SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Advanced Finite Element Applications (ET3003)

Lecture 1 Stress and Strain

1 Stress
The internal reactions for a section are the resultant of distributed forces ΔT, which
act on each small element of the cross-sectional area. In general, they vary in direction
and magnitude as shown in Figure 1, for each small element of area. We are interested
in intensity or force per unit area of these forces at various points of the cross section
because their intensity affects the ability of the material to support loads and resist
changes in shape. We shall resolve the forces into components perpendicular, or
normal, and parallel, or tangent, to the area on which they act.

Figure 1

The intensity of the force normal to the area is called the normal stress and will be
represented by the Greek lowercase letter σ (sigma). The average value of the normal
stress over the area ΔA is defined by the equation

ΔF
σ=
ΔA

Where ΔF is the component of the force normal to the area ΔA. To find the stress at a
point, the area ΔA must be decreased in size until it approaches a point. A normal
stress is called tensile stress when it stretches the material on which it acts. And
compressive stress when it shortens the material on which it acts.

The intensity of the force parallel to the area is called the shear stress and will be
represented by the Greek lowercase τ (tau). The average value of the shear stress over
the area ΔA is defined by the equation

Where ΔV is the component of the force parallel to the area ΔA. The shear stress at a
point is found by decreasing the area ΔA in size until it approaches a point.

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 ΔV
τ=
ΔA
In cases where we have uniform stress, that is, stress which does not vary over the
cross section, or we wish to find an average stress, the normal stress can be found

F
σ=
A
from the equation
V
τ=
A
and the shear stress from the equation

The force F is the sum of the normal forces ΔF, the force V the sum of the parallel
(tangential) forces ΔV, and A the area of the cross section or the sum of the elements
of area ΔA of the cross section.

2 Strain

We have seen that when an axial load is applied to a bar, normal stresses are produced
on a cross section perpendicular to the axis of the bar. In addition, the bar increases in
length. The increase in length, or change in length, represented by the Greek
lowercase δ (delta) is called deformation. The change in length δ is for a bar of length
L. the Change in length per unit of length, represented by the Greek lowercase letter ε
(epsilon), is called strain. Strain is defined by the equation

δ
ε=
L

Strain is usually expressed dimensionally as inches per inch or meters per meter, even
though it is a dimensionless quantity.

In the case of an axial load the stress in the direction of the load is called axial stress
and the strain in the direction of the load is called axial strain. With axial strain we
also have a smaller normal or lateral strain perpendicular to the load. When the axial
stress is tensile, the axial strain is associated with an increase in length and the lateral
strain is associated with a decrease in width. The reverse is true for a compressive
stress. Tensile strain is called positive strain and compressive strain negative strain.

3 Factor of Safety

The term factor of safety is applied to the factor used to evaluate the safeness of a
member. Let a mechanical element be subjected to some effect, which we will
designate as F. We assume that F is a very general term and that it can be a force, a
twisting moment, a bending moment, a slope, a deflection, or some kind of distortion.
If F is increased, eventually it will become so large that any additional small increase
would permanently impair the ability of the member to perform its proper function. If
we designate this limiting, or ultimate, value of F as Fu, the factor of safety is defined
as

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 Fu
n=
F

Where F becomes equal to Fu, n = 1, and there is no safety at all. Consequently, the
term margin of safety is frequently used. Margin of safety is defined by the equation
m = n −1

The terms factor of safety and margin of safety are widely used in industrial practice,
and the meaning and intent of these terms are clearly understood.

4 Centroid of Area
The centre of gravity of the thin plate is on its middle plane. The centroid is at the
same location in the plane of the thin homogeneous plate. The terms centroid and
centre of gravity are often used to indicate the same point. They are at the same
location only if the plate is homogenous.

Figure 2

To determine the centroid of a plane area by analysis, it follows that the total area A is
equal to the sum of the areas ΔAi, that is

A = ΔA1 + ΔA2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅ +ΔAn = ΣΔAi

It follows that the moment of the total area A about an axis must be equal to the sum
of the moments of the areas ΔAi about the same axis. For the y axis

Ax = x1ΔA1 + x2ΔA2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅ +xnΔAn = ΣxiΔAi

and for the x axis

Ay = y1ΔA1 + y2ΔA2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅ +ynΔAn = ΣyiΔAi

Accordingly, the coordinates of the centroid are given by

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x= ΣxiΔAi
A
And
ΣyiΔAi
y= A

Where A = ΣΔAi

5 Centroid by Inspection

For a plane area with one axis of symmetry every element of area ΔAi has a
corresponding element with a coordinate that is equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign. Because of this the sum ΣxiΔAi is equal to zero and x = 0. Hence the centroid
lies on the axis of symmetry.

With two axes of symmetry, the centroid must lie on both axes; accordingly, the
centroid lies on the intersection of the two axes.

With a centre of symmetry, each element of area has a corresponding element with
coordinates that are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. Because of this, the two
sums ΣxiΔAi and ΣyiΔAi are both equal to zero. Therefore, the centroid and centre of
symmetry are at the same location.

