INSTITUTO CULTURAL

MEXICANO
NORTEAMERICANO DE
MICHOACAN A.C.

TEACHERS TRAINING COURSE

PSYCHOLOGY

Teacher: Pola

Student: Elber Oswaldo Campos Valdes

 NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known
as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is
essentially the body's electrical wiring.

Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health,
the central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The
peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of
neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the central nervous
system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or
voluntary, component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The
autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood
pressure and the rate of breathing, that work without conscious effort, according
to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves that connect the brain
and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.

Nerves
Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and
branch out to every other part of the body, according to the University of Michigan
Medical School.

Neurons
Send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals
known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses, the NIH
noted. There are over 100 trillion neural connections in the average human brain,
though the number and location can vary. For example, a new study published
January 2018 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
found that out of the 160 participants studied, the brains of highly creative people
have more connections among three specific regions of the brain than less creative
thinkers.
A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication process
typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond. Signals travel along an alpha motor
neuron in the spinal cord 268 mph (431 km/h); the fastest transmission in the
human body, according to Discover magazine.

Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send
feedback to the central nervous system about the body's surrounding environment,
according to the American Psychological Association. Motor neurons, located in
the central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, transmit signals to activate the
muscles or glands.
Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," are specialized cells that
support, protect or nourish nerve cells, according to the Oregon

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is protected by the skull
(the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels from the back of the brain, down the
center of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region of the lower back.

The brain and spinal cord are both housed within a protective triple-layered
membrane called the meninges.

The central nervous system has been thoroughly studied by anatomists and
physiologists, but it still holds many secrets; it controls our thoughts, movements,
emotions, and desires. It also controls our breathing, heart rate, the release of
some hormones, body temperature, and much more.

The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves, and olfactory epithelium are sometimes
considered to be part of the CNS alongside the brain and spinal cord. This is
because they connect directly with brain tissue without intermediate nerve fibers.

Below, we will look at some of the parts of the CNS in more detail, starting with the
brain.
 THE BRAIN
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the
outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an estimated
15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of other neurons.
In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up
the human brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body's total energy. The
brain is the central control module of the body and coordinates activity. From
physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of memories, and the
sensation of emotion.To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have
dedicated roles. However, many higher functions — reasoning, problem-solving,
creativity — involve different areas working together in networks.The brain is
roughly split into four lobes:

The brain can be roughly split into four lobes.

Temporal lobe (green): important for processing sensory input and assigning it
emotional meaning. It is also involved in laying down long-term memories. Some
aspects of language perception are also housed here.
Occipital lobe (purple): visual processing region of the brain, housing the visual
cortex.
Parietal lobe (yellow): the parietal lobe integrates sensory information including
touch, spatial awareness, and navigation.Touch stimulation from the skin is
ultimately sent to the parietal lobe. It
also plays a part in language
processing.
Frontal lobe (pink): positioned at the
front of the brain, the frontal lobe
contains the majority of dopamine-
sensitive neurons and is involved in
attention, reward, short-term memory,
motivation, and planning.
Spinal cord

The spinal cord carries information from the brain to the rest of the body. The
spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information between
the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks. From the brainstem, where the
spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves enter the cord .Along its length, it
connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that run in from
the skin, muscles, and joints. Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine
to the muscles and sensory information travels from the sensory tissues — such as
the skin — toward the spinal cord and finally up to the brain. The spinal cord
contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses, such as the involuntary
movement your arm might make if your finger was to touch a flame. The circuits
within the spine can also generate more complex movements such as walking.
Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can coordinate all of the
muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a cat is separated from its
spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it will start spontaneously
walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is only required to stop and start the
process, or make changes if, for instance, an object appears in your path.

WHITE AND GRAY MATTER

The CNS can be roughly divided into white and gray matter. As a very general rule,
the brain consists of an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner area housing
tracts of white matter.

Both types of tissue contain glial cells, which protect and support neurons. White
matter mostly consists of axons (nerve projections) and oligodendrocytes — a type
of glial cell — whereas gray matter consists predominantly of neurons.
 CENTRAL GLIAL CELLS
Also called neuroglia, glial cells are often called support cells for neurons. In the
brain, they outnumber nerve cells 10 to 1. Without glial cells, developing nerves
often lose their way and struggle to form functioning synapses. Glial cells are found
in both the CNS and PNS but each system has different types. The following are
brief descriptions of the CNS glial cell types:

Astrocytes: these cells have numerous projections and anchor neurons to their
blood supply. They also regulate the local environment by removing excess ions
and recycling neurotransmitters.

