Section 1.

4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 In Chemistry, measurements are made using the Metric System.
Metric System:
 SI Units:
 Length (m)
 Mass (kg)
 Time (s)
 Temperature (K or C)
𝑚
 Density ( 𝑣 )

Assignment:
VISUALIZING CONCEPTS
1.4 Identify each of the following as measurements of length, area, volume, mass, density, time, or temperature:
(a) 25 ps, (b) 374.2 mg, (c) 77K, (d) 100,000 km2, (e) 1.06 μm, (f) 16 nm2, (g) -78°C,
(h) 2.56 g/cm3. [Section 1.4]
(a) time; (b) mass; (c) temperature; (d) area; (e) length; (f) area; (g) temperature; (h) volume
1.5 (a) Three spheres of equal size are composed of aluminum (density = 2.70 g/cm3), silver (density = 10.49
g/cm3), and nickel (density = 8.90 g/cm3). List the spheres from lightest to heaviest. (b) Three cubes of equal
mass are composed of gold (density = 19.32 g/cm3), platinum (density = 21.45 g/cm3), and lead (density = 11.35
g/cm3). List the cubes from smallest to largest. [Section 1.4]
(a) aluminum is the lightest, then nickel, and then silver.
(b) Lead is the smallest, then gold, and then platinum.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS (section 1.4)
1.23 What exponential notation do the following abbreviations represent: (a) d, (b) c, (c) f, (d) μ, (e) M, (f) k,
(g) n, (h) m, (i) p?
(a) d: 10-1; (b) c: 10-2; (c) f: 10-15; (d) μ: 10-6; (e) M: 106; (f) k: 103; (g) n: 10-9; (h) m: 10-3; (i) p: 10-12
Section 1.5 UNCERTAINITY IN MEASUREMENT
 Precision: indicates how closely different measurements of a quantity agree with one another.
 Accuracy: indicates how well a measurement agrees with the accepted or true value.
Significant Figures:
 The significant figures indicate the extent of the uncertainty of the measurement.
 All nonzero digits are significant.
 Zeros between the two significant figures are themselves significant.
 Zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant.
 Zeroes at the end of a number significant if a decimal point is written in the number.
 Calculating Rules:
o In addition and subtraction:
 The quantity with the fewest decimal places determines the number of significant figures.
 Example:
49.146 m + 72.13 m – 9.1434 m = 112.1326 m (calculator display)
= 112.13 m (rounded answer)
o In multiplication and division:
 The result should have no more significant figures than the factor with the fewest significant
figures.
 Example:
1.827 m × 0.762 m = 1.392174 m2 (calculator display)
= 1.39 m2 (rounded answer)
Assignment:
UNCERTAINITY IN MEASUREMENT (section 1.5)
1.33 Indicate which of the following are exact numbers: (a) the mass of a piece of paper, (b) the volume of a
cup of coffee, (c) the number of inches in a mile, (d) the number of ounces in a pound, (e) the number of
microseconds in a week, (f) the number of pages in this book.
(c) the number of inches in a mile; (d) the number of ounces in a pound; (f) the number of pages in this book
1.35 What is the number of significant figures in each of the following measured quantities? (a) 601 kg, (b)
0.053 s, (c) 6.3050 cm, (d) 0.0105 L, (e) 7.0500 × 10-3 m-3, (f) 400 g.
(a) three; (b) two; (c) five; (d) three; (e) five; (f) one
1.37 Round each of the following numbers to four significant figure, and express the result in standard
exponential notation: (a) 102.53070, (b) 656,980, (c) 0.008543210, (d) 0.000257870, (e) −0.0357202.
(a) 102.5; (b) 657,000; (c) 0.008543; (d) 0.0002579; (e) -0.03572
1.39 Carry out the following operations and express the answers with the appropriate number of significant
figures.
(a) 14.3505 + 2.65 = 17.00
(b) 952.7 – 140.7389 = 811.9
(c) (3.29 × 104)(0.2501) = 8228
(d) 0.0588/0.677 = 0.0868
Section 2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER
Section 2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 Atoms: are the basic building blocks of matter. They are the smallest units of an element.
Laws of Chemical Combination:
1. Law of conservation of Mass (Lavoisier):
“Mass is neither created nor destroyed” – The total mass remains constant during a chemical reaction.
2. Law of Definite Proportions (Proust):
“All samples of a compound have the same composition” – A given compound always contains
exactly the same proportions of elements by mass”
3. Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton):
“In two or more compounds of the same two elements, the masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the second element are in the ratio of small whole numbers”
 Atoms are composed of even smaller particles. (subatomic particles)
 Particles with the same charges repel each other, whereas particles with unlike charges attract each other.
Discovery of Subatomic particles:
 Thomson’s experiment:

o Streams of negatively charges particles were found to emit from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
o Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76 × 108 coulombs/gram (C/g).
  Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment:

o Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of either the charge or the mass
of an electron would yield the other.
o Robert Millikan determined the charge of the
electron, which was 1.602 × 10−19
 Radioactivity:
o Rutherford discovered the three types of radiation:
 Alpha particles (α)
 Beta particles (β)
 Gamma rays (γ)
 Atomic models:
1. “Raisin Pudding” by Thomson 2. “Nuclear” atomic model by Rutherford

This atomic model featured a positive Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thomson’s model
sphere of matter with negative could not be correct. Rutherford discovered the protons (+ve) within
electrons imbedded in it. the nucleus.
Assignment:
ATOMIC THEORY AND THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE (section 2.1-2.2)
2.9 How does Dalton’s theory account for the fact that 1,000g of water is decomposed into its elements, 0.111g
of hydrogen and 0.889g of oxygen are obtained regardless of the source of the water?
One of Dalton’s atomic theory states that the kinds and relative numbers of an atom in a compound is
constant regardless of its source.

2.13 Summarize the evidence used by J.J. Thomson to argue that cathode rays consist of negatively charged
particles.
Magnetic as well as Electric fields deflect the rays the same way a negatively charged particle would do.
 Section 2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Section 2.4 ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Subatomic Particles:

 Elements are classified by their Atomic Number.

 Atomic Number = No. of Protons (+ve).
 Mass Number = No. of Protons (+ve) + No. of Neutrons (Neutral charge).
Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different masses (mass no.)

