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770420
E. M . Alexander
Steel Co. of Canada, Ltd
THERE HAS BEEN a concerted effort within the Whereas these general tendencies are
International Standards Organization, ISO, to well known and require no further explan-
develop procedures for the design and ation, a precise method for predicting the
evaluation of fastener product standards on a failure mode for less extreme and obvious
sound technical "basis. This paper describes conditions has not previously been provided.
methods accepted by Technical Committee 2 of Based on extensive research, methods to
ISO, for the strength design of mechanical predict failure behaviour of threaded assem-
fasteners employing the ISO E68 thread profile. blies have been developed, and the use of
There are three possible failure modes these techniques for design and establishment
of a fastener assembly in the event of static of appropriate testing standards is described.
tensile overload.
a) Bolt* Breaking This more detailed approach to the
b) Bolt Thread Stripping design and testing of assemblies is partic-
c) Internal Thread Stripping ularly justified with the advent of modern
In the simplest cases:- tightening methods which are frequently based
a) Occurs when the length of thread engage- on deliberate discreet yielding of the
ment is long and the nut or internal thread fastener, assuring better utilization of
material is of compatible strength with the fastener strength as well as resistance to
bolt. loosening. Installation of many fasteners is
b) Occurs when the length of engagement is performed automatically or semi-automatically
short and the internal thread material is and fasteners may be inadvertently over-
relatively strong. tightened. Providing the bolt breaks
c) Occurs when the internal thread material corrective action becomes obvious. Stripping
is relatively weak and#the length of engage- of a small percentage of assemblies without
ment is relatively short. any bolt breaking may, however, go undetected
and these assemblies may be put into service
with potential for hazardous failure.
Accordingly appropriate length of thread
*N0TE: The terms Bolt and Nut refer to the engagement must be determined to provide
externally and internally threaded members, adequate assurance that some bolt breaking
respectively, throughout the text. will occur in the event of over-tightening
ABSTRACT
A model to precisely predict the load dimensional and mechanical properties are
and mode of failure of threaded assemblies known. These techniques have been extended
has been developed. The analysis is to provide a method for design of assemblies,
applicable to any assembly of the ISO R68 or and appropriate testing standards for the
Unified thread form, of which pertinent product.
1838
0096-736X/78/8603-1838$02.50
Copyright © 1978 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Downloaded from SAE International by University of New South Wales, Sunday, September 16, 2018
and thus serve as a warning of incorrect countersink is very complex. On the non-
tightening. bearing side of the nut for example, "the nut
Subsequently appropriate proof stresses and bolt threads will not contact in the
may be computed for the components to assess unstrained condition. The effect of the
that the design requirements have been met. countersink was, therefore, investigated
This is of particular significance when the experimentally (l)* and an empirical factor
internally threaded member is a nut. is used to account for it.
The "effectiveness" of the countersunk
2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STRENGTH OF portion of the nut thickness, as defined in
SCREW THREADS Appendix A, was determined to be 40% for both
nut and bolt threads. That is, the height of
The most significant factors that affect the nut for which the countersink is present
the static strength of a threaded assembly contributes only 40% of the strength of an
are as follows:- equal height without countersink, and for
strength calculations the actual nut height
2,1 GEOMETRIC OR DIMENSIONAL FACTORS must be accordingly reduced to provide the
length of thread engagement LE. (See Appendix
a) Tensile Stress Area of Bolt A i - Bolt A for formula).
ultimate tensile strength is directly
proportional to A . computed for actual 2,2 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF EXTERNAL THREAD
dimensions of the bolt (see Appendix A ) . MATERIAL CT
b) Shear Area ofExternal Threads AS . - The s
geometric shear area of the external threads CT directly affects ultimate tensile
in the unstrained condition is the area of strength of the externally threaded member
intersection between the external threads and and also has a major influence on shear or
a cylinder, equal in diameter to the mating stripping strength of the threads. The effect
nut minor diameter and of height Equal to is not directly proportional to <J due to
length of thread engagement. Equations for bending that occurs between the threads,
calculation of AS . are given in Appendix A. this is described in paragraph 2.6 below.