Oligodendrocytes: responsible for creating the myelin sheath — this thin layer
coats nerve cells, allowing them to send signals quickly and efficiently.

Ependymal cells: lining the spinal cord and the brain's ventricles (fluid-filled
spaces), these create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and keep it circulating
using their whip-like cilia.

Radial glia: act as scaffolding for new nerve cells during the creation of the
embryo's nervous system.
 CRANIAL NERVES
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and pass
through holes in the skull rather than traveling along the spinal cord. These nerves
collect and send information between the brain and parts of the body – mostly the
neck and head. Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and optic nerves arise from the
forebrain and are considered part of the central nervous system:

Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I): transmit information about odors from the
upper section of the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the base of the brain.

Optic nerves (cranial nerve II): carry visual information from the retina to the
primary visual nuclei of the brain. Each optic nerve consists of around 1.7 million
nerve fibers.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
DEFINITION
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all neurons that exist outside the
brain and spinal cord. This includes long nerve fibers containing bundles of axons
as well as ganglia made of neural cell bodies. The peripheral nervous system
connects the central nervous system (CNS) made of the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body and receives input from the external environment as well.

Functionally, the PNS is divided into sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerves,
depending on whether they bring information to the CNS from sensory receptors or
carry instructions towards muscles, organs or other effectors. Motor nerves can be
further classified as somatic or autonomic nerves, depending on whether the motor
activity is under voluntary conscious control.

Anatomically, the PNS can be divided into spinal and cranial nerves, depending on
whether they emerge from the spinal cord or the brain and brainstem. Both cranial
and spinal nerves can have sensory, motor or mixed functions. The enteric
nervous system, surrounding the gastrointestinal tract is another important part of
the peripheral nervous system. While it receives signals from the autonomic
nervous system, it can function independently as well and contains nearly five
times as many neurons as the spinal cord.

Functions of the Peripheral Nervous System

The primary function of the peripheral nervous system is to connect the brain and
spinal cord to the rest of the body and the external environment. This is
accomplished through nerves that carry information from sensory receptors in the
eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue, as well as stretch receptors and nociceptors in
muscles, glands and other internal organs. When the CNS integrates these varied
signals, and formulates a response, motor nerves of the PNS innervate effector
organs and mediate the contraction or relaxation of skeletal, smooth or cardiac
muscle.

Thus, the PNS regulates internal homeostasis through the autonomic nervous
system, modulating respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion reproduction
and immune responses. It can increase or decrease the strength of muscle
contractility across the body, whether it is sphincters in the digestive and excretory
systems, cardiac muscles in the heart or skeletal muscles for movement. It is
necessary for all voluntary action, balance and maintenance of posture and for the
release of secretions from most exocrine glands. The PNS innervates the muscles
surrounding sense organs, so it is involved in chewing, swallowing, biting and
speaking. At the same time, it mediates the response of the body to noxious
stimuli, quickly removing the body from the injurious stimulus, whether it is
extremes in temperature, pH, or pressure, as well as stretching and compressing
forces.

Sensory Nervous System

The functional classification of the PNS divides it into three categories. The first is
the sensory nervous system, carrying signals from the viscera, sense organs,
muscles, bones and joints towards the CNS. Nerve fibers that carry this information
are part of the afferent division. Sensory receptors can transduce a physical
stimulus such as pressure, sound waves, electromagnetic radiation, or chemical
composition, into an electrochemical signal. This signal, when it reaches a certain
threshold, is transmitted as an action potential along an afferent neuron, and
relayed to the CNS, where the signal is perceived and interpreted. Thus the
sensory nervous system consisting of the receptor and neural pathway deliver
information about intensity, location, type and duration of a stimulus to the CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

The second functional division of the PNS is the somatic nervous system. It
controls voluntary muscular movement of skeletal muscles in the limbs, back,
shoulders, neck and face. It also mediates reflex actions, where an afferent nerve
fiber is nearly directly connected to a motor nerve fiber, to quickly generate a
response to stimulus. These include protective responses, like the movement of
the body away from acute injurious stimuli like extremes in temperature, as well as
those like the patellar ‘knee-jerk’ response when the patellar ligament is struck.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is related to all the involuntary visceral activity of
the body. It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and
their effector organs include cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and various glands.
The anatomy of the autonomic nervous system is distinct because the effector arm
involves two neurons that synapse with each other at specific ganglia. The neurons
of the sympathetic nervous system have short preganglionic neurons that can
excite multiple postganglionic nerve fibers. The sympathetic nervous system is said
to have a thoracic and lumbar outflow.
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
Neurotransmitter, also called chemical transmitter or chemical messenger,
any of a group of chemical agents released by neurons(nerve cells) to stimulate
neighbouring neurons or muscle or gland cells, thus allowing impulses to be
passed from one cell to the next throughout the nervous system.

