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EXPLORATION OF JUPITER THROUGH OBSERVATIONS BY AUTOMATED

SPACECRAFT

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EXPLORATION OF JUPITER THROUGH OBSERVATIONS

BY AUTOMATED SPACECRAFT
A. B. Bhattacharya* and B. Raha
Department of Physics, University of Kalyani,
Kalyani 741235
Email:-asit1951@yahoo.com

Abstract: The paper highlights important achievements in Jupiter study during the last few
decades starting from early seventies. During the first two decades of its journey both
‘Pioneer’ and ‘Voyager’ spacecraft contributed largely in the investigation of physical
properties while in subsequent years the spacecraft ‘Galileo’ had the major role. Besides
taking the first close-up pictures of the planet, the probes of ‘Pioneer 10’ and ‘11’ discovered
its magnetosphere and also its fluid interior while the ‘Voyager 1’ and ‘2’ studied the moons
of Jupiter and the ring system, in addition to discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the
presence of water ice on the Europa surface. The information so gathered from the early
attempts and the results obtained from further studies by using different spacecrafts launching
for Jovian study have been critically focused. Investigations using ‘Galileo’ spacecraft are
reported illustrating the appearance of the fireball, taking into account the sequences of
images. The most detailed map of Jupiter ever produced as obtained by using ‘Cassini’ and
also the ‘New Horizons’ probe flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist have been elaborately
considered. Potential for colonization in Jovian atmosphere and the major problems in
sending space probes to that environment have been pointed out indicating the present and
proposed missions for future study.

Keywords: Jupiter, Spacecraft, Planets, Moons

1. INTRODUCTION
The exploration of Jupiter began with the arrival of ‘Pioneer 10’ into the Jovian system in 1973
and till 2008 it has continued with seven more spacecraft missions. All these missions were undertaken
by NASA to take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit. All these probes
make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System's outer planets. In fact, all missions to the outer planets
must flyby Jupiter for increasing the speed of the probe without any excessive amount of expensive fuel.
Plans for further missions to the Jovian system are under development though none of them are
scheduled to arrive at the planet before 2016. In order to send a craft to Jupiter we have to face many
technical difficulties which are to be kept in mind, particularly the large fuel requirements of the probes
and also the effects of the harsh radiation environment of the planet. The paper highlights significant
achievements in Jupiter study since early seventies till date. The information gathered so far by using
different spacecrafts have been examined indicating the problems in sending space probes to that
environment.

2. SIGNIFICANT MILESTONES
In this section we have considered the important achievements of Jupiter study in different
decades starting from seventies [http://www.timelinesdb.com/showsubj.php?subj=62]. In order to make
a suitable comparison of the significant technical applications and the outputs, we have presented the
same in two tables (Table 1 and Table 2) from 1973 to 1992 and 1993 to 2012, thus presenting
information of two decades in each table.

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Table 1 Technical attempts and achievements with a period of two decades since 1973
Date Dominant features
Pioneer 10 passed Jupiter in the 1st fly-by of
December 3, 1973
an outer planet
Pioneer 11 made its nearest approach to
December 04, 1974
Jupiter
The United States launched an unmanned
spacecraft Voyager 2, carrying a 12-inch
August 20, 1977
copper phonograph record. It was scheduled
to pass Jupiter and Saturn
The US Voyager I collected the first image of
March 04, 1979
Jupiter's rings
Voyager I made its nearest approach to
March 05, 1979
Jupiter (128,400 miles)
Voyager II made its nearest approach to
July 09, 1979 Jupiter. Both Voyager I and II probes spotted
volcanoes erupting on the Jupiter’s moon, Io
The space shuttle Atlantis was launched on a
October 18, 1989 five-day mission which included deployment
of the Galileo space probe for Jupiter
Galileo performed a second flyby of Earth at
December 08, 1992 303.1 km at 15:09:25 UT adding 3.7 km per
second to its cumulative speed

Table 2 Technical attempts and achievements with a period of two decades since 1993
Date Dominant features
The first of 21 pieces of comet Shoemaker-
Levy 9 slammed into Jupiter. The comet was
July 16, 1994
first discovered by astronomer Eugene
Shoemaker
Fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy
July 17, 1994 continued to smash into Jupiter, sending up
towering fireballs
A 746-pound probe from the Galileo
spacecraft hurtled into Jupiter's atmosphere,
December 07, 1995
sending back data to the mother ship before it
was presumably destroyed
The Galileo spacecraft was expected to fly to
within 527 miles of Ganymede (the largest
June 26, 1996
moon) of Jupiter. It was scheduled to
photograph Jupiter and four of its 16 moons
Scientists noted that the Jovian moon,
Ganymede, possesses a strong magnetic field
owing to a molten core. Its outer layer solid
December 12, 1996
ice was said to measure about 500 miles
thickness