Atomic mass: is defined by assigning a mass of exactly 12 amu to a 12C atom. (whole numbers)
Atomic Weight: can be calculated from the relative abundances and
masses of that element’s isotopes. (NOT whole numbers)
The Mass Spectrometer provides the most direct and accurate
means of experimentally measuring the atomic (and molecular)
weights.
Assignment:
MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE; ATOMIC WEIGHTS (section 2.3-2.4)
2.23 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are the following atoms: (a) 40Ar, (b) 65Zn, (c) 70Ga, (d) 80Br,
(e) 184W, (f) 243Am?
(a) Ar: 18p, 22n, 18e
(b) Zn: 30p, 35n, 30e
(c) Ga: 31p, 39n, 31e
(d) Br: 35p, 45n, 35e
(e) W: 74p, 110n, 74e
(f) Am: 95p, 148n, 95e
2.31 Only two isotopes of copper occur naturally, 63Cu (atomic mass = 62.9296 amu; abundance 69.17%) and
65
Cu (atomic mass = 64.9278 amu; 30.83%). Calculate the atomic weight (average atomic mass) of copper.
63
Cu: 62.9296 × 0.6917 = 43.5284
65
Cu: 64.9278 × 0.3083 = 20.0172
Weighted average atomic mass: 43.5284 + 20.0172 = 63.5456u
 Section 2.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Section 2.6 MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Section 2.7 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS
The periodic table:

 Elements, in the periodic table, are arranged in order of atomic number.

 The rows on the periodic chart are periods.
 Columns are groups.
o Some known groups:

 Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

 Metals are on the left side of the periodic table.
 Metalloids border the stair-step line.
 Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table.
Molecules:
 Atoms can combine to form molecules.
 Molecular compounds usually contain nonmetallic elements only.
 Diatomic molecules: a molecule that contains two atoms.
o Hydrogen (H); Nitrogen (N); Oxygen (O); Fluorine (F); Chlorine (Cl); Bromine (B); Iodine (I).
 Chemical Formulas:
Chemical Formulas Description Example
It is the actual formula of a molecule or an ionic Glucose: C6H12O6
Molecular Formula
compound Water: H2O
It is the simplest formula of the molecular or an
ionic compound. Glucose: CH2O
Empirical Formula
For certain substances, their empirical formulas Water: H2O
similar to the molecular formulas.
Glucose:
It shows the order in which the atoms in a
Structural Formula
molecule are connected.
Water:
Ions: When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.
 Cations: are positive and formed by metals.
 Anions: are negative and formed by nonmetals.
 Ionic Compounds: are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.
 Polyatomic ions: are atoms that are joined together, but carry a net charge.
Assignment:
THE PERIODIC TABLE; MOLECULES AND IONS (sections 2.5-2.7)
2.39 For each of the following elements, write its chemical symbol, determine the name of the group to which it
belongs (Table 2.3), and indicate whether it is a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal: (a) potassium, (b) iodine, (c)
magnesium, (d) argon, (e) sulfur.
(a) Potassium: K, alkali metals, metal.
(b) Iodine: I, halogens, nonmetals.
(c) Magnesium: Mg, alkaline earth metals, metal.
(d) Argon: Ar, noble gases, nonmetals.
(e) Sulfur: S, chalcogens, nonmetals.
2.41 What can we tell about a compound when we know the empirical formula? What additional information is
conveyed by the molecular formula? By the structural formula? Explain in each case.
Empirical Formula: shows the simplest ratio of elements in a compound.
Molecular Formula: show the exact numbers and kinds of atoms in a molecule.
Structural Formula: shows atoms attached to one another.
2.43 Write the empirical formula corresponding each of the following molecular formulas: (a) Al2Br6,
(b) C8H10, (c) C4H8O2, (d) P4O10, (e) C6H4Cl2, (f) B3N3H6.
(a) AlBr3; (b) C4H5; (c) C2H4O; (d) P2O5; (e) C3H2Cl; (f) BNH3
2.47 Write the molecular and structural formulas for the compounds represented by the following molecular
models:

C2H6O C2H6O CH4O PF3

2.55 Predict the chemical formula for the ionic compound formed by the following pairs of ions:
(a) Ca3+ and Br−, (b) K+ and CO32−, (c) Al3+ and CH3COO−, (d) NH4+ and SO42−, (e) Mg2+ and PO43−.
(a) CaBr3; (b) K2CO3; (c) Al(CH3COO)3; (d) (NH4)2SO4; (e) Mg3(PO4)2
2.59 Predict whether each of the following compounds is molecular or ionic: (a) B2H6, (b) CH3OH,
(c) LiNO3, (d) Sc2O3, (e) CsBr, (f) NOCl, (g) NF3, (h) Ag2SO4.
(a) Molecular; (b) Molecular; (c) Ionic; (d) Ionic; (e) Ionic; (f) Molecular; (g) Molecular; (h) Ionic
 Section 2.8 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Section 2.9 SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chemical Nomenclature: the set of rules for naming chemical compounds.
The three classes of inorganic substances:
 Ionic compounds: consist of the cation name followed by the anion name:

1. Cations:
a. Cations, formed from metal atoms, have the same name as the metal.

b. If a metal can form cations with different charges, the positive charges is indicated by a Roman numeral.

2. Anions:
a. The names of monatomic anions are formed by replacing the end of the name of the element with –ide:

b. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen have names ending in either –ate or –ite and are called oxyanions.

c. Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the word hydrogen or
dihydrogen, as appropriate:

 Acids:
1. Acids containing anions whose names end in –ide are named by changing the –ide ending to –ic, adding
the prefix hydro- to the anion name, and the following with the word acid:

2. Acids containing anions whose names end in –ate or –ite are named by changing –ate to –ic and –ite to –
ous and then adding the word acid. Prefixes in the anion name are retained in the name of the acid:

 Binary molecular compounds:

1.The name of the element to the left in the periodic table is written first.
2.If both elements are in the same group, the lower one is named first.
3.The name of the second element is given an –ide ending.
4.Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element. The
prefix mono- is never used wit the first element.
Organic Compound: is the study of carbons. It has its own naming system.
 Alkanes: (CnH2n+2)
 Alkyl group: (CnH2n+1)
 Cyclo-alkanes: (CnH2n)
Other organic compounds are formed when an H atom of a hydrocarbon is replaced with a functional group:
 Functional group:
o Alcohols (hydroxyl group): (CnH2n+1_______ OH)
o Carboxylic acid (carboxyl group): (CnH2n+1COOH)
 Compounds with the same molecular formula but a different bonding arrangement of their constituent
atoms are called isomers.
Assignment:
NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS; ORGANIC MOLECULES(sections 2.8-2.9)
2.67 Write the formulas for the following compounds: (a) aluminum hydroxide, (b) potassium sulfate,
(c) copper(I) oxide, (d) zinc nitrate, (e) mercury(II) bromide, (f) iron(III) carbonate, (g) sodium hypobromite.
(a) Al(OH)3; (b) K2SO4; (c) Cu2O; (d) Zn(NO3)2; (e) HgBr2; (f) Fe2(CO3)3; (g) NaBrO
2.71 Give the name or chemical formula, as appropriate, for each of the following binary molecular substances:
(a) SF6, (b) IF5, (c) XeO3, (d) dinitrogen tetroxide, (e) hydrogen cyanide,
(f) tetraphosphorus hexasulfide.
(a) sulfur hexafluoride ; (b) iodine pentafluoride; (c) xenon trioxide; (d) N2O4; (e) HCN; (f) P4S6
2.75 (a) What is a hydrocarbon? (b) Butane is the alkane with a chain of four carbon atoms. Write a structural
formula for this compound and determine its molecular and empirical formulas.
(a) hydrocarbon is compound made of only carbon and hydrogen.
 4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Solvents
Aqueous Solutions
Substance Solutes
+ H2O One substance dissolved in another

