Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63

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Geomorphology
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Landslide-amplified flash floods—The June 2008 Panay Island flooding, Philippines

Sandra G. Catane ⁎, Catherine C. Abon 1, Ricarido M. Saturay Jr.,
Edna Patricia P. Mendoza, Krestabelle M. Futalan
National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines-Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The role of landslides in generating or enhancing a flash flood event in Aklan, Panay Island, Philippines,
Received 8 November 2011 resulting from Typhoon Fengshen, was investigated. The flash flood occurred between 1100 h and 1400 h
Received in revised form 6 April 2012 (GMT + 8) of 21 June 2008 and inundated Sitios Agbatan and Abaya in the municipality of Libacao.
Accepted 9 April 2012
Peak discharges at Kipot, a channel constriction in Aklan River about 10 km upstream, were independently
Available online 17 April 2012
derived using a hydrologic model (302.6 m 3/s) and Manning's equation (7000 m 3/s). The modeled flood
Keywords:
peak reached Kipot at 0300 h on 21 June 2008 and the communities between 0600 h and 1000 h on June
Landslide dam 21, at the earliest. The actual flood peak arrived at Sitios Agbatan and Abaya between 1100 h and 1400 h
Flash flood on June 21, at least 1 h earlier than the modeled arrival.
Hydrologic modeling While the flash flood may have been caused by the preceding rainfall alone (234.4 mm from 0600 h June 20
Typhoon Fengshen to 0600 h June 21), the discrepancies in peak discharges and the delayed arrival time suggest the possibility
Philippines of damming and eventual breaching of the dam. Evidence of the damming was found at the channel constric-
tion in Kipot. A landslide at this site was mapped, characterized, and inferred to have completely blocked the
channel and caused the damming. Implications to flash flood risk assessment are discussed.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
A flash flood is a rapid and extreme flow of high water into a nor-
mally dry area, or rapid water level rise in a stream above a predeter-
mined flood level (Mendiondo, 2005; NOAA, 2007). It is often
disastrous because of the sudden occurrence, giving little warning.
Flash floods are often caused by heavy rain associated with thunder-
storms, hurricanes, or tropical cyclones and also by dam failure.
Landslides that move into stream valleys and dam rivers are common
worldwide (e.g., Costa and Schuster, 1988; 1991; Casagli and Ermini,
1999; Korup, 2004). In some instances, the landslide debris may form a
dam that can block the channel partially or completely. A landslide dam
and its impoundment may last for a few minutes to several thousands
of years (Costa and Schuster, 1988; Schuster, 1994). Discharges due to
the sudden release of impounded water behind landslide dams are usual-
ly larger than those due to rainfall (Costa and Schuster, 1988), and would
thus pose a more serious hazard. The dam break flood from the 1786
Kangding–Luding (China) earthquake-triggered landslide dam on the
Dadu River produced an estimated peak discharge of 248,977 m3/s and
caused over 100,000 deaths (Dai et al., 2005). It is considered as the
world's worst landslide-dam disaster (Schuster, 1994).
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 63 2 9242709; fax: + 63 2 9296047.
E-mail addresses: sgcatane@gmail.com (S.G. Catane), catherineabon@gmail.com
(C.C. Abon), ricsatjr@gmail.com (R.M. Saturay), edz.mendoza@gmail.com
(E.P.P. Mendoza), kmfutalan@gmail.com (K.M. Futalan).
1
Current address: Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
Short-lived landslide dams that form and fail within the duration
of a rainfall event (i.e., a few hours to days) are of particular interest
because they can generate flash floods or aggravate flooding in a
basin. They occur in many steep land areas but are often small in vol-
ume (Costa and Schuster, 1988). Their effects are inconspicuous and
may appear insignificant because they are masked by flooding from
heavy precipitation. Unlike long-lived landslide dams which can last
for months to even several thousands of years (Schuster, 1994), mit-
igation (i.e., artificial draining) for short-lived dams is virtually im-
possible because of their transient nature. Due attention must be
given to the study of this type of damming in order to fully under-
stand the hazards and effectively assess the associated flood risks.
The Philippines is a typhoon-prone country. An average of 19-20
tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility annually,
with 8-9 making landfall (PAGASA, 2004). A rich documentation of
typhoons in the Philippines, including some associated flash flood
and landslide events can be found in www.typhoon2000.ph/info.
htm by Padua (1997).
In the Philippines, published literature on flash floods are limited
and mostly focus on social aspects. There are unpublished reports of
flash floods associated with short-lived landslide dams, such as the
1991 Ormoc and the 2004 Quezon–Aurora flash floods. While the
2009 Ketsana floods that severely affected Metro Manila and adjacent
provinces were mainly attributed to extreme rainfall (348 mm in 6 h)
(Abon et al., 2011), some areas experienced flash floods due to
breaching of landslide dams (unpublished data by authors). However,
the contribution of the damming to these flood events has not been