April 09, 1997 Jupiter’s moon Europa confirmed the 1996

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revealed surface of massive icebergs floating

on an ocean more than 50 miles deep
Galileo spacecraft flew within 124 miles of
the surface and recorded images of Europa,
implicating a vast ocean below the surface,
Giant lightning bolts on Jupiter were reported
through the spacecraft and it indicated a
December 16, 1997 magnetic field around Ganymede. It further
indicated an atmosphere of hydrogen and
carbon dioxide around Callisto. Metallic
cores inside Io, Ganymede and Europa while
the lack of a similar core inside Callisto was
also noted
The spacecraft Galileo flew close to 120
miles above Io’s north pole and captured
August 05, 2001
wisps of volcanic gas largely composed of
sulfur dioxide
Six more moons were found to orbit Jupiter,
April 04, 2003 pushing to 58 the total number of known
natural satellites
Sheppard reported 43 more moons around
May 15, 2003 Jupiter reaching the total number of Jupiter
moons to 80
NASA’s Galileo mission ended a 14-year
September 21, 2003 exploration of the solar system's largest
planet and its moons
A new scar on Jupiter was detected that
July 19, 2009
covered around 73 million square miles
NASA launched an unmanned Atlas rocket
August 05, 2011 carrying a sun-powered robotic explorer
called Juno into space
Selection of the mission for the L1 launch
May 02, 2012 slot of ESA's Cosmic Vision science program
was announced

When Table 1 and Table 2 are compared it appears that during the first two decades both
‘Pioneer’ and ‘Voyager’ spacecrafts contributed in Jupiter investigation while during the rest two
decades the spacecraft ‘Galileo’ had the major role.

3. PARTICULARS OF THE SPACECRAFTS AND PROBLEMS IN SENDING

‘Pioneer 10’ was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter in 1973, followed by ‘Pioneer 11’ a few
months later. Besides taking the first close-up pictures of the planet, the probes discovered its
magnetosphere and also its largely fluid interior. After a period of about six years the ‘Voyager 1’ and
‘Voyager 2’ probes visited the planet in 1979. These spacecrafts studied the moons of Jupiter and the
ring system, in addition to discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the presence of water ice on the
Europa surface. ‘Ulysses’ further examined the Jupiter's magnetosphere in 1992 and again in 2000. On
the other hand, the ‘Cassini’ probe approached the planet in 2000 to collect detailed images of its
atmosphere. In 2007, the spacecraft ‘New Horizons’ passed by Jupiter and made improved
measurements of some parameters of its satellites. However, the ‘Galileo’ spacecraft was the only one to

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have entered an orbit around Jupiter, arriving in 1995 and studying the planet until 2003. During this
period ‘Galileo’ collected a large amount of information, making very close approaches to all of the four
giant Galilean moons. The spacecraft was able to get evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them and
also the possibility of liquid water beneath their surfaces. It further discovered a magnetic field around
Ganymede. In course of its approach to Jupiter, it witnessed the impact of the Comet Shoemaker–Levy
9. Future probes planned by NASA include the Juno spacecraft to enter into a polar orbit around Jupiter
for finding whether it possesses a rocky core or something else. The Europa Jupiter System Mission is
expected to launch sometime around 2020 whose purpose is to make an extended study of the moon
system of Jupiter, particularly Europa and Ganymede. The study may be able to settle the long-running
scientific debate over whether an ocean of liquid water exists under the icy surface of Europa. Some
distinct years for launching of different spacecrafts for Jovian study have shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Important years of Jovian study using different spacecrafts

A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface to land,
due to the smooth transition between the atmosphere of the planet and its fluid interior. If there is any
probe that is descending into the atmosphere it will eventually be crushed by the immense pressures
within Jupiter [1]. A second considerable issue is the amount of radiation to which a space probe can be
subjected, owing to the harsh charged-particle environment around Jupiter. In fact, when ‘Pioneer 11’
made its nearest approach to the planet, the level of radiation was ten times powerful than that estimated
by the designers, though with minor glitches the probe was ultimately able to pass through the radiation
belts. However it lost many images of the moon Io, as the radiation had caused the imaging photo
polarimeter of the spacecraft resulting to receive a number of false commands [2]. The technologically
advanced ‘Voyager’ spacecraft launched subsequently had to be redesigned keeping in mind the massive

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radiation levels [3]. The ‘Galileo’ spacecraft which orbited the planet over eight years revealed that the
probe's radiation dose far exceeded its design specifications. In fact, the system failed for the radiation
dose problem on several occasions. The gyroscopes of the spacecraft frequently showed increased errors
and electrical arcs occasionally occurred between its rotating and non-rotating parts which led to total
loss of the data from the 16th, 18th and 33rd orbits. Further, the radiation was responsible for shifting the
phase in ‘Galileo's’ ultra-stable quartz oscillator.