Neurotransmitter Signaling

Neurotransmitters are synthesized by neurons and are stored in vesicles, which

typically are located in the axon’s terminal end, also known as the presynaptic
terminal. The presynaptic terminal is separated from the neuron or muscle or gland
cell onto which it impinges by a gap called the synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft,
presynaptic terminal, and receiving dendrite of the next cell together form a
junction known as the synapse.
 When a nerve impulse arrives at the presynaptic terminal of one neuron,
neurotransmitter-filled vesicles migrate through the cytoplasm and fuse with the
presynaptic terminal membrane. The neurotransmitter molecules are then released
through the presynaptic membrane and into the synaptic cleft. In milliseconds, they
travel across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane of the adjoining
neuron, where they then bind to receptors. Receptor activation results in either the
opening or the closing of ion channels in the membrane of the second cell, which
alters the cell’s permeability. In many instances, the change in permeability results
in depolarization, causing the cell to produce its own action potential, thereby
initiating an electrical impulse. In other cases, the change leads to
hyperpolarization, which prevents the generation of an action potential by the
second cell.

The termination of neurotransmitter activity happens in several different ways. The

molecules may diffuse out of the synaptic cleft, away from the receptive cell. They
also can be taken back up into the presynaptic terminal via transporter molecules,
or they may be metabolized by enzymes in the synaptic cleft.

Types of Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft by

neurons.

 They maintain signals in the nervous system by binding to receptors on post-

synaptic neurons and triggering electrical impulses
 They also activate responses by effector organs (such as contraction in muscles or
hormone release from endocrine glands).

Neurotransmitters may be either excitatory or inhibitory in their effect (some may

be both depending on the receptor they bind to).
 Excitatory neurotransmitters trigger depolarisation, increasing the likelihood of a
response.
 Inhibitory neurotransmitters trigger hyperpolarisation, decreasing the likelihood of a
response.
 Major Classes of Neurotransmitter

Adrenaline
 Adrenaline is primarily a hormone released by
the adrenal gland, but some neurons may
secrete it as a neurotransmitter
 It increases heart rate and blood flow, leading to
a physical boost and heightened awareness
 It is produced during stressful or exciting
situations

Noradrenaline
 In contrast to adrenaline, noradrenaline is
predominantly a neurotransmitter that is
occasionally released as a hormone
 It contracts blood vessels and increases blood
flow, improving attention and the speed at which
responsive actions occur

Dopamine
 It is primarily responsible for feelings of
pleasure, but is also involved in movement and
motivation
 People tend to repeat behaviours that lead to
dopamine release, leading to addictions
 Abnormal dopamine secretion is common in
specific movement disorders, like Parkinson’s
disease
Serotonin
 Contributes to feelings of well-being and
happiness
 Is affected by exercise and light exposure, and
plays a role in the sleep cycle and digestive
system regulation

GABA
 Inhibits neuron firing in the CNS – high levels
improve focus whereas low levels cause anxiety
 Also contributes to motor control and vision

Acetylcholine
 Involved in thought, learning and memory within
the brain
 Activates muscle contraction in the body and is
also associated with attention and awakening

Glutamate
 Most common brain neurotransmitter
 Regulates development and creation of new
nerve pathways and hence is involved in
learning and memory

Endorphins
 Release is associated with feelings of euphoria
and a reduction in pain (body’s natural 'pain
killers’)
 Released during exercise, excitement and sex
 LIMBIC SYSTEM
Emotion in the Brain
The major brain regions that support emotional processing include the limbic

system – particularly the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus – and the

prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), nucleus accumbens, and insula.

Technical note: there are two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain; the

same for the two amygdalae, ACCs, and insulae. Following common practice, we’ll

mainly use the singular form.