0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.04.008
56 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63
quantified. The flash floods brought by Typhoon Fengshen in June 2008
provided the opportunity to study this specific role of landslides.
Formed initially in the Pacific Ocean on 15 June 2008 as a tropical
disturbance, Fengshen transformed into a tropical storm and then
into a typhoon as it moved northwestward (NOAA, 2008) (Fig. 1).
Typhoon Fengshen (international designation: 0806; JTWC designa-
tion: 07 W; PAGASA name: Frank), with maximum sustained winds of
165–205 km/h, made a direct hit on the Philippines, with its first
landfall on Samar Island in the Philippines on June 20. It shifted to a
west-northwest course toward Mindoro and hovered over northern
Panay Island for at least 24 h on June 20 and 21. It then shifted north-
ward on June 22 toward Metro Manila and exited through the South
China Sea on June 23 before heading toward China. Typhoon Fengshen
left extensive damage and resulted in the deaths of more than 1000
people, including about 700 people on board a commercial ferry
(Princess of the Stars) that capsized near Sibuyan Island.
The TRMM-based Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) rain-
fall totals from 20 to 21 June 2008 for the Philippines registered rainfall
exceeding 300 mm (dark red) which covered the mountain range of
Panay Island (NASA, 2008) (Fig. 2). Ground-based rainfall measurements
of PAGASA reached 188.4 and 300.0 mm on June 20, in Iloilo City and
Roxas City, respectively. The next day on June 21, 46.0 and 232.5 mm
were recorded by these ground stations. However, the Iloilo station
recorded rainfall up to 0600 h only. Locations of the rain gauges are
shown in Fig. 3.
The passing of Typhoon Fengshen across the central part of the
Philippines severely flooded the entire Panay Island. Kalibo City in
Aklan, northern Panay Island, was among the worst hit areas. Accord-
ing to residents, the 21 June 2008 flash flood was the largest in recent
Fig. 1. Track and evolution of Typhoon Fengshen. Modified from NOAA (2008).
decades. They recalled that the only flood event of similar magnitude
happened in 1914. Media reports of widespread landslides in the
mountain range of Panay Island, including the headwaters of Aklan
River suggest the possibility of damming of tributaries that may
have contributed to the flash floods.
This paper investigates the possible role of landslides in generat-
ing or enhancing the flash floods in Aklan. It focuses on the flooding
in the upstream portion of Aklan River. Methods used in this study in-
clude: (i) eyewitness interviews, (ii) field mapping and site investiga-
tion of landslide dams, and (iii) hydrologic modeling and calculations.
2. Physiography and geology of the Aklan River basin
Panay Island's topography consists of eastern undulating lowland
areas and western rugged mountain ranges. Most of the coastal low-
lands and lower slopes are covered with secondary but mainly de-
nuded forests while patches of original forests are still preserved in
steep upper slopes of the mountain ranges.
The 75-km-long Aklan River is the largest river in Panay Island. It tra-
verses the central part of the island and drains to the northeast, where it
forms a small delta in Kalibo, Aklan. The Aklan River Basin has a drainage
area of 890 km2. It is narrow and elongated, and it exhibits a dendritic
pattern (Fig. 3). It appears to be strongly controlled by a N–S trending
structure, as shown by its strongly linear upstream channels. High relief
and steep mountains on the western and southern sectors and undulat-
ing to flat terrain on the northeastern part characterize the topography of
the basin. The basin is elongate and thus flood magnitudes are expected
to be smaller as compared to those of circular basins, owing to the lack of
coincidence of its contributing subbasins (Leopold, 1994).
 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63
Fig. 2. TMPA rainfall totals in the Philippines for 20–21 June 2008 related to Typhoon Fengshen. Panay Island is outlined by a thick white line. Image courtesy of NASA.
The Aklan River basin is bounded by the western Panay Antique
Range (WPAR) and the central Panay Iloilo basin (CPIB) (Fig. 3). The
WPAR is underlain by ophiolitic–metamorphic terrane, while the CPIB
