eliminated by cooling are: ! ~ Therefore the temperature drop each of the first 5 days will be 44/5
(1) deterioration causad by microorganisms and enzymes, and or 8.8°F/day. l.·/ ..
(2) wilting and shriveling caused by dehydration. The !ast 5 days:
Our discussion will be limited to those factors affecting the storage temperature drop = 10% (80° -31 ºF)
of produce under refrigerated conditions. = 5°F
Cooling Requirements of Foodstuffs The temperature drop each of the last 5 days will be 5/5 or 1 ºF/day. :,

l The cooling load levied by the fresh produce is the summation of

(1) the sensible heat required to cool the product and (2) the heat of
The sensible heat load, using Equation (8.1).,is:

l
'rcspiration generated by the living product. Q=WC(T;-Tr)
Sensible Heat.-The sensible heat load required to cool produce The first 5 days: ~ 11'
can be expressed mathematically as
_
.,,=tOtt\"'
( Btu ) 0
'r d~3'
1 day)
f
(8.l) Q - (90,000 lb) 0.87 lb- ºF (8.8 F/aay) hr
1 Q.=WC(T;-Tr) 1 24
J .where ~l8'-1t>Oi3TU": .ffON _..,. Q==28,700Btu/hr ::. i~O~-\ 1 _ ci .t\ \(y.!
- t\ " : l Z. 60D Jl.:..:The
'TU · - - o·,
Q, ==sensible heat load, Btu/hr
= i.~'l ToN~ 3.s1, n.
last 5 days: )

G:~:)
IV ==total weight of the product, lb/day
C ==specific heat of the product, Btu/° F-lb
T; ==initial temperature of product, ºF
{TON Q == (90,000 lb) ( 0.87 lb~t~F) (l.0°F/day)
: S-41 kW t'
r·.
T1 = final temperature of product, ºF
Q == 3260 Btu/hr : 1S~· \8 kN
172 BAS!C ENG !:si EERING PRJNC!PLES
A!R COND!TION!NG

Heat of Respiration.-Fruits and vegetables after they are harvested Example 8.2 Compute the daily heat of respiration generated by
continue as living tissue carrying on the processes of respiration and the apples in Exarnple 8 .l. The heat of respiration Ior apples is as
ripening. Respiration requires an uptake of oxygen from the en- listed.
vironment, while ripening converts sorne of the carbohydrates to
sugars, The oxygen taken in by respiration is used to oxidize the 32°F - 660-880 Btu's/ton-24 hr
sugars, producing carbon dioxide, water, and heat. The general 40°F -1100-1760
equation that reflects this process can be written as
60°F - 4400-6600
(8.2) 80°F - 6600-15,400
The actual heat produced is called the heat of respiration, values of From Example 8 .1, the temperature of the apples each day is as
which can be obtained from Table 8.1. At low temperatures, the illustrated in Fig. 8 .l.
respiration prccess is considerably reduced increasing the storage life
of fresh produce. Nonliving foods, such as meat, eggs, and fish, do
not carry on the process of respiration . 1--FIRSI S DAIS--'---LASI S DAIS ---J
-"~4,i,· 10 1

TABLE 8.1 · i:,~s·= 3l 1

1
- 60 1
APPROXIMATE RATE OF EVOLUTION OF HEAT BY CERTAIN FRESH FRUITS
ANO VEGETABLES WHEN STO RED AT THE TEMPERATURES INDICATED 1
1
Temp. Heat of Respiration _%_or_c:.;º:,::.º:,:t 1
Commodity ºF Btu/(Ton)(24 Hr) Reference 97_,
¡¡ 'f
0
ª:__....!I l 1'
'.:_H
r
Apples 32 660 to 880 Magness et al. (1926)
40 1,110-to 1,760 20
60 4,400 to 6,600
85 6,600 to 15,400
Lettuce 32 640 Scholz et al. (1963)
40
60
7,400
22,660 !UMHR Of
6
DAIS 'º
Oran ges 32 690 to 900 Haller et al. (1931) FIG. 8.1. TYPICAL COOLING RATE OF PRODUCE
40 1,400
60 5,000
80 8,000
Day 3
On day 3, the temperature of the apples is 54°F. From the data
Peaches 32 850 to 1,370 Haller et al. (1931)
40 1,440 to 2,030
given in Example 8.2, the heat of respiration at 54°F by extrapola-
60 7 ,260 to 9,310 tion is approximately 4500 Btu/ton-24 hr. The total amount
80 1 7, 930 to 22,460 generated is
Potatoes, Irish 32 440 to 880 Scholz et al. (1963)
Cobbler 40 1,100 to 1,760 4500 Btu \ ( ton }
heat of respiration = (90 ,000 lb) ( ton-24 hr ) lb
70 2,200 to 3,520 2000
Sweet potatoes 40 880 to 1,320 Hasselbring et al. (1915) heat of respiration = 8437 Btu's/hr :: C,, TO T6('J ·:;. )... 4 7 ln\J1
85 6,600 to 8,800
Animals in Confinement
Toma toes, 32 o Scholz et al. (1963)
mature green 40 130 As peo ple engaged in agriculture strive for greater efficiency and
60 2,570 better quality in livestock production, increased attention is being
given to more control of the animal's environment. In the past only
........................ ~rt~Qi~~