By the way, as an interesting evolutionary detail, the limbic system seems to have

evolved from the olfactory (scent) neural circuitry in the brain developed by our

ancient mammal ancestors, living around 180 million years ago. They seem to

have used their advanced sense of smell to hunt at night, while those cold-blooded

reptiles were snoozing – and easier prey.

The conscious experience of emotion is just the top story – the penthouse floor –

resting on many layers of neurological activity, both the firing of very complex and

intertwining neural circuits and the tidal flows of neurotransmitters and hormones

such as dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin. Here’s a brief summary of each of

these brain regions and its apparent role in emotion:

• Hippocampus – This vaguely sea-horse shaped region helps store the contexts,

especially visual-spatial ones, for important experiences, such as the smell of a

predator . . . or the look of an angry parent. This region is necessary for forming

personal memories of events, and is unfortunately damaged over time by the

cortisol released by chronic stress (especially, high or even traumatic levels of

stress).

• Amygdala – Connected to the hippocampus by the neural equivalent of a fourlane

superhighway, this small, almond-shaped region is particularly involved in the

processing of information about threats. The subjective awareness of threat comes

from the feeling tone of experience when it is unpleasant (distinct from pleasant or

neutral). When it perceives a threat – whether an external stimulus like a car

running a red light or an internal one, such as suddenly recalling an impending

deadline – the amygdala sends a jolt of alarm to the hypothalamus and other brain

regions. It also triggers the ventral tegmentum, in the brain stem, to send dopamine

to the nucleus accumbens (and other brain regions) in order to sensitize them all to

the “red alert” information now streaming through the brain as a whole.

• Hypothalamus – This is a major switchboard of the brain, involved in the

regulation of basic bodily drives such as thirst and hunger. When it gets a “Yikes!”

signal from the amygdala, it tells the pituitary gland to tell the adrenals to start

release epinephrine and other stress hormones, to get the body ready for

immediate fight-or-flight action. But keep in mind that this activation occurs not just

when a lion jumps out of the bushes, but chronically, in rush-hour traffic and multi-

tasking, and in response to internal mental events such as pain or anger. (For

more on the stress response – and what you can do about it – see the Wise Brain

Bulletins, Volume 1, #5 and #6.)

• Prefrontal cortex (PFC) – If you whack your self on the forehead, the mini-shock

waves reverberate through the PFC, which is “pre” because it is in front of the
frontal cortex. The PFC is centrally involved in anticipating things, making plans,

organizing action, monitoring results, changing plans, and settling conflicts

between different goals: these are called the “executive functions,” and if the brain

is one big village, the PFC is its mayor.

Where emotion is concerned, the PFC helps foresee the emotional rewards (or

penalties) of different courses of action. The PFC also inhibits emotional reactions;

many more nerve fibers head down from the PFC to the limbic circuitry than in the

other direction. The left PFC plays a special role in controlling negative affect and

aggression: stroke victims whose left PFC is damaged tend to become more

irritable, distraught, and hostile (the same happened for the unfortunate and

famous Phineas Gage, the engineer who suffered an iron bar through his forehead

in a mining explosion). On the other hand, differential activation of the left PFC is

associated with positive emotions – and years of meditation practice!

• Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) – This sits in the middle of the brain, centrally

located for communication with the PFC and the limbic system. It monitors conflicts

between different objects of attention – Should I notice the bananas in this tree or

that snake slithering toward me? Should I listen to my partner or focus on this TV

show? – and flags those for resolution by the frontal lobes. Therefore, it lights up

when we attend to emotionally relevant stimuli, or sustain our attention to important

feelings – inside ourselves and other people – in the face of competing stimuli

(e.g., trying to get a sense for what’s really bugging a family member underneath a

rambling story and other verbiage).

• Nucleus accumbens – In conditions of emotional arousal – especially fear-related

– the accumbens receives a major wake-up call of dopamine from the tegmentum,

which sensitizes it to information coming from the amygdala and other regions.

Consequently, the accumbens sends more intense signals to the pallidum, a relay

station for the motor systems, which results in heightened behavioral activity. This

system works for both negative and positive feelings. For example, the accumbens

lights up when a person with an addiction sees the object of his or her craving.

• Insula – Deeply involved in interoception – the sensing of the internal state of the

body (e.g., gut feelings, internal sensations of breathing, nausea) – the insula lets

you know about the deeper layers of your emotional life. And it is key to sensing

the primary emotions in others, such as fear of pain, or disgust.