is a sequence of Oligocene to Recent sedimentary deposits overlying
the Paleogene volcanic belt of Negros–Panay (MGB, 2010). The CPIB is
thrust over the middle to upper Miocene volcaniclastics developed
over an ophiolitic and mélange basement (Rangin et al., 1991). The
prominent N–S lineament (Fig. 3) passing through the Aklan River
basin is associated with westward thrusting of the CPIB sedimentary
sequence. Rocks exposed along the Aklan River consist of basalt flows
with intercalated sandstone, mudstone, siltstone, and conglomerate of
the Panpanan Formation (MGB, 2010). Quaternary deposits are limited
to the main river channel, tributaries, and floodplains.
Systematic annual peak discharge data for Aklan River is available at
the municipality of Malinao (Fig. 3), with a drainage area of 705 km2,
for the years 1950 to 1975. Maximum annual peak discharge for the peri-
od is 4240.00 m3/s, which occurred in 1952, and had a return period of
23.8 years (NWRC, 1982). Peak discharges of 2303, 5211, and 7130 m3/s
have return periods equal to 10, 50, and 100 years, respectively (NWRC,
1982). This station was relocated in 1986 further downstream at the mu-
nicipality of Numancia with a drainage area of 890 km2 (Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH), unpublished data). It registered a
maximum peak annual discharge of 2427.30 m3/s from 1986 to 1993
(DPWH, unpublished data). It was again moved 3 km upstream to the
municipality of Kalibo in 2006 and registered a maximum gauge height
of 6.90 m at 1700 h 21 June 2008 during the flood brought by Typhoon
Fengshen (DPWH, unpublished data). Because discharge-gauge height re-
lationship was only defined up to a gauge height of 2.35 m, corresponding
to 723.35 m3/s (DPWH, unpublished data), the equivalent discharge dur-
ing this flood was not determined.
3. Peak flood timing and discharge reconstruction
3.1. Anecdotal accounts and field measurements
The flooding event in the upstream portion of the Aklan River affect-
ed Sitios Agbatan and Abaya of the municipality of Libacao (Fig. 3).
57
Because of the absence of reliable discharge data as previously dis-
cussed, the flooding event was reconstructed from anecdotal accounts
and flood marks observed in the field. The actual timing of flood peak
was determined through interviews of locals whose houses are situated
near the banks of the Aklan River and were on-site during the flood.
Flood heights along the river were estimated using a measuring tape
and visual scale from the heights of flood-deposited organic debris
and high water marks along the channel. River channel dimensions
and morphology were also taken into account during the fieldwork.
Narrow reaches and sharp bends were marked using a GPS device.
Anecdotal accounts from 21 locals residing near the Aklan River
showed that the time of flood peak varied with respect to their loca-
tion from a point upstream of Aklan River referred to as Kipot. Resi-
dents also reported a temporary damming because of a landslide at
this point. The peak flood was observed in Sitio Agbatan at 1100–
1200 h and at 1200–1400 h in Sitio Abaya. These villages are located
10–14 and 18–21 km from Kipot, respectively (Fig. 4). Flood waters
rose very quickly and were muddy. About 30-cm-thick mud accumu-
lated when water subsided at about 2100 h on June 21. Reported
maximum flood height at the villages is 6–8 m from the original
water level. At Kipot, maximum flood height indicated by organic de-
bris clinging to branches of trees was found at 22 m above the present
channel.
Peak rainfall was reported by the residents at 2100 h of June 20.
This indicates a gap of 14–17 h between the reported peak rainfall
and peak flood in both Sitios Agbatan and Abaya.
3.2. Hydrologic modeling and calculation
3.2.1. Method
Discharge at Kipot was computed using two methods. The first
method used the unit hydrograph in the Hydrologic Engineering Cen-
ter's hydrologic modeling system (HEC-HMS) model (USACE, 2008).
This calculates excess rainfall and routes the resulting runoff to become
a discharge passing through the channel. The second method used Man-
ning's equation to compute discharge from channel dimensions (height,
width, slope) that were measured in the field and roughness coefficient,
58 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63