174 BASIC ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AIR CONDITIONING !.75

100
partial control has been commonly practiced by providing shelters or
windbreuks to alleviate the more severe elements of the weather. 90
'l'oday , however, enc!osed systems virtually elimina te weather factors EVAPORA!ION
::;; 10
und approach optimum conditions fer animal productivity. Such ~
o
confinement units are becoming more popular in animal production ~ 10
methods, particularly in the poultry and hog industries.
Proper design of an animal confinement unit is contingent on (1)
knowing the optimum productive environment fer a particular animal
and ( 2) being a ble to determine the heat and moisture they produce.
\Vork by Hazen and Mangold (Fig. 8.2) shows the deviation from -X 40

optirnum performance of hogs when exposed to various average daily

temperatures. Similar information can be obtained fer other anirnals
~ 30 1>,,
;~
.
20
when designing confinement units. (
10

-
e
o +06 40 60 10 100
~ -r
~
o
+0 4
ENVIROMMENIAL lEMPERA!UR[
X From Bond et al. ( 1959)
4
u +o 1 FIG. 8.3. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PARTI·

= 11-50 LIS TION OF HEAT OISSIPATEO BY HOGS

---
4
o ............
»: <,
- -o 1
-: Although the total heat loss varíes with the age and type of animal,
u
X
-H
50-100 LIS~ the relationship of the curves is similar fer ali animals. Figures 8.4,
8.5, and 8.6 present curves showing the amount of sensible and latent
4
%
u
-0.6 heat that can be expected from chickens, hogs, and cattle, respec-
JO 10 60 JO 10 !O 100
AVERAGE DrnT TENPERATURE -'f tively, under various ambient temperatures.
l
From Hazen and Mangold ( 1960) l
LAIEHI HEA! • '/,
FIG. 8.2. OEVIATION OF AVERAGE OAILY GAIN OF
HOGS WITH TEMPERATURE
10 ~O !O
'º

The amount of total heat produced by livestock and poultry in-

creases with body weight and animal activity and decreases with ·:I! , f--+-=---=±--ir"i-;;:-t-1 ~ ªº
1--++-+---i~--t-~t-""',d-~t-"'i~ 101---+~-+-~~~--"'c-----~--1
maturity and higher air temperatures.
Part of the total heat produced is sensible and results from the
temperature differential existing between the animal and the sur-
rounding air. The mechanisms by which the heat is transmitted to
the surrounding airare convection, radiation,·and conduction. o&....-..~..:...~~~~.:....~~--
. The remainder of the total heat produced is latent. It is present in 20 'º 60
IEXPERAI URE - 'F
10 'º 20 ,o 10 10 ~o
SE !Sl8L[ KEAI - '!,
the air exhaled by the animal and appears in the torm of water vapor From Ota and McNally (1961)
as a result of the normal respiratory process. The partition of the From Longhouse et al. ( 1960)
total heat into a sensible and a latent portien as a function of FIG. 8.4. AMOUNTS OF TOTAL, SENSIBLE, ANO LATENT HEAT OF CHICKENS AS
, temperature is illustrated by the work of Bond et al. (Fig. 8.3). A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
176 BAS!C ENG !NEE!1JNG PR!NC!PLES A!Ii. CONDlTIONING 177
"º ----------.--.....----, amount of heat, therefore, is:

_, .. ,1-----------+---l latent heat = (no.. of animals)(latent heat/hog)

-. ,o•f = (200 hogs)( 460 Btu/hr-hog)
= 92,000 Btu's/hr
"º sensible heat = (no. of animals)(sensible heat/hog)
= 200 hogs (110 Btu/hr-hog)
IOO
= 22,000 Btu's /hr