Redox Reactions (transfer of electrons)

Oxidation
Oxidation  losing é 2 Na + Cl2  NaCl
Reduction
Reducing Agent
Reduction  gaining é Oxidizing Agent O: 2 Na  2 Na+ + 1é
é lost = é gained
−
R: 2 Cl + 2é  2Cl
O i L R i G

Oxidation Losing Reduction Gaining

An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion:
 loses electrons
 loses hydrogen
 gains oxygen
An reduction occurs when an atom or ion:
 gains electrons
 gains hydrogen
 loses oxygen
 One cannot occur without the other
 Oxidizing agent: substance that helps other substance in oxidation. Ex. Non-metals.
 Reducing agent: substance that helps other substance in reduction. Ex. Metals.
 Redox reactions between metals or salts are called displacement reactions.
 A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which the same substance is oxidized and reduced.
Assignments:
Section 4.4 (Oxidation-Reduction Reactions)
4.47 Which region of the periodic table shown here contains the most readily oxidized elements? Which region
contains the least readily oxidized?

4.47 Region A contains the mostly readily oxidized elements and region D contains the least readily oxidized
elements.
4.49 Determine the oxidation number for the indicated element in each of the following substances: (a) S in
SO2, (b) C in COCl2, (c) Mn in KMnO4, (d) Br in HBrO, (e) As in As4, (f) O in K2O2.
4.49 (a) +4, (b) +4, (c) +7, (d) +1, (e) 0, (f) −1
4.51 Which element is oxidized and which is reduced in the following reactions?
(a) N2(g) + 3 H2(g)  2 NH3 (g)
(a) N2 is reduced; H is oxidized
(b) 3 Fe(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Al (s)  3 Fe (s) + 2 Al(NO3)2 (aq)
(b) Fe is reduced; Al is oxidized
(c) Cl2 (aq) + 2 NaI (aq)  I2 (aq) + 2 NaCl (aq)
(c) Cl is reduced; I is oxidized
(d) PbS (s) + 4 H2O2 (aq)  PbSO4 (s) + 4H2O (l)
(d) S is oxidized; O is reduced
 4.5 Concentrations of Solutions
Solute (gas, liquid, solid)
Solution
Solvent (liquids)
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)
Concentration of solution: 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐿)
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
“Molarity” = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (𝑳)

Mass
More Concentrated in grams
4 tsp.
2 tsp.
Molar No. of
Mass Moles
100 mL 100 mL

10−3m 250nL of 1M solution M  Molarity

10−6μ 1 mole 1L No. of
Moles 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
10−9n x  250n ( )
𝐿
250n  250 × 10-9nL
Volume
Molarity (L)
Na 23
H 1
Cl 35

1 mole 58g 18g 0.5 mole

NaCl HCl
1L 1L
Which is more concentrated?
1) Get moles
2) Get molarity
3) Compare
NaCl  1 M  more concentrated
HCl  0.5 M

Dilution:
(Mconc × Vconc = Mdil × Vdil)
Ex. If I have a cup with 4 tsp. sugar in 100mL of water, we want the same concentration as 2 tsp./ 100mL, we
will take half of the 4/100 in a cup and add water to get 100 mL.
(4)(x) = (2)(100mL)
2×100
= 50𝑚𝐿  Volumeconc I use to dilute to find volume
4
 Volumes must be in the same units when dilution or in molarity it has to be in liters (L).
Types of question:
1) Molarity
2) No. of moles or mass of compound given molarity
3) How to dilute
Assignment:
Section 4.5 (Concentrations of Solutions)
4.61 (a) Calculate the molarity of a solution that contains 0.175 mol ZnCl2 in exactly 150 mL of solution. (b)
How many moles of HCl are present in 35.0 mL of a 4.50 M solution of nitric acid? (c) How many milliliters of
6.00 M NaOH solution are needed to provide 0.325 mol of NaOH?
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 0.175 7
4.61 (a) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) = 150×10−3 = 6 = 1.16
(b) 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) = 35 × 10−3 × 4.5 = 0.1575 𝑚𝑜𝑙 HCl
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 0.325 13
(c) 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 6 = 240 × 103 = 54.16𝑚𝐿
4.63 The average adult human male has a total blood volume of 5.0 L. If the concentration of sodium ion in this
average individual is 0.135 M, what is the mass of sodium ion circulating in the blood?
4.63 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
0.135 × 5 = 0.675
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔)
0.675 × 22.99 = 15.51𝑔 Na
4.67 Calculate (a) the number of grams of solute in 0.250 L of 0.175 M KBr, (b) the molar concentration of a
solution containing 14.75 g of Ca(NO3)2 in 1.375 L, (c) the volume of 1.50 M Na3PO4 in milliliters that contains
2.50 g of solute.
4.67 (a) 0.250 × 0.175 = 0.04375 𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.04375 × (39.098 + 79.904) = 5.206𝑔 KBr
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
(b) 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
3 2
14.75
= 0.08989𝑚𝑜𝑙 Ca(NO3)2
(40.08+28.014+95.994)

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝐿)
0.08989
= 0.0653 𝑀 Ca(NO3)2
1.375
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
(c) 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
3 𝑃𝑂4
2.5
= 0.0153𝑚𝑜𝑙
(68.97+30.974+63.996)

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝐿)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
0.0153
= 0.102 × 103 = 10.2𝑚𝐿
1.5
4.69 (a) Which will have the highest concentration of potassium ion: 0.20 M KCl, 0.15 M K2CrO4, or 0.080 M
K3PO4? (b) Which will contain the greater number of moles of potassium ion: 30.0 mL of 0.15 M K2CrO4 or
25.0 mL of 0.080 M K3PO4?
4.69 (a) 0.15M K2CrO4
(b) 30mL of 0.15 M K2CrO4
4.73 (a) you have a stock solution of 14.8 M NH3. How many milliliters of this solution should you dilute to
make 1000.0 mL of 0.250 M NH3? (b) If you take a 10.0-mL portion of the stock solution and dilute it to a total
volume of 0.500 L, what will be the concentration of the final solution?
4.73 (a) Mconc × Vconc = Mdil × Vdil
14.8 × x = 0.25 × 1
0.25
x = 14.8 = 0.0168𝐿 = 16.89𝑚𝐿
(b) Mconc × Vconc = Mdil × Vdil
14.8 × 0.01 = x × 0.5
14.8×0.01
𝑥 = 0.5 = 0.296𝑀
 20.1 Oxidation States and Oxidation Reduction Reactions
Oxidation State and Oxidation Number:
 Neutral elements  zero (0) oxidation number.
 Monoatomic ions have oxidation number = their charge.
 Sum of oxidation state in a neutral compound = zero (0) oxidation number.
 Sum of oxidation state in a polyatomic ion = the charge of this ion.
1) Group 1 (+1), & 2 (+2)
2) Fluorine (F)  −1
3) Hydrogen (H)  +1
4) Oxygen (O)  −2 arranged according to priority
5) Group 7  −1
6) Group 6  −2
7) Group 5  −3
Ex.
2 H20 + O20  2 H2+2O−2 (Redox Reaction)