Fig. 3. Location of the study area and rain gauges in Panay Island. Right hand figure shows the topography of the Aklan River basin (white line), the Aklan River (blue line), and
boundary (dashed line) of geologic units. River gauge location in Malinao and subsequent relocation sites in Numancia and Kalibo are also shown. WPAR=western Panay Antique
Range; CPIB=central Panay Iloilo Basin. SRTM image from Jarvis et al. (2008). Geologic boundary from MGB (2010).

which was estimated based on the method discussed by Arcement and
Schneider (1989).
Hydrologic modeling was employed to generate hydrographs of
the Kipot and to determine peak discharge and flood peak arrival.
The model was accomplished using the HEC-HMS version 3.2. Devel-
oped by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, it is designed to simulate
the precipitation-runoff processes of dendritic watershed systems
(USACE, 2008). The HEC-HMS has been used widely in rainfall–runoff
simulations (e.g., Sharma et al., 2007; Haberlandt et al., 2008). Inputs
include information from the basin model (drainage area, soil types,
landcover, etc.), meteorological data (rainfall time series), and control
specifications (time of simulation, time step of simulation). The
model includes different methods for calculating the loss or trans-
forming the excess rainfall to runoff, depending on the objective of
the modeler. Excess precipitation was computed using the Soil Con-
servation Services (SCS-CN) loss method, and this was transformed
to runoff using the SCS Unit Hydrograph (SCS-UH).
The SCS-CN loss method was used to estimate the excess precipi-
tation. Compared to other methods, this calculation is easier because
it requires only a few variables; and despite its simplicity, it gives re-
sults as good as the more complex models. It is one of the most pop-
ular and widely used methods in hydrologic modeling and hydrologic
forecasting (e.g., Mishra et al., 2005; Geetha et al., 2008). Lastra et al.
(2008) chose the SCS-CN loss method because it is commonly used
in different environments and delivers reasonable results. For the
flood event brought by Typhoon Ketsana in Metro Manila on 26
September 2009, the results of flood reconstruction using this method
agree with field evidence (Abon et al., 2011). The SCS-CN loss method
calculates the excess precipitation based on the type of land cover,
type of soil, and cumulative precipitation under a particular anteced-
ent moisture condition. This is given by the equation:
2
P e ¼ ðP−0:2SÞ =P þ 0:8S ð1Þ
where Pe is excess precipitation or direct runoff, P is precipitation, and
S is potential maximum retention or storage. S is given by the follow-
ing relation with the Curve Number (CN):
S ¼ ð1000=CNÞ–10 ð2Þ
The CN is given for different soil types and land cover. This was
based on the table provided by Chow et al. (1988) for selected agri-
cultural, suburban, and urban land uses. For heterogeneous subbasins,
the weighted CN was calculated.
To transform rainfall excess into direct surface runoff, the SCS-UH
was utilized. This method is appropriate for determining the timing of
the rainfall excess with respect to the peak runoff. The delineation of
subbasins for the development of the basin model was done in a
1:50,000 scale topographic map of the Aklan River basin. These sub-
basins, labeled as 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 5) have a total area of 77.6 km 2
 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63 59

Fig. 4. A) Anecdotal accounts of peak flood from residents downstream of Kipot. Inset is the upstream portion of the Aklan River basin bounded by a white line. Organic debris
entrapped by coconut trees on the floodplain (B) and by boulders on the river channel (C) brought by the flash flood. The person standing on the right side of the boulder is
1.5 m tall.