It will be seen that in addition to
depending on Bolt thread dimensions AS . is
2.3 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF INTERNAL THREAD
also a function of nut minor diameter and
MATERIAL 0*
length of thread engagement. n
In the case of conventionally formed CT has a strong influence on internal
nuts, the minor diameter or hole is not thread stripping strength, however, as is the
perfectly cylindrical, but usually exhibits case for the external threads the effect is
some bell mouthing. This can be accounted not directly proportional due to thread
for by varying the diameter over the height bending.
of the nut in small discreet increments.
Generally the maximum degree of bell mouthing 2.4 RATIO OF SHEAR STRENGTH TO TENSILE
iS approximately 1.03 x minor diameter, and STRENGTH
can be accurately accounted for by employing
the mean diameter over the length of bell The ultimate shear strength of steel is
mouthing. significantly lower than the ultimate tensile
c) Shear Area of Internal Threads AS . - The strength. This relationship has been invest-
' ' ** ■ ■ ■ - ■ — ■ i ■■■■ — i. i YY2_
igated for a wide range of tensile strengths,
geometric shear area of the internal threads (2, 3) and has been shown to be approximately
in the unstrained condition is the area of constant with a value of the order of 0.6".
intersection between the internal threads and It is not possible to investigate this factor
a cylinder equal in diameter to the mating in isolation in threaded assemblies due to
bolt major diameter. The shear area of the simultaneous thread bending influences that
internal threads depends on nut Thread occur. The value of 0.6 is, therefore, based
dimensions bolt major diameter and length of on shear tests on materials. As there is
thread engagement. (Equations are given in interaction with thread bending effects any
Appendix A ) . small discrepancies in the shear/tensile
d) Length of Thread Engagement LE. - Length of strength ratio are taken into account by the
thread engagement is less than the nut thread bending strength reduction factors
height, due to the presence of the countersink described in paragraph 2.6.
in the nut which significantly reduces the
shear area of both nut and bolt threads,
although it does not entirely eliminate the
area for the depth of the countersink. *Numbers in parentheses designate References
Computation of the area reduction due to the at end of paper.
New Text
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1840 E. M. ALEXANDER
2.5 NUT DILATION nut threads to the bolt threads is less than
unity, and bolt stripping when the relative
Under load the wedging action of the 60 strength of the nut thread to the bolt thread
threads causes dilation of the nut hence exceeds unity. It is important to note that
increasing the minor diameter of the nut and Figure 2 is not a graphic illustration of
reducing the effective shear areas of both the load carrying capacity of threads, it merely
external and internal threads. This dilation shows two of tne factors that are used in
becomes notably more pronounced as the nut wall computing thread load carrying capacity.
thickness or Width Across Flats to nominal These are the strength reduction factors C2
diameter ratio s/D, decreases. Analysis of and C3 to account for thread bending of the
research (3» U) into this effect provides the external and internal threads respectively.
following formula for strength reduction due As R increases from the extreme low
to dilation of hexagonal nuts. values, curve C3 decreases and then flattens
out coincident with R reaching unity. The
reason for this phenomenon, is that for low
values of R the bolt thread has a great
The equation, which is shown graphically in excess of strength and does not bend
Figure 1, applies to both nut and bolt threads. greatly, and hence maintains the flank
contact angle at approximately 60° to the
2.6 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF NUT TO BOLT THREAI8 R axis, thus limiting nut dilation. The nut
s threads are, therefore, also constrained
xne strengrn raxj.o it CLefineci as ti = from bending and the threads are sheared
^ujw i/^ujw j is xne factor wiat controls cleanly in the event of stripping (Figure 3)>
the de£p?ee Sf thread bending between internal As R increases, the excess of strength of
and external fhrrads. Under appween inad the the bolt threads over the nut threads is
nut and boll screa threads are plih elastically reduced hence permitting a greater degree of
and an the casc ew suffidiently high lasds thread bending, leading to reduction of the
alastically deformed fr cint. yhig thread effective shear area and greater nut dilation.