'" 1 ~O

'°º' 1 u,~ 1
l OG
1
~ 1~1
IIO
"'
... IU
uo, U!CIII
lOt
u u:
1U 100
Human Comfort
Whether man originates from the frozen north or the equatorial
From Bond et al. ( 1959) regions, the temperature range in which he feels comfortable is be-
FIG. 8.5. AMOUNTS OF SENSIBLE ANO LATENT HEAT OF HOGS AS A FUNCTION tween 60° and 80° F. Even though rnost of the regions of the wor!cl
OF TEMPERATURE do not offer temperatures continuously in this range, man has over-
come the extremes in weather conditions by the judicious use of
clothing, shelters, and energy sources. Today , through the use of
Example 8.3 Determine the amount of sensible and latent heat
technology, man can live in the cold, blustering winters of Siberia as
procluced by 100 head of hogs in a building that is at 90°F. The
well as the hot, parched summers in the desert and enjoy a dwelling
average weight of the hogs is 200 lb.
that can provide a comfortable environment year round.
From Fig. 8.5, the arnount of latent and sensible heat produced
The Human Body as a Source of Heat.-Heat is released from the
per hour for a 200-lb hog is 460 and 110 Btu's, respectively. The total
body of a person primarily by evapuration, convection and radiation ,
Usually , in a room, the body and skin of a person is at a higher tem-
perature than that of the ambient air or of the walls and objects
around him. The amount of heat lost by the modes mentioned above
is dependent on the surface area, the air film coefficient, the amount
..o
and type of clothes worn, and the differential between the individual 's
..... temperature and the surrounding temperature .
--
..s:
The heat-control arrangements within the human body are very
sensitive and by virtue of the opposing nature of two principal control
devices, the interna! temperature of ali healthy individuals remains
relatively constant a:t 98.6°F. One of the body-control processes is
metabolism, which slowly oxidizes digested food and in turn
produces heat used to keep the body temperature above that of the
,- surrounding atmosphere. The other body-temperature control
-<
u.;
process is heat dissipation produced by either evaporation or perspira-
= . tion. Within the body , these two processes are controlled by the
cardiovascular system, which varíes the rate of blood circulation near
the skin surface as the surrounding air temperature changes. This
10 lo 5O 7O 9O physiological mechanism serves as a control device to either retard or
AIR TEIHERATURE-'f increase the body heat loss as may be needed for comfort.
From Yeck and Steuiart (1959) As was previously mentioned, the heat dissipated from the human
FIG. 8.6. TOTAL ANO LATENT HEAT PRODUCED BY
body is composed of latent and sensible heat losses. Table 8.2 lists
BEEF ANO OAI RY CATTLE AS A FUNCTION OF sorne values of the amount of heat and moisture produced by
TEMPERATURE
individuals in various activities.
178 BASIC ENG!NEERING PR!NC!PLES A!Il CONDITIONJNG 179
TABLE 8.2 express quantitatively the amounts of moisture or heat entering or
RATES OF HEAT GAIN FROM. OCCUPANTS IN CONOITIONEO SPACES
leaving the building at any given time.

Deb'Tee of Activity 'Total Heat Sensible Heat

Moisture Balance
Latent Heat
As was mentioned earlier, a steady-state condition must exist in
Seated 350 225 105
Office worker 450 250 200 order to maintain the moisture inside a building at a constant leve\.
Light work 750 275 475 This requires an intricate balance in which the quantities entering the
Moderately heavy work 1000 375 625 building must equal those leaving. The processes through which
Heavy work 1450 580 870
moisture is added or removed are illustrated in Fig. 8.8.
Souxce: ASHRAE Guide (1967).

In addition to the data listed in Table 8.2, Fig. 8.7 is provided to il-
lustrate the variation in latent and sensible heat production as a
function of the dry-bulb temperature.

MOIS TURE MOi STU RE ~OIS TUR[

1+1 l+I
T RAMSfERREO MOIST UR [ f ROM TRANSFERRED
THROUCH (-) fRO~ AUXILIAR! 1-1 3T
1 000
WALLS PROOUCT [OUIPM[NT V[NIILA!I IC
!00 5000
~
-';;'::
- 800
(+11 l 1-) I l m