Figure 3

6 Second Moment of Area

In the study of the strength of beams and columns and statics of fluids, the moment of
inertia or second moment of a plane area is required. The moment of inertia of the
area ΔA about the x axis is equal to the product of the square of the centroidal
distance y and the area ΔA. with n areas we add up the moments of inertia for each

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area to find the total approximate moment of inertia. Thus the approximate moment of
inertia about the x axis Ix is given by

Ix = y12ΔA1 + y22ΔA2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅ +yn2ΔAn = Σyi2ΔAi

The approximate moment of inertia about the y axis Iy is given by

Iy = x12ΔA1 + x22ΔA2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅ +xn2ΔAn = Σxi2ΔAi

Example

For a area shown in Figure 4(a), determine the approximate value for Ix

As shown in Figure 4(b), divide the triangle into 10 horizontal strips 1 in. wide.
Replace each strip with a small rectangle whose length is the average length of the
strip and whose centroidal distance is the mean distance of the rectangle from the x
axis.

The area of strip (1), ΔA1 is 0.4 in.2 and the centroidal distance y1 = 9.5 in. for the x
axis. The moment of inertia Ix1 is

Ix1 = y12 ΔA1 =(9.5)2(0.4) = 36.1 in.4

The remaining moments of inertia are calculated in the same way. The calculations
are tabulated in Table 3.1. From the sum shown in the table, Ix = 670 in.4

Figure 4

Table 3.1
yi (in.) ΔAi (in.2) yi2 ΔAi ( in.4)
(1) 9.5 0.4 36.1
(2) 8.5 1.2 86.7

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 (3) 7.5 2.0 112.5
(4) 6.5 2.8 118.3
(5) 5.5 3.6 108.9
(6) 4.5 4.4 89.1
(7) 3.5 5.2 63.7
(8) 2.5 6.0 37.5
(9) 1.5 6.8 15.3
(10) 0.5 7.6 1.9
ΣIxi= 670 in.4

7 Pure Bending

The beam is subjected to pure bending, that is, a bending moment without either
shearing or axial forces. In Figure 5, the beam has been loaded by couples to produce
pure bending. Notice the absence of a shearing force in the shear diagram and a
constant bending moment in the interval of the beam between the loads.

Figure 5

8 Deformation Geometry for a Symmetrical Beam in Pure Bending

Generally, we can say that cross sections of a beam that are plane and normal to the
axis of the beam before bending remain plane and normal to the axis after bending.
Consider part of such a beam, as shown in Fig 6. Let plane cross section c'e' rotate as
a result of bending through an angle to a new position ce. No deformation occurs in
the longitudinal fibre oa. Fibre oa is the edge of a surface formed by fibres that do not

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stretch. The surface extends from the front to the back of the beam and is called the
neutral surface. Below the neutral surface, longitudinal fibres stretch and, above the
neutral surface, longitudinal fibres compress.

Figure 6

The intersection of the neutral surface and the cross section of the beam forms an axis
called the neutral axis. The stretching of a horizontal fibre a distance –y below the
neutral axis at o is given by δ. Therefore, the strain of the fibre is
δ
ε= oa

From similar triangles e'ae and ofa,

δ oa
=
y ρ

or
δ y
=
oa ρ

We have
−y
ε= ρ
Where the negative sign accounts for the fact that tensile strain occurs when y is
negative. We see from the above equation that the strains of the longitudinal fibres are
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis and inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature.

9 Hooke’s Law: Distribution of Bending Stress

The deformation geometry that we have considered depended only on the fact that the
beam had a constant cross section and that the cross section and bending were

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symmetrical with respect to the xy plane. We shall assume that the material follows
Hooke’s law for longitudinal stresses and strains; that is, σ = Eε. Combining Hooke’s
law and Equation
−y
ε= ρ
we have

− Ey
σ= ρ

10 Bending Stress Formula

The following equation is known as the bending stress formula or the flexure formula.

My
σ=
I

This formula gives the normal stress at any point on a cross section a distance y from
the neutral axis in terms of the bending moment and the dimensions of the member.
The bending stress formula was developed for a beam subject to pure bending only.
However, it can be shown that the formula can also be used when shear as well as
bending exists on the cross section.

11 Plane Stress and Plane Strain

Plane Stress

A state of Plane Stress exists in a thin object loaded in the plane of its largest
dimensions. Let the X-Y plane be the plane of analysis. The non-zero stresses σx, σy,
and τxy lie in the X-Y plane and do not vary in the Z direction. Further, the stresses σz,
τyz , and τzx are all zero for this kind of geometry and loading. A thin beam loaded in
its plane is a good example of plane stress problems.

From the material response relations we find:

E
ε zz = − (σ xx + σ yy )
υ

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Plane Strain

Plane strain occurs in a problem such as a cylindrical roller bearing caged against
axial motion and uniformly loaded in a direction normal to the cylindrical surface.
Because there is no axial motion, there is no axial strain. Each slice through the
cylinder behaves like every other and the problem can be conveniently analyzed with
a planar model.

For certain thick bodies subject to only in-plane loading and where nothing varies
along the thickness (z-direction) we may assume that plane deformation holds. That
is: uz = 0 and the only non-zero displacements are ux and uy . We can reduce the
complete set of field equations of elasticity under the plane deformation assumption
just as we did for plane stress
σ zz = υ (σ xx + σ yy )