 Sensory Perception
Describing sensory function with the term sensation or perception is a deliberate
distinction. Sensation is the activation of sensory receptor cells at the level of the
stimulus. Perception is the central processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful
pattern. Perception is dependent on sensation, but not all sensations are
perceived. Receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. A receptor
cell is changed directly by a stimulus. A transmembrane protein receptor is a
protein in the cell membrane that mediates a physiological change in a neuron,
most often through the opening of ion channels or changes in the cell signaling
processes. Transmembrane receptors are activated by chemicals called ligands.
For example, a molecule in food can serve as a ligand for taste receptors. Other
transmembrane proteins, which are not accurately called receptors, are sensitive to
mechanical or thermal changes. Physical changes in these proteins increase ion
flow across the membrane, and can generate an action potential or a graded
potential in the sensory neurons.

Sensory Receptors
Stimuli in the environment activate specialized receptor cells in the peripheral
nervous system. Different types of stimuli are sensed by different types of receptor
cells. Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different
criteria: cell type, position, and function. Receptors can be classified structurally on
the basis of cell type and their position in relation to stimuli they sense. They can
also be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how
the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential.

Structural Receptor Types

The cells that interpret information about the environment can be either (1) a
neuron that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites embedded in tissue that
would receive a sensation; (2) a neuron that has an encapsulated ending in
which the sensory nerve endings are encapsulated in connective tissue that
enhances their sensitivity; or (3) a specialized receptor cell, which has distinct
structural components that interpret a specific type of stimulus (Figure 1). The pain
and temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin are examples of neurons that
have free nerve endings. Also located in the dermis of the skin are lamellated
corpuscles, neurons with encapsulated nerve endings that respond to pressure
and touch. The cells in the retina that respond to light stimuli are an example of a
specialized receptor, a photoreceptor.
Functional Receptor Types
A third classification of receptors is by how the receptor transduces stimuli into
membrane potential changes. Stimuli are of three general types. Some stimuli are
ions and macromolecules that affect transmembrane receptor proteins when these
chemicals diffuse across the cell membrane. Some stimuli are physical variations
in the environment that affect receptor cell membrane potentials. Other stimuli
include the electromagnetic radiation from visible light. For humans, the only
electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. Some other
organisms have receptors that humans lack, such as the heat sensors of snakes,
the ultraviolet light sensors of bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory birds.

Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they
transduce. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets
chemical stimuli, such as an object’s taste or smell. Osmoreceptors respond to
solute concentrations of body fluids. Additionally, pain is primarily a chemical sense
that interprets the presence of chemicals from tissue damage, or similar intense
stimuli, through a nociceptor. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as
well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through
a mechanoreceptor. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is
temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to
temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature.

Sensory Modalities
Ask anyone what the senses are, and they are likely to list the five major senses—
taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight. However, these are not all of the senses.
The most obvious omission from this list is balance. Also, what is referred to simply
as touch can be further subdivided into pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-follicle
position, on the basis of the type of mechanoreceptors that perceive these touch
sensations. Other overlooked senses include temperature perception by
thermoreceptors and pain perception by nociceptors.

Within the realm of physiology, senses can be classified as either general or

specific. A general sense is one that is distributed throughout the body and has
receptor cells within the structures of other organs. Mechanoreceptors in the skin,
muscles, or the walls of blood vessels are examples of this type. General senses
often contribute to the sense of touch, as described above, or
to proprioception (body movement) and kinesthesia (body movement), or to
a visceral sense, which is most important to autonomic functions. A special
sense is one that has a specific organ devoted to it, namely the eye, inner ear,
tongue, or nose.

Each of the senses is referred to as a sensory modality. Modality refers to the

way that information is encoded, which is similar to the idea of transduction. The
main sensory modalities can be described on the basis of how each is transduced.
The chemical senses are taste and smell. The general sense that is usually
referred to as touch includes chemical sensation in the form of nociception, or pain.
Pressure, vibration, muscle stretch, and the movement of hair by an external
stimulus, are all sensed by mechanoreceptors. Hearing and balance are also
sensed by mechanoreceptors. Finally, vision involves the activation of
photoreceptors.

Listing all the different sensory modalities, which can number as many as 17,
involves separating the five major senses into more specific categories,
or submodalities, of the larger sense. An individual sensory modality represents
the sensation of a specific type of stimulus. For example, the general sense of
touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure,
deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement.