Hydrogen (H)  Ox. State (Oxidation) (Reducing agent)

Oxygen (O) Ox. State (Reduction) (Oxidizing agent)

2 H2  4 H + 4é
é lost = é gained
2 O2 + 4é  O2
Assignment:
Section 20.1 (Oxidation States and Oxidation Reduction Reaction)
20.15 Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false:
(a) If something is oxidized, it is formally losing electrons. (True)
(b) For the reaction Fe3+ (aq) + Co2+ (aq)  Fe2+ (aq) + Co3+ (aq), Fe3+ (aq) is the reducing
agent and Co2+ (aq) is the oxidizing agent. (False)
(c) If there are no changes in the oxidation state of the reactants or products of a particular reaction,
that reaction is not a redox reaction. (True)
20.17 In each of the following balanced oxidation–reduction equations, identify those elements that undergo
changes in oxidation number and indicate the magnitude of the change in each case.
(a) I2O5 (s) + 5 CO(g)  I2 (s) + 5 CO2 (g)
(a) I, +5 to 0; C, +2 to +4.
(b) 2 Hg2+ (aq) + N2H4 (aq)  2 Hg(l) + N2(g) + 4 H+ (aq)
(b) Hg, +2 to 0; N, −2 to 0.
(c) 3 H2S (aq) + 2 H+ (aq) + 2 NO3− (aq)  3 S (s) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(l)
(c) S, −2 to 0; N, +5 to +2
(d) Ba2+ (aq) + 2 OH− (aq) + H2O2 (aq) + 2 ClO2 (aq)  Ba(ClO2)2 + 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
(d) Cl, +4 to +3; O, −1 to 0
20.2 Balancing Redox Equations
Acidic (H+)
Balancing Redox Reactions
Basic (OH−)
Cr2 O72− + I−  Cr3+ + IO3−
1) Split the equation into two half-reactions (Half-Reaction Method)
a. Cr2 O72−  Cr3+
b. I−  IO3−
2) Balance atoms other than Oxygen (O) & Hydrogen (H)
a. Cr2 O72−  2 Cr3+
b. I−  IO3−
 3) Balance Oxygen (O) & Hydrogen (H)
a. Cr2 O72− + 14H+  2 Cr3+ + 7H2O
b. I− + 3H2O  IO3− + 6H+
4) Balance charges by electrons (é) (make sure é lost = é gained, if not then balance them)
a. Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6é 2Cr3+ + 7H2O  Reduction
b. I− + 3H2O  IO3− + 6H+ + 6é  Oxidation
5) Add the two halves together (reactants together) (products together) (Combining the Half-Reactions)
Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6é 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
+
I− + 3H2O  IO3− + 6H+ + 6é
Cr2O72− + 14H+ + I− + 3H2O  2Cr3+ + 7H2O + IO3− + 6H+
6) Add the same compounds together.  (final step in an acidic solution)

Cr2O72− + 14H+ + I− + 3H2O  2Cr3+ + 7H2O + IO3− + 6H+

Cr2O72− + 8H+ + I−  2Cr3+ + 4H2O + IO3−

7) In a basic solution, add as many OH− as there are H+ to both sides, then combine them to form H2O.
Cr2O72− + 8H+ + I− + 8OH−  2Cr3+ + 4H2O + IO3− + 8OH−

Cr2O72− +8H2O + I−  2Cr3+ + 4H2O + IO3− + 8OH−

8) Add the same compounds again.

Cr2O72− +8H2O + I−  2Cr3+ + 4H2O + IO3− + 8OH−

Cr2O72− + 4H2O + I−  2Cr3+ + IO3− + 8OH−
Assignment:
Section 20.2 (Balancing Redox Equations)
20.21 Complete and balance the following half-reactions. In each case indicate whether the half-reaction is an
oxidation or a reduction.
(a) Sn2+ (aq)  Sn4+ (aq) (acidic solution)
(a) Sn2+  Sn4+ + 2é, oxidation
(b) TiO2 (s)  Ti2+ (aq) (acidic solution)
(b) TiO2 + 4H+ + 2é  Ti2+ + 2H2O, reduction
(c) ClO3− (aq)  Cl− (acidic solution)
(c) ClO3− + 6H+ + 6é  Cl− + 3H2O, reduction
(d) N2 (g)  NH4+ (aq) (acidic solution)
(d) N2 + 8H+ + 6é  2NH4+, reduction
(e) OH− (aq)  O2 (g) (basic solution)
(e) 4OH−  O2 + 2H2O + 4é, oxidation
(f) SO32− (aq)  SO42− (aq) (basic solution)
(f) SO32− + 2OH−  SO42− + H2O + 2é, oxidation
(g) N2 (g)  NH3 (g) (basic solution)
(g) N2 + 6H2O + 6é  2NH3 + 6OH−, reduction
20.23 Complete and balance the following equations, and identify the oxidizing and reducing agents:
(a) Cr2O72− (aq) + I− (aq)  Cr3+ (aq) + IO3− (aq) (acidic solution)
(a) Cr2 O72−  2 Cr3+ I−  IO3−
2−
Cr2 O7 + 14H  2 Cr + 7H2O
+ 3+
I− + 3H2O  IO3− + 6H+
Cr2O72− + 14H+ + 6é 2Cr3+ + 7H2O I− + 3H2O  IO3− + 6H+ + 6é
Cr2O7 + 14H + I + 3H2O  2Cr + 7H2O + IO3− + 6H+
2− + − 3+

Cr2O72− + I− + 8H+  2 Cr3+ + IO3− + 4H2O

(b) MnO4− (aq) + CH3OH (aq)  Mn2+ (aq) + HCO2H (aq) (acidic solution)
(b) MnO4−  Mn2+ CH3OH  HCO2H
MnO4− + 8H+ Mn2+ + 4H2O CH3OH + H2O  HCO2H + 4H+
MnO4 + 8H + 5é  Mn + 4H2O
+ 2+
CH3OH + H2O  HCO2H + 20H+ + 4é
4MnO4 + 32H+  4Mn2+ + 16H2O 5CH3OH + 5H2O  5HCO2H + 20H+
−
4MnO4 + 5CH3OH +12H  4Mn + 5HCO2H + 11H2O
+ 2+