and are characterized by mean and maximum slopes of 24° and 56°,
respectively, as computed in ILWIS from a processed 3 arc-second
SRTM DEM (Jarvis et al., 2008).
Input parameters for the SCS-CN loss method were estimated using a
preliminary land use classification map interpreted from Google map im-
ages. The Panay Island Google Maps/Earth image resolution is: urban
areas=0.5 m, mountain areas=30 m. For the CN of the study area in
Aklan River basin, we used the soil types Group B (shallow loess, sandy
loam) and Group C (clay loams, shallow sandy loams; soils in organic
soils usually high in clay). Based on the Philippine soil map, the Aklan
soils contain 70% of Group B and 30% Group C (Soils Survey Division,
1993). Type II antecedent moisture soil condition was chosen and the
weighted CN for each subbasin was calculated using the empirical formu-
la for CN calculation. Table 1 shows the different hydrologic elements and
the values of the required parameters.
Two rain gauges have records of 6-hourly rainfall depth on June 20
and 21. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA) stations are in Iloilo City (12 m
asl) and Roxas City (14 m asl). The time of peak rainfall reported by
residents in Sitio Abaya and Sitio Agbatan (2100 h of June 20)

Fig. 5. The subbasins (1 to 4) of the upstream Aklan River. The location of Kipot where damming occurred is shown.
60 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63

Table 1
Hydrologic element parameters of each subbasin.

Parameters Minimum Maximum

Area (km2) 8.12 26.49

Curve Number (CN) 67 75
Time of Concentration (h) 4.32 5.8

coincided more with that of Iloilo (1800 h June 20 to 0000 h June 21)
than in Roxas (0000 h to 0600 h June 21). Thus, the recorded rainfall
in Iloilo was assumed to be representative of the actual rainfall in the
upstream of Aklan River than the Roxas station record and was used
in the simulation.
The second method for discharge computation at Kipot used the
Manning's equation (Chow et al., 1988):

1 1=2 2=3
Q¼ S AR ð3Þ
n 0

where Q is discharge, n is channel roughness, A is cross-sectional area,

R is hydraulic radius, and So is bed slope. For a rectangular channel,
with channel width, B, and channel height, H, the hydraulic radius,
R, is given by

R ¼ BH=ðB þ 2H Þ ð4Þ

At Kipot, the measured channel slope, So, is equal to 0.05 and the
channel width, B, is 17.3 m. The channel is characterized by a boul-
dery bed corresponding to a roughness, n, of 0.04. Channel height,
H, was inferred from maximum height of flood marks.
3.2.2. Results
From the simulation, the peak discharge at Kipot is 302.6 m 3/s and
it arrived at Kipot at 0300 H on June 21 (Fig. 6). The reconstructed
peak flood wave velocity of 1.5 to 3.3 km/h for Marikina River during
Typhoon Ketsana in 2009 was computed from the 4 to 9 h difference
of anecdotal peak flood arrivals at two known points 13 km apart
(Abon et al., 2011). Marikina River meanders along a wide alluvial
floodplain and has greater sinuosity and lower gradient than the sec-
tion of Aklan River between Kipot and the communities. Hence, flood
wave velocity is expected to be higher in the latter. Using the value
from Marikina River as the lower bound for the peak flood wave ve-
locity along Aklan River, the computed time for the peak flood to trav-
el a distance of 10 km (from Kipot to Sitio Agbatan) is 3–7 h. If the
modeled flood peak arrived at Kipot at 0300 h June 21, the flood
peak in Sitio Agbatan should have occurred between 0600 h and