pending decreasor the effentive hhear ared and For values of R approaching unity both nut
alnd predente a contace furface at a resser and bolt threads are severely deformed, and
angle to the axic nf the brft, whica lreates in the event of stripping it is frequently
a gleater mechanical advantage for the wedging impossible to determine which thread stripped,
action of the threads and hence for nut unless the load is removed and the threads
dilation. The resultant stren^rth reduttion examined after the first sign of failure
is shown .T Figure lt Thit Dhsnomenon (Figure 3)* For values of R greater than
observen inF reported in referencee on 2*1 unity bolt stripping prevails and C3 becomes
was furthar inveortgated rn refecenc( fl2 a hypothetical curve included only to
Figurr i ve tivited intr feren of nut calculate the excess stripping strength of
stripFing when the redative strength of the nut to bolt.
The form of curve C2 is explained
similarly to C3 above. It will be noted,
however, that curve C2 is slightly higher
than C3 for equivalent values of strength
ratio R . (Equivalent values occur when R
for C2 equals the reciprocal of R for C3)-
The reason for this phenomenon is that at
very low values of R nut material yield to
ultimate strength ratio is of the order
of 50%>» while for the extremely high values
of R the yield to ultimate ratio was of the
order of QS% clue to difference in micro-
structure. This difference is manifested as
a reduced nut dilation in the latter case,
as plastic deformation does not occur as
readily. The fact that C2 actually exceeds
the value of 1.0 for R greater than 1.7 ,
and hence indicates not a strength of
reduction but a strength increase, results
from the extreme conditions of nut hardness
and yield to ultimate strength ratio which
were not encountered when the factor CI for
nut dilation was investigated. In practice,
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1842 E. M. ALEXANDER
1844 E.M.ALEXANDER
The above equations predict that in the k.O STRENGTH DESIGN OF SCREW THREADS
event overloading with a purely tensile load
the mode of failure will be nut stripping. Threaded fasteners are mainly consumed
From the R value in Figure 2 it was apparent in automatic or semi-automatic assembly line
that for this assembly the bolt threads were applications. In the event of accidental
stronger than the nut threads. If the over-torqueing, it is desirous that the
length of engagement of the threads is assembly not fail in the stripping mode, as
increased AS . and AS . will increase prop- an incipient failure could go undetected. On
ortionately and so will the stripping the other hand, the total elimination, by
strength until the nut stripping strength design, of any possibility of stripping
exceeds 53900 N when the mode of failure will would impose a severe economic penalty to
become bolt breaking under purely axial load. guard against an event that has an extremely
If in the example the bolt tensile low probability of occurring. The following
strength is increased to 11+00 MPa say, the statistical design approach has, therefore,
strength ratio R would be considerably been taken:-
lower. Owing to tooling wear and the inherent
variability of manufacturing processes, the
physical and mechanical properties of fast-
eners within a lot (shipment), exhibit random
variations. It is feasible that within a
single lot of fasteners all the dimensions
could approach the minimum material con-
dition, however, based on equipment capability
considerations, it is expected that the
range of variability for various properties
within such a small lot is not likely to be
less than the following.