(c) I2 (s) + OCl− (aq)  IO3− (aq) + Cl− (aq) (acidic solution)
(c) I2  2IO3− OCl−  Cl−
I2 + 6H2O  2IO3− + 12H+ OCl− + 2H+ Cl− + H2O
−
I2 + 6H2O  2IO3 + 12H + 10é+
OCl− + 2H+ + 2é Cl− + H2O
I2 + 6H2O + 5OCl− + 10H+  2IO3 + 12H+ + 5Cl− + 5H2O
I2 + 5OCl− + H2O  2IO3− + 5Cl− + 2H+
(d) As2O3 (s) + NO3− (aq)  H3AsO4 (aq) + N2O3 (aq) (acidic solution)
(d) As2O3  2H3AsO4 2NO3−  N2O3
As2O3 + 3H2O  2H3AsO4 2NO3− + 2H+  N2O3 + H2O
As2O3 + 3H2O  2H3AsO4 2NO3− + 2H+  N2O3 + H2O
−
As2O3 + 3H2O + 2NO3 + 2H  2H3AsO4 + N2O3 + H2O
+

As2O3 + 2NO3− + 2H2O + 2H+  2H3AsO4 + N2O3

(e) MnO4− (aq) + Br− (aq)  MnO2 (s) + BrO3− (aq) (basic solution)
(e) MnO4−  MnO2 Br−  BrO3−
−
MnO4 + 4H  MnO2 + 2H2O
+
Br− + 3H2O  BrO3− + 6H+
MnO4− + 4H+ + 3é  MnO2 + 2H2O Br− + 3H2O  BrO3− + 6H+ + 6é
2MnO4− + 8H+ +Br− + 3H2O  2MnO2 + 4H2O +BrO3− + 6H+
2MnO4− + 2H+ + Br− + 2OH− 2MnO2 + H2O + BrO3− + 2OH−
2MnO4− + Br− + H2O  2 MnO2 + BrO3− + 2OH−
(f) Pb(OH)42− (aq) + ClO− (aq)  PbO2 (s) + Cl− (aq) (basic solution)
(f) Pb(OH)42−  PbO2 ClO−  Cl−
2−
Pb(OH)4  PbO2 + 2H2O ClO− + 2H+  Cl− + H2O
Pb(OH)42−  PbO2 + 2H2O + 2é ClO− + 2H+ + 2é  Cl− + H2O
2−
Pb(OH)4  PbO2 + 2H2O ClO− + 2H+  Cl− + H2O
Pb(OH)42− + ClO− + 2H+  PbO2 + 2H2O + Cl− + H2O
Pb(OH)42− + ClO−  PbO2 + Cl− + 2OH− + H2O
 6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Electromagnetic Radiations: (waves)
 
Electric & Magnetic fields (waves) that are perpendicular to each other.

Properties of a wave:

 λ (Lambda) wavelength
 υ (nu) frequency  cycles per second/Hertz (Hz)/ s−1
 All electromagnetic waves have a constant speed, which is the speed of light.
 Speed of light, c, = 3×108 m/s
Atoms can absorb or emit only electromagnetic radiations.
Forms of electromagnetic radiations:

c = λυ
Assignment:
THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT (section 6.1)
6.13 Label each of the following statements as true of false. For those that are false, correct the statement. (a)
Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. (b) Ultraviolet light has longer wavelengths than visible
light. (c) X-rays travel faster than microwaves. (d) Electromagnetic radiation and sound waves travel at the
same speed.
(a) True
(b) False, it has shorter wavelength
(c) False, all electromagnetic radiations have the same speed which the speed of light (3×108)
(d)False, each has its own speed. The electromagnetic radiations are faster than the speed of the sound wave.
6.19 An argon ion laser emits light at 532 nm. What is the frequency of this radiation? Using Figure 64, predict
the color associated with this wavelength.
𝑐 3×108
𝜐 = 𝜆 = 532×10−9 = 5.64 × 1014 ; green.
 6.2 QUANTIZED ENERGY AND PHOTONS

Quantum Physics Classical Physics

Potential Energy: Energy due to position

1 quantum of E of Electromagnetic radiations  1 Photon
(J.) = (J-s) (s−1)
Energy of 1 Photon (E) = hυ

   Plank’s × frequency
Constant
 Max Plank discovered the dual truth (Particles & Waves) of light.

Photoelectric effect: (Einstein)

 
Light electricity
(Photons)

If the energy needed to charge the voltage source is 10 J, which of the following would
charge the voltage source:
1) 1 Photon of 9 J.
2) 1 Photon of 11J.  will charge the voltage source.
3) 1000 Photons of 1 J.

Assignment:
QUANTIZED ENERGY AND PHOTONS (section 6.2)
6.23 (a) Calculate the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation whose frequency is 6.75 × 10 12 s−1. (b)
Calculate the energy of a photon of radiation whose wavelength is 322 nm. (c) What wavelength of radiation
has photons of energy 2.87 × 10−18 J?
(a) 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 = 6.63 × 10−34 × 6.75 × 1012 = 4.47 × 10−21 J
𝑐 3×108
(b) 𝐸 = ℎ 𝜆 = 6.63 × 10−34 × 322×10−9 = 6.17 × 10−19 J
ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 ×3×108
(c) 𝜆 = = = 6.93 × 10−8 m
𝐸 2.87×10−18
 6.3 LINE SPECTRA AND THE BOH MODEL
6.4 THE WAVE BEHAVIOR OF MATTER

Continuous Spectrum

Line Spectrum
(Not continuous)

 In the line spectrum, electrons that are emitted are the ones displayed on the screen, while the
others are absorbed in the gas discharge tube. That is why the spectrum is not complete.
Bohr’s model:
Bohr  proposed the model of the Hydrogen atom, since it formed a line spectrum.

n= n=
 𝑛≥1
 ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖
−𝑅𝐻 −𝑅𝐻
= 2 −
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖2
1 1
 𝑅𝐻 (𝑛2 − 𝑛2 )
𝑖 𝑓
1 1 1 1
 Ionization of H = ∆𝐸 = 𝑅𝐻 (𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ) = 𝑅𝐻 (1 − ∞)
𝑖 𝑓
ℎ J.s
 De Broglie proposed that a matter could act as a wave. 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜐 = (𝑘𝑔).(𝑚/𝑠)
 Heisenberg created the Uncertainty Principle, which states that there is a limit to the accuracy of the
measuring the momentum and position of small particles like the electrons.
 When measuring the mass of an atom, molecule, or compound divide by Avogadro’s number and then
change it from grams to kilograms.
Assignment:
BOHR’S MODEL; MATTER WAVES (section 6.3 and 6.4)
6.37 (a) Using Equation 6.5, calculate the energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom when n = 2 and when n =
6. Calculate the wavelength of the radiation released when an electron moves from n = 6 to n = 2.
−𝐵 −2.18×10−18 −2.18×10−18
(a) 𝐸 = = = −5.45 × 10−19 J = = −6.06 × 10−20 J
𝑛2 4 36
1 1 1 1
∆𝐸 = 𝑅𝐻 (𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ) = 2.18 × 10−18 (36 − 4) = 4.84 × 10−19 J
𝑖 𝑓
ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 ×3×108
𝜆= = = 4.11 × 10−7 m
𝐸 4.84×10−19
6.43 Use the de Broglie relationship to determine the wavelengths of the following objects: (a) an 85-kg person
skiing at 50 km/hr, (b) a 10.0-g bullet fired at 250m/s, (c) a lithium atom moving at 2.5 × 105 m/s (d) an ozone
(O3) molecule in the upper atmosphere moving at 55 m/s.
ℎ 6.63×10−34
(a) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜐 = 1000 = 5.6 × 10−37 m
85×50×
3600
6.63×10−34
(b) 10×10−3 ×250 = 2.65 × 10−34 m
6.63×10−34
(c) 6.9 = 2.3 × 10−13 m
×10−3 ×2.5×105
6.02×1023
6.63×10−34
(d) 15.99×3 = 1.51 × 1010 m
55× ×10−3
6.02×1023
6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS
6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS
“Schrodinger”