1000 h (Fig. 6), or even earlier since the velocities used were lower
bound values. This differs from the earliest actual reported peak
flood arrival (1100 h) by at least 1 h.
The maximum depths of flow of flood water were calculated using
Eq. (3), where Q is equal to the peak discharge value from the simu-
lation, n = 0.04, B = 17.3 m, and So = 0.05. The maximum depth of
flow at Kipot for the simulation is 2.2 m. However, field indicators
suggest higher depths of flow. Flood marks at a landslide scarp in
Kipot indicated that the water level reached up to 22 m above the
channel (Fig. 7). Assuming that this flood depth was generated by
uniform channelized flow, the corresponding discharge computed
from the Manning's equation and the earlier described channel di-
mensions at Kipot is 7000 m 3/s. At about 20 m downstream and still
at Kipot, a discharge of 1000 m 3/s was computed based on a flood
mark 6 m above the channel and using Manning's equation.
If the modeled values (peak discharge= 302.6 m 3/s; flood
depth = 2.2 m) are assumed correct, then the assumption of uniform
channelized flow at Kipot may not hold true, and thus another process
may have produced the measured flood depths. The 22- and 6-m
flood marks could have been produced by rising water behind a
Fig. 6. (A) Rainfall distribution derived from 6-hourly ground data and (B) resultant
hydrograph in Kipot. The blue and red bars in (B) indicate peak flood arrivals based
on computed time (upper and lower bound) and anecdotal accounts, respectively.
Rainfall data from PAGASA.
landslide dam and the resulting breach of this dam, respectively. Evi-
dence of this process is presented in the next section.
4. Analysis of Kipot landslide dam
Damming from landslides occurred in at least two points along
Aklan River, located about 10 and 15 km upstream of Sitio Agbatan, re-
spectively. Analysis of landslide damming was conducted for the former
as it was the one reported by the residents to have caused full damming
of the river.
Kipot, which literally means ‘narrow’ in Filipino, is located along a
710-m-long reach of the Aklan River constricted by almost vertical chan-
nel walls (Fig. 7). It is one of the narrowest reaches in the whole stretch
of Aklan River. The bottom channel width along this stretch is only
17–21 m wide. Immediately downstream and upstream of this constric-
tion, the channel width reaches about 100 m. The channel walls consist
of moderately jointed basaltic lava flows that are part of the Panpanan
Formation. Outside of Kipot, channel bedrock is made up of tilted clastic
sedimentary beds ranging from sandstones to siltstones.
The failure surface of the Kipot landslide can be approximated by a
wedge geometry. Inclinometer and measuring tape survey, and trigo-
nometric calculations were used to determine pre- and post-landslide
geometry. From these, the total volume of the landslide debris in
Kipot was estimated at 10,000 m 3.
Because the landslide dam completely failed and was washed out
prior to the field work, no direct characterization of the landslide debris
was done. The properties of the landslide debris were inferred from the
properties of the landslide source. The landslide source, as seen in the
failure surface, consist of fresh basaltic lava with intersecting persistent
and non-persistent joint sets characterized as ‘blocky’ based on the Geo-
logical Strength Index (Marinos and Hoek, 2000). Joint spacing ranges
 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63 61