--
100 X l+l 1-1
1000
: ; roo
;g soo 4000 ~
=
g
X
500

:. E
X~
100
:e " 'ºº
JOOO Q
o
~ ~
~~ a.a.
ª ~ ~ºº
400 FIG. PROCESSES THROUGH WHICH MOISTURE MAY BE ADDEO TO OR RE·
-'.!';
zooo 2 ... MOVED FROM A CONTROLLED ENVI RONMENT
X 200
! 00
1000§
Although any sign convention can be used , the one chosen in this
= chapter is a plus sign (+) for moisture added anda minus sign (-) for
CO
ORl BULB
iO
HMPE!ITUR!
80
ºf
'ºº 'º 'º
ORr 8UL8 TEMPERATU!E
10
'F
100
moisture removed. Use of a sign convention together with a
From ASHRAE Guide ( J 956)
schematic diagram is useful far setting up and solving the moisture-
FIG. 8.7. VARIATION OF MOISTURE ANO SENSIBLE HEAT PROOUCEO BY INOI·
balance equation.
VIOUALS AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE ANO ACTIVITY Mathernatically, the moisture balance equation can be expressed
as:
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (8.3)
In arder to maintain the inside environment at a controlled tern- where
perature and moisture leve!, a steady-state condition must exist. At
M1w = moisture transferred through the walls
the same time we must realize that the amounts of moisture and
Mpr = moisture added or absorbed by the product
sensible heat being added or taken away from the enclosure are
dependent on the activities within the building; the ventilation rate, Mua = moisture transferred by ventilating air
Maux = moisture added or removed by auxiliary equipment.
the amount of insulation present, and the continually varying outside
conditions. We will approach the problem by developing a moisture Moisture Transferred Through Walls.-The analyses required to
balance equation and a heat balance equation. These equations will determine moisture transfer through walls is beyond the scope of this
180 BAS!C ENGJNF.ERfNG PfUNCfPLES
book and therefore will not be covered. In most cases, a moisture
transfer can be eliminated by installing a vapor barrier, such as
polyethylene, within the wall. Nevertheless, the term should always
be considered when arriving at the steady-state conditions for
moisture equilibrium. In those cases where moisture transfer through
the walls appears to be important, seek help from a competent
builder or design engineer.
Moisture Adcled or Absorbed by Product.-Moisture may either be
added to or absorbed from the environment within an enclosure
depending upon the nature of the product. In the case of living
prod ucts (animals, fresh fruit, etc.) respiration takes place, con-
tinuously adding moisture to the surroundings. Non-living products
(wood, dried grain , tobacco leaves , etc.) may either give off moisture
or absorb it, depending upon their moisture content with respect to
the moisture leve! of the surroundings. For example, dried tobacco
leaves housed in a high-humidity chamber would absorb moisture
from the surroundings.
Moisture Transferred by Ventilating Air.-Ventilating air passed
through a building can either add or remove moisture depending on
the relative differences between the inside and outside conditions.
In the case of winter ventilation, the cold outside air has a low
rnoisture content and can absorb large quantities of moisture as it is
heated during entrance into the building. As the air leaves the build-
ing, it carries the moisture with it , removing moisture from the
building. The arnount of moisture removed, of course, depends on
the outside and inside conditions, as illustrated in Fig. 8 .9.
Moisture Added or Removed by Auxiliary Equipment.-The term
AIR CONDITIONING un
auxiliary equipment as used in this chapter refers to devices that add
or remove moisture, that is, humidifiers and dehumidifiers. Due to
their cost, such devices are not normally found in livestock con fine-
ment systems. As a result, steady-state conditions are rnet by utilizing
the ventilating air to remove the net effect of the moisture transferred
through the walls and produced by the animuls. In such cases, the ..l
moisture term for auxiliary equipment drops out and Equation (8.3) í:
is red uced to:
(8.5) ,..
If the amount of ventilating air is fixed or limited, humidifiers and ¡·;
dehumidifiers may be the only means available for obtaining steady-
state moisture conditions. An example of this is a human dwelling.
Normally, the air exchanges resulting from entering or leaving and
leaks within the structure are sufficient for providing an adqeuate
amount of fresh air to the occupants. In these cases, humidifiers or
dehumidifiers can effectively meet the steady-state conditions needcd
for providing comfortable moisture levels.
Heat Balance
·· Onée the rnoisture-balance equation is satisfied , a steady-state
condition must be established for the sensible heat entering and
leaving the enclosure. The processes through which heat is added or
removed are illustrated in Fig. 8.10.
HEAT lRAHSfERREO
OUE 10 SOLAR lOAO 7
/ (t)

HfAT fROM HfAIINC ~[A f

(t) (-)
HOT HEAT fRON PROOUC T OR lRANSf'IR[O

HI
TRANSf E RR[D (-) ~ECHAHICAL COOLIHC 1+) !T
-01 S TU RE T HROUGH [OUIPM[Ml
1 t+I [OUIPN[HT Y[NTltA JI ~C

(-) l
H Ol 01 N C WALLS A'~

C APAC I T T 1 ( +) 1 (t)
I

FIG. 8.9. MOISTURE·HOLDING CAPACITY DEPENOS ON OUT· FIG. 8.10. THE PROCESSES THROUGH WHICH HE:AT MAY BE AOOEO TO OR RE·
SIDE ANO INSIOE CONOITIONS MOVED FROM A CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENT
180 BAS!C ENG!NEERING PRINC!PLES A!R COND!TIONING 181