4. DETAILED MAP OF JUPITER EVER PRODUCED

The ‘Galileo’ orbiter went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7, 1995. It orbited the planet for
about eight years, making 35 orbits before it was destroyed on September 21, 2003 [4]. During this time
it acquired a significant amount of information about the Jovian system [5]. The major events during this
period of eight-year study included multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons [6] and also observed the
impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 [7]. A sequence of Galileo images taken at the interval of few
seconds revealed the appearance of the fireball on the dark side of the Jupiter from one of the fragments
of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 hitting the planet (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Sequences of Galileo images showing the appearance of the fireball [7]

Cameras on the ‘Galileo' spacecraft recorded fragments of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet between
July 16 and July 22, 1994 as they collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere at a speed of nearly
60 km/second. In fact, this was the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system
objects [8]. The detected fireball by its instruments reached a peak temperature of about 24,000 K (the
typical Jovian cloud top temperature of about 130 K) with the plume from the fireball reaching a height
of over 3,000 km [9].
The most detailed map of Jupiter ever produced was obtained by using ‘Cassini’. In 2000, the
‘Cassini’ probe flew by Jupiter and provided some highest-resolution images ever taken of the planet
(Figure 3).

Figure 3 Highest-resolution images taken by Cassini

[http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_413.html]

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Nearly 26,000 images of Jupiter were taken during the months-long flyby and produced the most
detailed global color portrait of Jupiter wherein the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km
across [10]. In 2003, an important finding of the flyby was of atmospheric circulation of Jupiter.
Scientists previously considered the atmosphere as dark belts alternate with light zones. But ‘Cassini’
imagery revealed that the dark belts contain individual storm cells of upwelling bright-white clouds
which is almost invisible from Earth [11].
Elaborate atmospheric observations further indicated a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric-
haze near Jupiter's North Pole whose size is about the size of the Great Red Spot. Infrared imagery
showed aspects of circulation near the poles, with adjacent bands traversing in opposite directions, thus
suggesting the nature of Jupiter's rings. Light scattering by particles in the rings revealed the irregular
shape of the particles rather than spherical and likely to originate from micrometeorite impacts on
Jupiter's moons, may be on Metis and Adrastea. The ‘Cassini’ spacecraft captured a very low resolution
image of the moon Himalia on December 19, 2000 but it was too far and was unable to show any surface
details [10].
The ‘New Horizons’ probe flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist was the first probe directly
launched towards Jupiter since the ‘Ulysses’ in 1990. Its Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI)
recorded the first photograph of Jupiter on September 4, 2006 [12] (Figure 4).

Figure 4 First photograph of Jupiter taken by LORRI on September 4, 2006

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Horizons]

The spacecraft continued various type of study of the Jovian system in December 2006, and made
its nearest approach on February 28, 2007 [13-15]. At the time of very close approach to Jupiter, the
instruments of ‘New Horizons' made some refined measurements of the orbits of inner moons of Jupiter,
particularly Amalthea. Moreover,the probe's cameras successfully measured volcanoes on Io and studied
some dominant characteristics of all four Galilean moons, in addition to long-distance investigations of
the outer moons Himalia and Elara [16]. The craft simultaneously considered Jupiter's Little Red Spot as
well as the planet's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system [17]. A photograph of the volcanic plumes
on Io, as recorded by ‘New Horizons’ in 2008 is shown in Figure 5.