 Gustation (Taste)

 Olfaction (Smell)

 Audition (Hearing)

 Equilibrium (Balance

 )Somatosensation (Touch)

 Vision
 COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does continuously. They
are procedures in charge of processing all the information we receive from the
environment. Thanks to these cognitive processes, cognition exists and it allows us
to explore the world.

Cognitive processes are analyzed from different sciences including, sociology,

linguistics, neurology, anthropology, and philosophy. As for psychology, cognitive
psychology is the field in charge of studying cognitive processes.

In the 60’s, a new psychological perspective emerged that lead to the cognitive
revolution and the study of cognitive processes. Mental processes in psychology
are now thoroughly investigated. They are now even applied not only to explain
disorders but to areas such as marketing and sales.

Neuroimaging or brain imaging has been of great help in how we process

information and what parts of the brain are related to what cognitive processes. In
this article, we will take a closer look at how different cognitive processes influence
your daily life.

Types of cognitive processes

Basic Cognitive Processes
Sensation and perception
Sensations are caused by different stimuli in our environment. The stimuli first
reach our senses and allow us to filter information from the outside world. Once we
receive this information, perception takes over and we start interpreting these
stimuli.
We are continuously using our perception without even noticing it. We are
conscious of other people’s movements, messages we receive on our phone, food
flavors, our posture, etc. Our past experiences also play a part in the interpretation
of different stimuli. Gestalt psychologists were the main researchers in perception.

Attention
Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are capable of
centering our attention on the stimuli that interest us. Some actions such as
walking and chewing require little attention. Nonetheless, other activities such as
speaking and body language require focus, especially when we are giving a
lecture.
Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves
towards relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it.
There are different types of attention including arousal, focused attention,
sustained attention, selective attention, alternating attention, and divided attention.
Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we have to repeat
several times a day, making it easier to focus on other tasks. For example, at
first learning to driveand focus on all the things one must do is difficult but after a
while, it is done naturally and without thinking.

Memory
What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary school? How
do you play the guitar? Our memory has the answers to these questions and much
more. It allows us to encode the data we receive from the environment, consolidate
and retrieve it later.
We have different types of memory; sensory memory, short-term memory, working
memory, semantic memory, etc. All these types of memories interact together but
they don’t all depend on the same brain areas. An example of this is people with
amnesia still remember how to walk but can’t remember their partner’s name.
Cognitive processes such as memory are essential for daily life. Memory, as a
cognitive process, includes encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the
mechanism where information is changed from the moment it reaches us to a form
that our brain can store. Storage refers to how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is
held. Finally, retrieval refers to getting information out storage.

High or Complex Cognitive Processes

Intelligence

According to Gardner’s multiple bits of intelligence, there is not only one

intelligence but several different bits of intelligence. He established that
intrapersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence,
and musical intelligence are examples of higher cognitive processes.
Recently, emotional intelligence has caught people’s attention, it is the ability to
manage the difficulties we face daily.
We can always work to strengthen our different types of intelligence and we
shouldn’t limit ourselves to a number given from a specific intelligence test.
Thought
The complexity and heterogeneity of our thoughts are fascinating. This higher
mental process is responsible for tasks related to problem-solving, reasoning,
decision-making, creative thinking, divergent thinking, etc.
To simplify these functions, our brain creates concepts. We need to group ideas,
objects, people or any other kind of elements that come to mind. Usually, this helps
us streamline our cognitive processes. However, sometimes we try to be logical
and often ignore how irrational we can be. We take shortcuts to process
information faster not taking into account the details that might be important. This
can lead to cognitive biases, which are deviations from the normal process of
reasoning. For example, we sometimes believe that we are able to figure out what
is going to happen in a game of chance.
On occasions, cognitive biases can lead to cognitive distortions which are
extremely negative and irrational thoughts, for example, “the world hates me”. It’s
always important to remember we are able to stop these thoughts and work on
them. If these thoughts overpower you, it’s crucial you speak to someone .

Language
Astonishingly, we are capable of producing and comprehending different sounds
and words, combine different letters and phrases and expressing with precision
what we want to communicate, even in different languages. We even use our body
language to communicate.
Language development is produced all throughout our lifetime. The communicative
skills of each person vary significantly and can be improved by practice.
Some language disorders especially make it difficult to communicate for different
reasons, although it is also possible to help people with these problems.
Cognitive processes involved in language are fundamental in learning how
to effectively communicate.