Wave function:ψ(psi)
 Describes the energy (E) of the electron (é).
When  Mathematical expression that describes regions in the space of the atom
squaring
where there is a higher () probability of finding an electron (é). (region of
the orbital).
ψ2  Probability of finding the electron in a certain region in space.
S orbital (sphere shaped) P orbital (dumbbell shaped)
    

n principle shell  Principle quantum number (n ≥ 1)

ψ l subshell  Angular momentum quantum number l = 0 … (n−1)

ml orbital  Magnetic quantum number (−l … 0 … +l)

(2l + 1)
Value of l 0 1 2 3
Letter used s p d f
No. of possible values of ml 1 3 5 7
Assignment:
QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS (section 6.5 and 6.6)
6.51 (a) For n = 4, what are the possible values of l? (b) For l = 2, what are the possible values of ml? (c) If ml is
2, what are the possible values for l?
(a) l = 0 … 3; (b) ml = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2; (c) l ≥ 2
6.53 Give the numerical values of n and l corresponding to each of the following orbital designations: (a) 3p,
(b) 2s, (c) 4f, (d) 5d.
(a) n = 3, l = 1; (b) n = 2, l = 0; (c) n = 4, l = 3; (d) n = 5, l = 2
 6.7 MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS
6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
6.9 ELECTRONS CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
 Any Hydrogen (H) atom or 1 electron (é) atoms have the same energies in their subshells.
 In a Multi- electron atom:
 The subshells have different energies, but the orbitals have the same.
 The electrostatic force between the nucleus (protons) & electrons is greater
than that of the 1 electron (é) atom.
1 1
 The spin magnetic quantum number, ms, have two possible values (− 2 , + 2).
 The Pauli exclusion principle states that that no more than two electrons can spin in one orbital.
 Degenerate Orbitals are orbitals with the same energy in the subshells.
Electron Configurations:
 Electron configurations are how the electrons distributed in the orbitals, in subshells, in the principle
shells.
 Hund’s rule states that electron parallel and singly occupies the atomic orbitals.
 Order of filling of subshells:

Types of notations:

 Valence shell: shell of the highest of n

 Valence electrons: are electrons found in the outer most energy level. (electrons of the highest n)
 Core electrons: are electrons found in the inner energy levels.
1s22s22p3
 The Aufbau Principle, “Atomic build-up” a process in which an atom is built up by adding electrons.
 Writing the electron configuration from the periodic table:

 s Block: (Main elements group) ns subshell.

 p Block: (Main elements group) np subshell.
 d Block: (Transition elements) (n−1)d subshell, note: in groups 6B & 11B elements, the subshell d can take
an electron from the s subshell to have a half or a complete filled orbitals.
 f Block: (lanthanide & actinide elements) (n−2)f subshell.
 Period number = the no. of energy level (n) in the atom.
 Group number = the no. of valence electrons (é) in an atom.
 Each electron in an atom creates a magnetic field; sometimes it is not seen because the opposite spins
cancel each other’s fields.
 Diamagnetic atoms: atoms with all electrons paired.
 Paramagnetic atoms: atoms with one or more electrons unpaired.
Assignment:
MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS (section 6.7-6.9)
6.61 For a given value of the principal quantum number, n, how do the energies of the s, p, d, and f subshells
vary from (a) hydrogen, (b) a many-electron atom?
(a) In a hydrogen atom, the subshell energies are the same
(b) In a many-electron atom, the energies in the subshell vary.
6.65 What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each of the following subshells: (a) 3p,
(b) 5d, (c) 2s, (d) 4f ?
(a) 6; (b) 10; (c) 2; (d) 14
6.69 Write the condensed electron configurations for the following atoms, using the appropriate noble-gas core
abbreviations: (a) Cs, (b) Ni, (c) Se, (d) Cd, (e) U, (f) Pb.
(a) [Xe]6s1l (b) [Ar]4s23d8; (c) [Ar]4s23d104p4; (d) [Kr]5s24d10; (e) [Rn]7s25f3
6.71 Identify the specific element that corresponds to each of the following electron configurations, and indicate
the number of unpaired electrons for each: (a) 1s22s2, (b) 1s22s22p4, (c) [Ar]4s13d5,
(d) [Kr]5s24d105p4.
(a) Be; (b) O; (c) Cr; (d) Te
6.73 What is wrong with the following electron configurations for atoms at their ground states? (a) 1s22s23s1,
(b) [Ne]2s22p3, (c) [Ne]3s23d5.
(a) 1s22s22p1; (b) 1s22s22p3; (c) [Ne]3s23p5
Section 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Section 7.2 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE
 Elements in the same column (group) of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons
(é).
 Effective nuclear charge (Zeff): is the net positive charge experience by a valence electron. The nuclear
charge is screen by the core electrons, electrons in lower energy levels.
atomic no. = no. of protons = no. of electrons (é)

Zeff = z – s

Screening electrons

 The core electrons screen the valence electrons from the full charge of the nucleus, but electrons in the
same shell do not screen each other’s charge.
 From left to right across a period, the effective nuclear charge of the valence electrons increases.
Assignment:
PERIODC TABLE; EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CAHRGE (sections 7.1 and 7.2)
7.11 (a) What is meant by the term effective nuclear charge? (b) How does the effective nuclear charge
experienced by the valence electrons of an atom vary going from left to right across a period of the periodic
table?
(a) It is the net positive charge experience by a valence electron. The nuclear charge is screen by the core
electrons, electrons in lower energy levels.
(b) From left to right across a period, the effective nuclear charge increase.
7.15 Which will experience the greater effective nuclear charge, the electrons in the n = 3 shell in Ar or the n =
3 shell in Kr? Which will be closer to the nucleus? Explain.
The n = 3 electrons in Kr experience a greater effective nuclear charge and this have a greater probability of
being closer to the nucleus.
Section 7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS
• Atomic Radius:
◦ One half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms.
◦ The larger the effective nuclear charge, the stronger the hold of the nucleus, the smaller the atomic radius.
◦ The atomic radius increases as atomic number increases down a group.
◦ The atomic radius decreases as atomic number increases across a group.
• Ionic Radius
◦ The radius of a cation or an anion
◦ If atom forms an anion, its size increases, because nuclear charge remains with additional electron charges.
◦ If atom forms a cation, it size decreases, because of reduction of electron- electron repulsion with same
nuclear charges.
Cations are smaller than an atom, while Anions are bigger than atoms.
Cations < atoms Anions > atoms