book and therefore will not be covered. In most cases, a moisture
transfer can be eliminated by installing a vapor barrier , such as
polyethylene, within the wall. Nevertheless, the term should always
be considered when arriving at the steady-state conditions for
moisture equilibrium , In those cases where moisture transfer through
the walls appears to be important, seek help from a competent
builder or design engineer.
Moisture Added or Absorbed by Product.-Moisture may either be
added to or absorbed from the environment within an enclosure
depending upon the nature of the product. In the case of living
products (animals, fresh fruit , etc.) respiration takes place, con-
tinuously adding moisture to the surroundings. Non-living products
(wood, dried grain , tobacco leaves, etc.) may either give off moisture
or absorb it , depending upon their moisture content with respect to
the moisture leve! of the surroundings. For example, dried tobacco
leaves housed in a high-humidity chamber would absorb moisture
from the surroundings.
Moisture Transfen:ed by Ventilating Air.-Ventilating air passed
through a building can either add or remove moisture depending on
the relative differences between the inside and outside conditions.
In the case of winter ventilation, the cold outside air has a low
rnoisture content and can absorb large quantities of moisture as it is
heated during en trance into the building. As the air leaves the build-
ing, it carries the moisture with it, removing moisture from the
building. The amount of moisture removed, of course, depends on
the outside and inside conditions, as il!ustrated in Fig. 8 .9.
Moisture Added or Removed by Auxiliary Equipment.-The term
auxiliary equipment as used in this chapter refers to devices that add
or remove moisture, that is, humidifiers and dehumidifiers. Due to
their cost, such devices are not normally found in livestock confine-
ment systems. As a result, steady-state conditions are met by utilizing
the ventilating air to remove the net effect of the rnoisture transferred ,-
through the walls and produced by the anirnals. In such cases, the
moisture term for auxiliary equipment drops out and Equation (8.3)
is reduced to:
(8.5)
If the amount of ventilating air is fixed or limited , humidifiers and
dehumidifiers may be the only means available for obtaining steady-
state moisture conditions. An example of this is a human dwelling.
N orrnally, the air exchanges resulting from entering or leaving and
leaks within the structure are sufficient for providing an adqeuate
amount of fresh air to the occupants. In these cases, humidifiers or
dehumidifiers can effectively meet the steady-state conditions needed
far providing comfortable moisture levels.
Heat Balance ·•
- Once the moisture-balance equation is satisfied, a steady-state l
condition must be established for the sensible heat entering and
leaving the enclosure. The processes through which heat is added or
removed are illustrated in Fig. 8.10.
H[Al IRANSf[RREO
OUE TO SOLAR LOAD 7
/ (t)

HOI FROM HOTIHC ~(Al

lt)
HEA I HEA I FRON PROOUC f OR TRANSf~~RfO
IRANSf E RRf O {-) M[CHANICAL COOLINC 1+) 31
~OISIURE THROUCH [OUIPM[HT
(-) 1 1 (+) [QUIPM[NT V[NlltAll~C