Fig. 7. (A) Topography of Kipot showing the channel constriction. (B) Photograph of the landslide scarp; flood marks were traced up to 22 m above the current channel bed. (C)
Cross section A–B showing the location of the landslide. Section line is shown in (A). (D) longitudinal profile of the river and the landslide dam in Kipot. Flooded localities are in-
dicated. Distance shown in (D) is the distance traced along the channel.

from 10 cm to 1 m. Based on the characteristics of the landslide source
mentioned above, the landslide debris is inferred to have consisted
mainly of angular, boulder-sized blocks, whose friction angles may
reach up to 45° (Thompson and Turk, 2007). The high friction angles
could have provided stability to the debris dam, enough to prevent
the dam from being immediately eroded by the river and to resist the
hydrostatic pressure from the water being impounded by the dam.
The cross-sectional area of the channel, approximated by a trape-
zoid, is 880 m 2 (Fig. 7). This was computed using the maximum flood
height observed at Kipot of at least 22 m above the present channel
bed, an average bottom channel width of 20 m, and an estimated
60-m top channel width at maximum flood height. If the 10,000 m 3
landslide debris completely filled the 880 m2 cross-sectional area of
the channel, the computed average thickness, measured along the lon-
gitudinal axis of the channel of the dam, is about 11 m. This shows that
the debris would have been capable of completely blocking the channel.
Local residents reported the formation of a temporary lake upstream
of Kipot, which was drained several hours later most likely from
62 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63
breaching of the dam. Using a topographic map and the observed 22-m
flood height at Kipot, the reconstructed lake has a length of about 3 km
and an average width of 200 m.
The characteristics and volume of the landslide debris at Kipot, the
dimensions of the channel vis-à-vis those of the proposed landslide
dam, and the anecdotal report of reservoir formation and draining
support the hypothesis that a landslide dam caused the delayed
flood peak at the communities of Abaya and Agbatan and the higher
than expected flood depths observed at Kipot.
5. High sediment load of flood waters: sources and consequences
Field survey results identified landslides and recent fluvial de-
posits as the likely source of sediment entrained by the flood waters.
Landslides occurred in the mountain areas upstream of the Aklan
River and along its banks. Most of the landslides were shallow, involv-
ing residual soils. Some rock failures occurred along daylighted bed-
ding planes and joints. Forested and denuded slopes experienced
landsliding. Landslides also occurred along the banks of Aklan River
due to undercutting at the base by flood waters (Fig. 8A)
Recent fluvial deposits (pre-Fengshen flood) also served as source
of sediments. Along Aklan River, these deposits exhibit textures such
as well-sorted sand; poorly sorted with rounded pebble- to boulder-
sized clasts (Fig. 8B); and poorly sorted with angular pebble- to
boulder-sized clasts. These are located at varying elevations, the high-
est of which is about 10 m above the current river bed. The deposits
with differing textures and elevations represent dynamic fluvial pro-
cesses operating over a long period of time. Because these deposits are
relatively unconsolidated, they are highly susceptible to erosion by
flood and mass wasting processes. Furthermore, agricultural activity
on these deposits loosens the deposits, which increases susceptibility
to erosion.
Fig. 8. (A) Landslide due to undercutting of river bank. Top of the landslide is about 30 m above the channel floor. (B) Fluvial terrace deposits (1.5 m thick) overlying tilted sedi-
mentary rocks. (C) Former boulder rapids now underlain by finer sand and gravel along Kipot. (D) Cross-section of a gravelly sand in-channel deposit of the 2008 flash flood 6 km
upstream of Kipot.
The high volume of sediment delivered by the flooding event is
manifested by the net increase of channel bed elevations, as reported
by residents, even in the upstream portions of the Aklan River. Some
sections of the Aklan River, previously characterized by bouldery
channel beds and rapids as reported by residents and seen in tourism
videos, were observed to have become sand-rich to gravelly during
the fieldwork (Fig. 8C and D). Farther downstream of Sitios Abaya
and Agbatan the active channel shifted laterally about 50 m and flood
water overflowed up to 100 m inland. The town proper of Libacao, lo-
cated at the inner bend of a meander, was inundated when the revet-
ments were washed out by the flood. The absence of publicly available
pre-flood channel profiles and cross-sections along the river preclude
the estimation of the volume of sediments delivered to the channels.
This morphological change in the river system has increased
flooding risks to communities along the river caused by the reduced
capacity and the new locations of active channels. Over the long-
term, excess sediments in the channel could cause changes in the
channel type (meander to braided), gradient, and sediment supply.
6. Conclusions
The heavy rainfall associated with Typhoon Fengshen triggered
landslides and flash floods in Panay Island. In the upstream portion
of the Aklan River, the actual peak flood is larger and came later
than what was predicted by the hydrologic modeling. The differences
in the arrival time and magnitude suggest that damming could have
modified the flooding event.
A 10,000 m 3 landslide occurred along Kipot, a narrow reach of the
Aklan River. The landslide debris, in terms of volume and material prop-
erties, was shown to have completely blocked the channel up to the ob-
served maximum flood height. This temporary damming provides an
explanation to the discrepancies in the flood reconstruction.
 S.G. Catane et al. / Geomorphology 169-170 (2012) 55–63
Results of the study highlight the importance of channel constric-
tions with relatively competent channel wall materials, such as that
in Kipot, in enhancing rain-induced flash floods. Landslide dams in
these locations provide a point of coincidence for runoff, potentially
increasing the discharge and delaying the peak flood arrival down-
stream of the channel constriction. Mapping, characterization, and
monitoring of such sites are recommended to be included in flash
flood risk mitigation.
Acknowledgments
We thank the officials of Kalibo and Libacao, Gov. Carlito Marquez,
Mayor Charito Navarosa, Evy Yap, the village officials and residents
of Libacao for supporting the field investigation in Aklan. Jane
Gerardo-Abaya provided the initial information on the occurrence of
landslides in Aklan. We thank Harold F. Pierce of NASA for generating
and sharing the TRMM-based rainfall totals for 20–21 June 2008.
Critical reviews by three anonymous reviewers are gratefully
acknowledged. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) funded
the field investigation.
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