 Isoelectronic Series: having the same number of electron and same electron configuration.
Assignment:
ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII (section 7.3)
7.25 Using only the periodic table, arrange each set of atoms in order from largest to smallest: (a) K, Li, Cs; (b)
Pb, Sn, Si; (c) F, O, N.
(a) Cs > K > Li; (b) Pb > Sn > Si; (c) N > O > F
7.27 True or False: (a) Cations are larger than their corresponding neutral atoms. (b) Li+ is smaller than Li. (c)
Cl− is bigger than I−.
(a) False; (b) True; (c) False
7.31 (a) What is an isoelectronic series? (b) Which neutral atom is isoelectronic with each of the following ions:
Ga3+, Zr4+, Mn7+, I−, Pb2+?
(a) An isoelectronic series is a group of atoms or ions that have the same number of electrons and the same
electron configuration.; (b) Ga3+, Ar; Zr4+, Kr; Mn7+, Ar; I−, Xe; Pb2+, Hg.
7.37 For each of the following sets of atoms and ions, arrange the member in order of increasing size: (a) Se2−,
Te2−, Se; (b) Co3+, Fe2+, Fe3+; (c) Ca, Ti4+, Sc3+; (d) Be2+, Na+, Ne.
(a) Se < Se2− < Te2−; (b) Co3+ < Fe3+ < Fe2+; (c) Ti4+ < Sc3+ < Ca; (d) Be2+ < Ne < Na+
Section 7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY
Section 7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES
 Ionization Energy: is the energy required to remove electrons from the attractive force of the nucleus. It
increases when it is hard to move the electron (closer to the nucleus).
 First Ionization Energy: is the energy required to remove electrons from gaseous atoms.
 Second Ionization Energy: is the energy needed to remove a second electron from an ion.
 Ionization energy is opposite to the size of the atom as it increases the size decreases. (inverse relation).

 Electron Affinity: is the energy change as an atoms gains an electron in a gaseous state, forming an anion.
o Positive Electron Affinity: is when the anion is not stable.
o Negative Electron Affinity: is when the anion is stable.
Δ E = Ef − Ei
= + ve = Absorption of energy (E) (less stable)
= − ve = Emission of energy (E) (more stable)
 Electron affinities become more negative from left to right across the periodic table.

Assignment:
IONIZATION ENERGIES; ELECTRON AFFINITIES (sections 7.4 and 7.5)
7.45 Based on their positions in the periodic table, predict which atom of the following pairs will have the
smaller first ionization energy: (a) Cl, Ar; (b) Be, Ca; (c) K, Co; (d) S, Ge; (e) Sn, Te.
(a) Cl; (b) Ca; (c) K; (d) Ge; (e) Sn
 Section 7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS

Metals
•luster & good conductors of
heat and electricity
•Found int the left and
middle part of the periodic
table.
•Most elements are metals.
•React only with nonmetals
and forms cations. (Ionic
bond)
•Metal oxides are basic;
reacts with acid to form salt
and water.
Nonmetals
•dull & bad conductors of
heat and electricity.
•found in the right part of the
periodic table.
Metalloids* •Most compounds are
nonmetals. (Covalent
bonds)
•Reacts with metals and
forms anions.
•Nonmetals oxides are
acidic; react with bases to
form salt and water.

* Metalloids occupy a narrow band between the metals and nonmetals. Its properties are intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals.

Assignment:
PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NONMETALS (section 7.6)
7.63 (a) What is meant by the terms acidic oxide and basic oxide?
(a) acidic oxide dissolves in water to produce an acid solution; basic oxide dissolves in water to produce
a base solution.
(b) How can we predict whether an oxide will be acidic or basic based on its composition?
(b) Oxides of metals are basic; oxides of nonmetals are acidic.
 Concept Test
1) The effective nuclear charge of an atom is primarily affected by inner electrons.
A) inner electrons
B) outer electrons
C) nuclear charge
D) electron distribution
E) orbital radial probability
2) Of the following, which gives the correct order for atomic radius for Mg, Na, P, Si and Ar?
A) Mg > Na > P > Si > Ar
B) Ar > Si > P > Na > Mg
C) Si > P > Ar > Na > Mg
D) Na > Mg > Si > P > Ar
E) Ar > P > Si > Mg > Na
3) Which of the following is an isoelectronic series?
A) B5-, Si4-, As3-, Te2-
B) F-, Cl-, Br-, I-
C) S, Cl, Ar, K
D) Si2-, P2-, S2-, Cl2-
E) O2-, F-, Ne, Na+
4) Which of the following correctly represents the second ionization of aluminum?
A) Al+ (g) + e- → Al (g)
B) Al (g) → Al+ (g) + e-
C) Al- (g) + e- → Al2- (g)
D) Al+ (g) + e- → Al2+ (g)
E) Al+ (g) → Al2+ (g) + e-
5) Which ion below has the largest radius?
A) Cl-
B) K+
C) Br-
D) F-
E) Na+
6) Of the following elements, F (Fluorine) has the most negative electron affinity.
A) Na
B) Li
C) Be
D) N
E) F
7) An electron in a(n) ____3s______ subshell experiences the greatest effective nuclear charge in a many-
electron atom.
A) 3f
B) 3p
C) 3d
D) 3s
E) 4s
 Section 8.1 LEWIS SYMBOLS AND THE OCTET RULE
Chemical Bonds:
Atoms tend to transfer or share their electrons in order to gain more stability.
 Ionic bonds: is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two
oppositely charged ions.

 Covalent bonds: is a type of chemical bonds that involves the sharing of pairs of electrons between
atoms.

 Metallic bonds: is a type of bonding that creates the electrostatic forces between the delocalized
electrons in metals.

Lewis symbols: the representation of the valence electrons of an atom in electron-dot symbols.

Octet Rule: states that atoms tend to combine to have a complete valence shell, having the same electronic
configuration as noble gases.

Assignment:
8.9 (a) What are valence electrons? (b) How many valence electrons does a nitrogen atoms possess? (c) An
atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p2. How many valence electrons does the atom have?
(a) Valence electrons are electrons found in the outer most shell. They take part in chemical bonding.
(b) A nitrogen atom has 5 valence electrons.
(c) The atom has 4 valence electrons.

8.13 Write the Lewis symbol for atoms of each of the following elements: (a) Al, (b) Br, (c) Ar, (d) Sr.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
 Section 8.2 IONIC BONDING
 Ionic bonding is when electrons transfer from metals (loses é) to nonmetals (gains é).