(-) l
H O L 01 M C ULLS A'~
CAPAC I l Y 1 (t) (
1 (t)
~ ¡

FIG. 8.9. MOISTURE-HOLDING CAPACITY OEPENOS ON OUT· FIG, 8.10. THE PROCESSES THROUGH WHICH HEAT MAY BE ADOEO TO OR RE·
SIOE ANO INSIOE CONOITIONS MOVED FRO~ A CONTROLLED-ENVI RONMENT
182 BASIC ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES
Mathernatically, these processes expressed in equation form appear as:
± Qtw ± Qpr ± Qva + Qrne + Qsr ± Qaux = O (8.4)
where
Qtw = heat transferred through the walls, ceilings, etc.
Qpr = heat added or absorbed by the product
Qua = heat transferred by ventilating air
Q,,,. = heat added by mechanical equipment, such as, lights,
motors, etc.
Q,r= heat added by solar radiation
Q.ux = heat added or removed by auxiliary equipment
Heat Transferred Through Walls.-The amount of heat transferred
through walls, ceilings, floors, etc. is a function of the materials
composing the wall, the area being considered, and the temperature
differential between the outside and inside conditions. A full dis-
cussion of the topic is presented in Chapter 6.
A properly insulated building can provide a considerable saving
in énergy for both heating and cooling. In addition, it is essential for
preventing condensation on wall surfaces and for providing com-
fortable settings for human occupancy.
Heat Added or Absorbed by Product.-The amount of heat added
or absorbed by the products is dependent upon the temperature of
the environment and the characteristics of the product. In the case of
human beings and animals, the amount of sensible heat can be de-
termined by empirical curves, sorne of which appear in this chapter.
For inanimate objects, the amount of heat added to or absorbed from
the surroundings is a function of the weight of the object, its specific
heat, and the temperature differential between the object and the
surroundings. For further information see Chapter 7, Equation (7.5).
Heat Transferred by Ventilating Air.-The amount of heat trans-
ferred by ventilating air can be determined by the use of either
Equation (7.4) or Equation (7.5). As was mentioned earlier, ventila-
tion in sorne buildings is used as a means of removing moisture from
the enclosure.
The ventilation rate is a function of the moisture-holding capacity
of the air passing through the enclosure. As the air enters the
building it not only absorbs moisturé but also sensible heat which, in
the case of winter ventilation, is wasted to the outside air. This
concept can be clearly seen in Fig. 8.11, where the horizontal com-
ponent of the triangle is a measure of the sensible heat wasted to the
outside air.
Methods that could be used to reduce the amount of heat wasted
¡
AIR CONDITIONING 183
to the atmosphere in the case of winter ventilation are (1) reduce the
ventilation rate and install a dehumidifier to remove the exccss
moisture or (2) utilize a heat exchanger which could be used to heat
the incoming air.
Heat Added by Mechanical Equipment.-Lights, motors, generators,
etc., when installed inside the building emit amounts of heat that
substantially raise the inside temperature. When heating is required,
this source of heat can be .used advantageously. In the case of cool-
ing, however, every attempt should be made to eliminate this source
of heat if possible. Table 8.3 lists the heat output equivalents of
various sources of heat.
TABLE 8.3
HEAT EQUIVALENTS OF VARIOUS SOURCES
Machinery with motor in room =
motor hp)
(2544 Btu/hr)
( efficiency
Machinery with motor outside room = (motor hp)(2544 Btu/hr)
Electric lights = (kilowatts)(3413 Btu/hr)
Source: ASHRAE Guide (1967).
Heat Added by Solar Radiation.-The heat load created by direct
and diffuse solar radiation raises the -outside surface of building con-
siderably and tends to warm the interior of the building. This heat
load can be used advantageously during winter conditions. In warm
climates, however, the solar radiation loads cause the environment
within buildings to be less desirable and steps must be taken to re-
duce or remove the additional heat transmitted into the building.
Computing the solar radiation load of a building involves many
complex interrelationships including the solar intensity , angle of sur-
face with relation to sun, and diffuse sky radiation. A simplified
method, called the Sol-Air Temperature, has been devised by the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers to compute the solar heat load. Further treatment of this
subject is beyond the scope of this test. A detailed description of the
Sol-Air Temperature Method can be found in the ASHRAE Cuide
1966 or in Esmay's, Principies of Animal Environment.
Solar radiation heat loads can be ignored when designing con-
trolled environmental structures during winter conditions. The rea-
son for this is that the most critica! requirement during winter con-
ditions is heating, the greatest demand occurring between 2 A.M. and
6 A.M.; the largest heat load created by solar radiation occurs be-
tween 2 P.M. and 4 P.M.
 18·1 BASIC ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES '· AIR CONDITIONING

Heat Aclcled or Removed by Auxiliar-y Equipment.-The term aux-
iliury equipment as used in this text refers to heating fumaces or
mechanical refrigeration units. In the heat-balance equation, this is
the only term that can be controlled and allows us to determine the
amount of heat that needs to be aclded or removed to provide the
required environmental conditions. Frorn this analysis, the size of
the heating or cooling unít can be cletermined.
Design of the Ventilation, Heating, and Cooling Equipment
Calculating and sizing ·the equipment required to create the envi-
ronmental control features desired in a building can be best dernon-
strated by presenting a typical design problem.
The first step is to select the maximum relative humidity that can
be tolerated in the building. Norrnally, the maximum relative humid-
ity in livestock units is between 70°F and 80°F. Humidities higher
than this can create moisture problems in the building, condensation
on the wall surfaces, and uncomfortable conditions for the occupants.
The next step is to select an outside and an inside design tempera-
ture. The mínimum and maximum design temperatures can be ob-
tained from weather data pertinent to your location.
After these basic determinations have been met, we can proceed
with the design. A typical design problem is as follows:
Example 8.4 Determine the ventilation and heating requirements
for a 1000 swine finishing building located in Eastern Maryland.
Vapor barriers in the walls prevent any moisture from entering the
building-no auxiliary equipment is available for moisture removal.
The motors and electric lights in the building produce 5000 Btu's/hr.
The average-size hog weighs 150 lb. Heat transmission through the
walls is 150,000 Btu's/hr.
Outside Conditions
(1) Compute the amount of latent heat produced.
(2) Convert latent heat toan equivalen t. moisture leve!.
(3) From psychometric chart determine the water-holding capac-
ity of ventilating air.
( 4) Determine air flow rate.
(5) Convert to cubic feet per minute (cfm) to arrive at fan size.
Step lA. Compute amount of latent heat produced.
From Fig. 8.5, the latent heat production of a 150 lb hog at 60°F is
195 Btu's/hr. For 1000 hogs, the total latent heat production is
Q L = (latent heat per hog)(no. of hogs)
QL = (195 Btu's/hr-hog)(lOOO hogs)
QL = 195,000 Btu's/hr
Step 2A. Convert latent heat to equivalent moisture leve!. Table
7.2 shows that at 98°F (temperature of respired air), 1035 Btu's are
required to vaporize l lb of water.
The equivalent moisture expressed as latent heat is
latent heat production
moisture produced =
latent heat of vaporization @ 98 0 F
195,000 Btu's/hr
1035 Btu's/lb H20
moisture produced = 188.4 lb H20/hr
Step 3A. Determine water-holding capacity of ventilating air.
l. The water-holding capacity of the ventilating air is the difference
between the moisture contents of the incoming and exhaust air.
l
1
l
From the psychrometric chart (Fig. 8.11),