Hut Minor Diameter - 30% of full tolerance
Nut Pitch Diameter - £0% of full tolerance
From the above it is seen that the nut Bolt Major Diameter- 20% of full tolerance
stripping strength increases by approximately Bolt Pitch Diameter- 2$% of full tolerance
11%, but nut stripping remains the mode of Root Radius - 0,1 x Pitch
failure. By increasing bolt hardness, R is Width Across Flats
decreased and thread bending is reduced of Hut - 20% of full tolerance
with a corresponding increase in the value of Nut Height - 60% of full tolerance
C3) leading to greater stripping strength of Hut Countersink
the nut. Although nut strength increases, Angle - $°
bolt hardness and hence strength increases Nut Countersink
at a much greater rate hence moving R further Diameter - 1% of Nominal Diameter
into the nut stripping zone in Figure 2. Bolt Material
The above is precisely what occurs when the Tensile Strength - 60 MPa
nut is assembled with a hardened mandrel for Nut Material
proof testing, it is therefore important to Tensile Strength - 60 MPa
recognize this phenomenon when setting It is quite realistic to assume a
standards for proof testing of nuts. Normal distribution of characteristics within
In the initial example, with a 980 MPa this range, A condition adverse for stripping
bolt, if a torque-tension loading had been would occur when all dimensions within a lot
applied instead of pure tension the equations approached the minimum material condition,
could have still been used to predict mode as shown by way of example in Figure 5»
of failure ~by applying a 5% advantage of while simultaneously the nut material
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strength approached minimum values, and bolt hard enough to provide a strength ratio, Rs,
material strength tended to the maximum of 1 or greater. Likewise, for heat treated
values. The statistical probability of nuts the hardness can be controlled to
stripping under these conditions can be provide a value for Rs of 1 or greater in
computed by means of a Monte Carlo computer most instances. As seen from Figure 2,
simulation (1). The listing of a computer under these conditions in the event of
program written for this purpose is given in stripping it is bolt stripping that would
Appendix B with a simulation example. occur. In the case of cold formed nuts for
Product Standards generally reflect use with property class 8.8 and 9.8 bolts,
tolerances, dimensions and mechanical Rs is less than 1.0 and typically of the
properties that can be economically achieved order 0.8. It is generally considered more
with present technology. Adjustment of the economical to increase nut height than to
stripping strength of an assembly relative to increase nut hardness to protect against
the tensile strength of the threaded member stripping. Therefore, non-heat treated nuts
is generally most easily achieved by varying for use with property class 8.8 and 9.8
the length of thread engagement; in the case bolts are generally of greater height to
of a nut and bolt this is achieved by varying protect against nut stripping.
the nut height. Nuts can readily be formed
up to approximately 1.1 x D with standard
hexagon sizes, however, for heights in excess
of approximately 1.2D, the increase of
strength is no longer proportional to
increasing height so this condition should be
avoided as uneconomical.
The computer program of Appendix B
determines the first three moments of the
probability for assembly stripping versus nut
height. From these moments the Cumulative
Probability distribution of stripping and
bolt breaking versus nut height can be
determined, as shown in Figure 6.
It is seen as the nut height increases
the probability of stripping decreases and
the probability of bolt breaking shows a
complementary increase. If the nut height
was selected, corresponding to the 90%
stripping 10% breaking point, then in the
event of over-torqueing on an assembly line
this 10% breakage would serve as sufficient
warning that the fasteners were being in
correctly applied and corrective action
could be taken. Such assemblies would
conform with specifications and carry well
in excess of the minimum required load.
It is also noteworthy that this basis
of design would result in approximately 2.5%
probability of stripping for the entire
population in the event of over-torqueing,
therefore, in practice stripping would be a
rare event. The program of Appendix B has,
therefore, been written to design nut
height for these conditions. As the third
moment (skewness) of the distribution is
generally relatively small the results have
been computed using the first and second
moments only and considering the data as
conforming to a Normal Distribution. Once
the minimum required nut height is computed
the tolerance is applied positively from
the minimum.
Cold formed nuts for use with property
class 6.8 and lower bolts, are generally
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1846 E. M. ALEXANDER
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
For the purpose of design the counter
1. Symbols sink parameters are as follows:
P = Pitch Countersink Angle = 90°
R = Root Radius Countersink Diameter:
H = Height of Fundamental Thread Triangle
m = Nut Height
LE = Length of Thread Engagement
LB = Length of Bell Mouthed Section of Nut
= Tensile Stress Area
As
ASs = Shear Area External Threads
s
ASn = Shear Area Internal Threads
1HZ7H[W
c
1848 E. M. ALEXANDER
APPENDIX B
1850 E. M. ALEXANDER
fOOFORMAT(IH ,A4,3EI6.5)
2CONTINUf
C COMPUTING NUT HEIGHTS t3ASED ON NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED DATA FOR
C 90% PROBABI LITY OF SfR I PP ING
HI=(MU(3)-1.28*SIG(3»
H2=HI +FULroL
H2 =FLOAT ( I F I X ( (H2+. 05) * 10. » I I O.