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o Io, as recorded by ‘N
Figurre 5 Animattion of volcaanic plumes on New Horizons’ in 2008
[http://w
www.boston.com/bigpictture/2008/077/views_of_j
_jupiter.html]]

5. POTENTIA
P AL FOR CO OLONIZAT TION
While scientists neeed further evidence
e to ffind the exteent of a rockky core on Jupiter,
J its Galilean
G
mooons indicatee the potentiial opportunnity for futurre manned exploration. P Presently, paarticular targgets are
Euuropa owing to its potenttial for life and
a Callisto for its relattively low raadiation dosee [18, 19]. Inn 2003,
NAASA proposeed a program m named as Human Outeer Planets Exploration (H HOPE) that included a m manned
mission to the Galilean moons
m [20]. InI the Visionn for Space Explorationn policy as declared
d in January
J
200 04, NASA pointed
p out manned
m misssions beyonnd Mars, meentioning thaat a "human research preesence"
maay be expeccted on Juppiter's moonns [21]. NA ASA has speculated
s tthe possibility of miniing the
atm
mospheres of o the outer planets.
p Thiis is particullarly true for helium-3, an isotope of helium which w is
verry rare on Earth
E and coould have a very high vvalue per unnit mass as a thermonucclear fuel [222, 23].
Facctories statiooned in orbit could minee the gas annd at conveniient time it ccan be deliv vered to the vvisiting
craafts [24]. Hoowever, it shhould be meentioned thaat the Jovian n system gennerally posess disadvantaages for
collonization duue to the sevvere radiatioon conditionss prevailing in Jupiter's mmagnetosphere and alsoo for the
plaanet's deep gravitational
g well. Jupiteer would delliver about 3600
3 rem perr day to unsh hielded coloonists at
Io and about 540 rem per day d to unshiielded colonnists at Europpa [25], which is enoughh to cause raadiation
poiisoning and fatal [26, 299]. In Table 3 the radiatiion due to thhe four majorr Jovian moo ons have shoown.

Table 3 Raadiation from

m four major Jovian mooons
Moon Radiatiion in rem/d
day
Io 3
3600 [27]
Europa 5 [28]
540
Ganymede 8 [28]
Callisto 0
0.01 [28]

It appears from thee table that thhe Ganymedde receives about

a 8 rem of radiationn per day [299] while
Caallisto is subj
bject to 0.01 rem a day [29].
[ For coomparison we
w can mentiion that the average am mount of
rad
diation takenn on Earth byb a living organism
o is aabout 0.0065570 rem / day. The roenntgen equivaalent in
maan (rem) is a popular CGSC unit of equivalent ddose, effectiive dose, annd committedd dose. Thee rem is
deffined as equaal to 0.01 sieevert, whichh is the more commonly used
u SI unit.
Due too comparativvely low raddiation Calliisto is one of the mainn targets cho osen by the HOPE
udy. Scientissts believe that
stu t Callisto is the onlyy one of Juppiter's Galileean satellitess for which human
expploration is feasible. Thhe table clearrly suggests that the levels of ioniziing radiationn on Io, Euroopa and

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Ganymede are hostile to human life and as a matter of fact adequate protective measures have yet to be
devised [30].
It is a fact that sending flights from Earth to other planets in the Solar System have a high energy
cost. However, it could be possible to build a surface base to produce fuel for further exploration of the
Solar System. In this context it may be mentioned that the Artemis Project, in 1997, designed a plan to
colonize Europa [31] wherein it was thought that the explorers would drill down into the ‘Europan’ ice
crust and after entering into the postulated subsurface ocean, they would inhabit artificial air pockets
[32].

6. PRESENT AND PROPOSED MISSIONS

Due to the high possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto, scientists have shown great interest in the investigation of the icy moons in detail. The ‘Europa
Orbiter’ [33] was a planned NASA mission to Europa, which was, however, canceled in 2002 mainly for
fund problem [34]. Its main objectives are to determine the presence of a subsurface ocean and
identifying sites for future. In a similar way, ‘Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter’ was also canceled in 2005 [35].
Ultimately, NASA has launched a mission on August 5, 2011 to investigate Jupiter in detail from a polar
orbit called ‘Juno’. The spacecraft is suitable to study the planet's composition, magnetic field, gravity
field and polar magnetosphere. It will also be useful to study the properties related to how Jupiter formed
and whether the planet has a rocky core. This will also be used to study the amount of water present
within the deep atmosphere and how the mass is distributed within the planet. This may further provide
information about Jupiter's deep winds [36, 37] which can attain speeds of 600 km/h [38, 39].
In February 2009, for further exploration of Jupiter and its moons, NASA/ESA have proposed the
‘Europa Jupiter System Mission’ (EJSM) giving priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission [40,
41]. The proposal includes a tentative launch date of around 2020 and consists of the NASA-led Jupiter
Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter [42, 43].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to the Kalyani University PURSE Program for financial support in this work. B.
Raha is thankful to CSIR for awarding her NET Fellowship.

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