Inside Conditions
25°F dry-bulb temperature l'
60°F dry-bulb temperatura 1
40% relative humidity 7 0% relative humidity
The first step needed to solve this type of problem is to establish
moisture equilibrium in the building. An examination of the mois- 0.0011\
ture balance equation shows that al! the moisture produced must be
I bs H ¡O

/ibü
· removed by the ventilating air.
+M/.: +Mp, - Mva - Mix =o
so that e.e O 11

25' F 6 O' F
The procedure for determining the amount of ventilating air and ORY-BULB TEMPERATURE ('f)
fan size needed is as follows:
FIG. 8.1 !. WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY OF VENTILATING Al R

j
 "',;
(;
. ... ...

. .·
[~f1 :
1lm~1l«J6,

t1,noo lt A.ki.* lhr * 0-~4~=3H k1 Air,Sc1.¡¡

hr %00 5 l~ s
12,:1. y1é * o. OZBJ6h-5* lb -=- o.1b0?311v13
(~ \. Seco I re' H s 'f~ !oj"""1:"lc u
 AIR CONDITJONING 187
186 BASIC ENGINEERJNG PRINCIPLES

The specific volume for the inlet conditions is 12.2 cu ft per lb of

water-holding capacity = rnoisture
exhaust air
= 0.0077 ~
lb D.A.
water-holding capacity = 0.0065 lb H20
lbD.A.
Step 4A. Determine air flow rate.
The air flow rute can be obtained by dividing the moisture pro-
duced by the wate.r·holding capacity of the ventilating air.
t -_ ----:-;---;---:rn-:-:-o_i_s
~u ir f].ow rae t:..:.u:::r..:.e...;:p::r..:o..:d..:u.:::c::ed:_
moisture-holding capacity of ventilating air
0.0065 lb H20/lb D.A.
f air flow rate = 29,000 lb D.A./hr
. Step 5A. Determination of fan size.
The fan size required to remove the moisture from the building de-
pends upon whether inlet or exhaust fans are chosen. An examina-
bon of the psychrometric chart points out the difference in the
vo'.ume occupied by 1 lb of dry air at inlet and exhaust conditions
(F1g. 8.12).
= _ ~oisture of dry air , whereas the specific volume of the exhaust air is 13_:¿5 cu ft
mlet air per lb of dry air. Obviously, the exhaust air occupies more volume
than the inlet air and therefore it would require larger fans to remove
- 0.0012 lb H20
lb D.H. the sume weight of dry air through the building per hour. This can
be illustrated by computing the size of both inlet and exhaust fans.
Size of inlet fans
fan size = (air flow rate) (specific volume)
= (29,000 lb D.A./hr)(l2.2 cu ft/lb D.A.)(l hr/60 min)
= 5900 cfm
Size of exhaust fans
_ fan size = (air flow rate) (specific volume)
= (29,000 lb D.A./hr)(13.25 cu ft/lb D.A.)(l hr/60 min)
= 6620 cfm
Exhaust fans are usually ernployed in livestock buildings because
they eliminate the need for duct work required to properly distribute
the air from inlet fans .
Once the conditions for moisture equilibrium have been satisfied,
the conditions for heat balance rnust be rnet. A schematic diuzram
(Fig. 8.13) shows the heat sources as follows: "'

6 O' f -OH

t O ME + OPL 0AUX·?