H3=H2-FULTOL
PR INT 7, HI
., FORA'IAf( I H ,"MINIMUM CALCULATED HEIGfHlI ,f8.3)
PRINT 8,H3
8 FORMAT()H ,"MINIMUM SPECIfIED HEIGHT ",F7.2)
PRINT 9,H2
';; fORMAT( I H ,"MAXIMUM SPECIFIED HfIGH[ II ,F6. I)
PI1INT,"TYPE I FOR NHI SIZE & MECH.PROPS.,OR 2 FOR NEI'i MECH.PROPS. ONLY"
REAI),INOI
IF(INDI.EQ.2) GO TO 5
GO TO 3
END
SUBROUrr NE NORM (R, NUTS, BUTS, 01, POI ,lJE, POE, RAD, BTHUTS, RA, 1'1,01 C, HTe, CSD, CSKA,
C SUBROUTI NE GENERATES NORMALLY 1..H SIR I BUTEO RANDO!vi NUMBERS VABILO'l)
DIMENSION R( 12,2)
REAL NUTS, BUTS, 01, POE, DE, RAD, B [HUTS, RA, ~·I
REAL M()2),SD(12),V( 12)
DO 11=1,12
M( I ) = ( R ( I , I ) +R ( I ,2 ) ) 12 .0
=(
SO ( I ) R( I ,2 )- R( I , I ) ) 16. 0
V(I)=DNORM2(RA,M(I),SO(I»
I CONTINUE
NUTS=V(I)
BUTS=V( 2)
C GENERATING A 10% VARIATION IN BOLT fHRfAD TO AVERAGE TENSILt. STRENGTH
C TO ACCOUNT fOR QUENCH NONUNlfORMITY (SEE REfEHENCE I)
SDB=O.03*BUTS
BTHUTS=ONORM2 (RA, BUTS, SOB)
DI=V(3)
C DEfERMINING MEAN VALuE OF UPPER 25% Of RANGE
DIMAX=DI*I.03
DI25=(DIMAX-DI)*.25
DIMfAN=(DIMAX+(OIMAX-OI25»/2.
DISD=WIMAX-(DIMAX-DI25) )/6.
PDI=V(4)
Df=V(S)
PUE=V(6)
J(.AD=V(7 )
~~=V( 8)
DIC=DNORM2(RA,DIMEAN,DISO)
JiTC=V( I 0)
CS[j)=V( II )
CSKA=V(12)
VARILC>T=V(9)
RETURN
END
T H R E A D E D ASSEMBLIES 1851
BOLT PITCH J I A M 7 7 . 0 4 2 , 7 . 0 7 1 5
ROOT R A D I U S A3 A FUNCTION O F P ? . 1 4 , . l b
BOLT TENSILE?1057.,I 11 7.
PROOF LOU) IS THEN CALCULATED FOB KTNIMUH MATERIAL CONDITIONS OF THE height using equations I4, 5 and 6. Instead
HOT THKEAIB, HINIHDH WIDTH ACROSS FLATS AND HDtlHDH HEIGHT.
of using a Monte Carlo simulation to make a
complete statistical analysis, the solution
is based on use of the median value in the
range of restricted dimensional values and
mechanical properties. This approach is
slightly more conservative than the preferred
statistical solution, but is not as con-
servative as calculating the solution for all
properties in the most adverse condition.
THIS CORRESPONDS TO A PROOF STRESS OF 926 HPa. SIZE RANGES OF SIMILAR STRESS
ARE TEEN GROUPED INTO FIXED STRESS RANGES.
1852 E. M. ALEXANDER