t (+)t !(-)
25'f
AUXILIARY
EOUIPMENT
25' f 6 O• f ~
ORY-8ULB T EMPERATURE ('fl
FIG. 8.13. SCHEMATIC DlAG RAM OF THE HEAT GAINS ANO LOSSES IN A UVE·
FIG. 8.12. VOLUME OCCUPIED BY DNE POUNO OF ORY AIR STOCK BUILDING
AT INTAKE ANO EXHAUST CONOITIONS
 13AS!C ENGJNEERING PRINCIPLES AIR CONDITIONING
188

The heat balance equation is Solving for Q.u" yields,

+ Qm• + Qp, + Q/ - Q,w - Qua ± Qaux =O Qaux = +63,000 Btu/hr

The procedure for determining the type and size of the auxiliary According to the sign convention, a plus sign ( +) indica tes heat be·
equipment is as follows: ing added to the building. The type and size of auxiliary equiprnent
(1) Compute the sensible heat produced by the animals. needed, therefore, is a furnace capable of delivering at least 63,000
(2) Compute the sensible heat transferred by the ventilating air, Btu's/hr. .
(3) Determine the heat transmitted through the walls, produced The same type of analysis follows for determining cooling require-
by mechanicu.l equipment, and created by solar radiation. ments in warm climates.
( 4) Substitute the terms into the heat balance equation and solve
for size and type of auxiliary equipment needed.
PROBLEMS ¡
Step lB. Compute sensible heat produced by animals. t:

From Fig. 8.5, the sensible heat production of a 150 lb hog at 60°F 8.1 Compute the amount of sensible heat that needs to be removed to cool 2 •..
is 325 Btu's/hr. For 1000 hogs, the total sensible heat production
tons of lettuce taken from the fielcl at 60°F to a storage ternperature of ~·
is
8.2
40ºF. The specific heat of lettuce is 0.91 Iltu's/lb·ºF.
Compute the heat of respiration generated by the lettuce (Exarnple 8.1) on
.
Q, = (sensible heat per hog) (no. of hogs) the ñrst day of storage. How much heat is generated on the teuth day? t
1
= (325 Btu's/hr-hog)(lOOO hogs) 8.3 Compute ·the latent, sensible, and total heat produced by 20 machinists
Q, = 325,000 Btu's/hr performing moderately heavy work in a shop at 70ºF. ~

'j
8.4 Calculate the amount of moisture produced by 10,000 leghorn laying hens
Step 2B. Sensible heat transferred by ventilating air. housed at 70°F. ~
An examination of Fig. 8.11 illustrates that a given amount of sen- 8.5 Compute the air flow rate required to remove 207 ,000 Btu's per hour of
sible heat is wasted to the outside air for each pound of dry air being latent heat from a livestock building maintained at 80% relative humidity
used for moisture removal. The amount of sensible heat removed is: and 60°F. The outside temperature is at 20°F and 30% relative humidity.
8.6 What size exhaust fans are needed to move 30,000 lb of dry air per hour f1
Qua = \VC (T¡ - T0) (7.5) through a building in which the inside conditions are 70% relative humidity ¡
The air flow rate W was determined in Step 4A and is 29,000 lb and 50°F? ¡
D.r\./hr. 8.7 Compute the amount ot sensible heat produced by 100 head of dairy cattle 11
at 40ºF. Average weight per cow is 1200 lb. •¡
Q
ua
= (29 000 lb D.A.)
' hr
(o . 24 lbD.A.-ºF
Btu ) (60°F- 25°F) 8.8 How much sensible heat is removed frorn the building as a result of the
ventilation rate computad in Problem 8.5.
Qua = 243,600 Btu's/hr 8.9 Compute the amount of ventilation required to remove the heat of respira·
tion frorn 10 tons of apples stored at 34°F and 90% relative humidity. 'l'he
Step 3B. Determining type and size of auxiliary equipment. outside conditions are at 20°F and 40% relative humidity. 1
The final step is to substitute the heat values into the heat-balance 8.10 Does the ventilation requirement increase or decrease if the relative hurnid-
equation and determine what value is required to provide equilibrium ity inside a building is allowed to increase? Assume outside conditions are
conditions. constan t. lllustrate your answer with a schematic diagram. 1
8.11 Specify the amount of ventilation and heating required to house 500 hogs
+ Qme + Qp, + Q., - Q,w - Qua ± Q-.ux = O averaging 200 lb each. Inside conditions are at 55°F and 75% relative hu·
+ 5000 Btu/hr + 325,000 Btu/hr + O - 150,000 Btu/hr midity. Outside conditions are 30°F and 20% relative humidity. The
amount of heat transferred through the walls, ceiling, and tloor of lile
- 243,600 Btu/hr ± Qaux =O building is 115,000 Btu's/hr. Assume no moisture transmission through
+ 330,000 Btu/hr - 393,000 Btu/hr + Q.u, "'O the walls and no sensible heat generated by mechanical equipment.