Lattice energy:
 It is the energy needed to separate an ionic lattice into gaseous ions.
 It increases with the increase of charge of ions and with the decrease of distance between ions.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ∗
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝛼
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
* The charge of the ions has more effect on the lattice energy than the distance between them.
Example:
Which will have the most lattice energy?
3rd most Most
Lattice Energy Lattice Energy

4th most 2nd most

Lattice Energy Lattice Energy
Assignment:
8.17 Predict the chemical formula of the ionic compound formed between the following pairs of elements; (a)
Al and F, (d) Mg and N.
(a) AlF3
(d) Mg3N2

8.23 The ionic substance KF, CaO, and ScN are isoelectronic (they have the same number of electrons).
Examine the lattice energies for these substance in Table 8.2, and account for the trends you observe.
KF = 808
CaO = 3414
ScN = 7547

8.25 The lattice energies of KBr and CsCl are nearly

equal (Table 8.2). What can you conclude from this
observation?
KBr = 671
CsCl = 657
 Section 8.3 COVALENT BONDING
Section 8.4 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Covalent bonding is when an atom shares as many electrons as it needs.

 In covalent bonding, the electron experience a force of

attraction from both nuclei. The two particles are held
together by positive – negative – positive pull.

Lewis Structure:
 Are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that
may exist in the molecule.
 The Octet rule helps determine how many bonds will be formed between atoms.
 Types of Bonding:
o Single bond: the sharing of one pair of electrons between atoms.
Double bonds: the sharing of two pairs of electrons between atoms.
o Multiple bond:
Triple bonds: the sharing of three pairs of electrons between atoms.

 Bond Length:
o Is the average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule.
o It is greatly affected by the bond type and order.
Bond Polarity:
 Bond polarity helps describe unequal sharing of electrons in a bond.
 Nonpolar covalent bond: is when the electrons are shared equally between the two atoms.
 Polar covalent bond: is when an atoms exerts a greater attraction force for the electrons than the other.
Electron Negativity:
 The ability of an atom to attract the electrons toward itself in a chemical bond.
 Elements with widely different electronegativity forms ionic bond.
 Most electronegative elements are nonmetals.
 Fluorine (F) has the most electronegativity, the highest ability of attracting electrons.
 It ranges from 0.7 (Cs) to 4 (F).  based on Pauling scale.
 The difference in electronegativity of atoms can be used to determine the polarity of a bond.
Electronegativity vs. Electron Affinity:
Electronegativity Electron Affinity
 Is a numerical value associated with an atom’s  Is the amount of energy that is released when an
ability to form a covalent bond. electron attaches to the atom to form an ionic
 Is derived value of a molecule. bond.
 Is a value associated with individual atoms.
Polar molecules:
 is a molecule whose centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide.
 The separation between the positive and negative charge produces a dipole, a pair of charged poles
separated by a distance. units
 The magnitude of the separated distance is called dipole moment, which is measured by debyes (μ)
 𝜇 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑞𝑟
 Dipole moment is directly proportional to the charge of each atoms and distance between them. (μ α qr)

Assignment:
8.33 Using Lewis symbols and Lewis structures, diagram the formation of SiCl4 from Si and Cl atoms.

8.39 Using only the periodic table as your guide, select the most electronegative atom in each of the following
sets: (a) Na, Mg, K, Ca; (b) P, S, As, Se; (c) Be, B, C, Si; (d) Zn, Ge, Ga, As.
(a) Mg; (b) S; (c) C; (d) As
8.41 Which of the following bonds are polar: (a) B ____ F, (b) Cl ____ Cl, (c) Se ____ O, (d) H ____ I? Which is the
more electronegative atom in each polar bond?
(a) Polar (F); (b) Not Polar; (c) Polar (O); (d) Polar (I)
Section 8.5 DRAWING LEWIS STRCUTRES
Section 8.6 RESONANCES STRUCTURES
Lewis Structure:
1. Draw a skeleton structure (Central & Terminal atoms) (symmetrical) (NH3)
Central atom (lest EN)
 
Carbon (C) is always Central

Terminal atom
2. Count the total valence electrons H & F are always terminal

3. Count the bonding electrons

NH3 2(3) = 6
4. Subtract the total valence electrons and the bonding electrons together to find the assigned é.
8 – 6 = 2  remaining or assigned é
5. Distribute the assigned electrons from outer to inner (higher to lower electronegativity).

* Form multiple bonds if needed to satisfy octet rule.

Formal Charge: is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule.
1. Count the number of valence electrons individually.
2. Count the number of bonding é (lone or bond) around each atom in the structure one at a time.
3. Subtract the number of valence electrons from the number from the number bonding electrons.
4. The overall charge on the molecule should be equal to the sum of the formal charges on each atom

Resonance Structure:
 is a way of describing delocalized electrons with certain molecules or polyatomic ions.
 A structure in which two or more Lewis structures have the same skeletal structure but different
distributions of electrons among the bonded atoms.
Example:
Resonance structure of CO3:

Assignment:
8.47 Draw Lewis structures for the following: (a) SiH4, (b) CO, (c) SF2, (d) H2SO4 (H is bonded to O), (e)
ClO2−, (f) NH2OH.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
8.51 Write Lewis structures that obey the octet rule for each of the following, and assign oxidation numbers and
formal charges to each atom: (a) OCS, (b) SOCl2 (S is bonded to the two Cl atoms and to the O), (c) BrO3−, (d)
HClO2 (H is bonded to O)
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

8.55 Predict the ordering of the C ____ O bond lengths in CO, CO2, and CO32−.
The more electron pairs shared by two atoms, the shorter the bond. Thus, the C____ O bond length vary in the
order CO < CO2 < CO32−.
 Section 8.7 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
 Exceptions to octet rule:
o When molecules have an odd number of electrons.
o When molecules in which an atom has less than an octet.
o When molecules in which an atom has more than an octet.

Example:

Assignment:
8.63 Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following ions or molecules. Identify those that do not obey the
octet rule and explain why they do not: (b) AlH3, (c) N3−, (d) CH2Cl2.
(b)

(d)
 Section 8.8 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS
 The strength of a covalent bond is measure by its bond enthalpy
 Bond enthalpy: is the molar enthalpy change upon breaking a particular bond.
 The average bond length between two atoms decreases as the number of bonds between the atoms increases
 The bond gets stronger as the number of bonds increases.
Equation of bond enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻bonds broken + ∆𝐻bonds formed
(+) (−)

Assignment:
8.69 Using the table 8.4, estimate ΔH for each of the following gas phase reactions:

(a) ∆𝐻𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 4(413) + 614 + 2(463) + 146 = 3338

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 2(463) + 2(358) + 4(413) + 348 = 3642
∆𝐻 = 3338 − 3642 = −304𝑘𝐽

(b) ∆𝐻𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 4(413) + 614 + 413 + 891 = 3570

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 5(413) + 2(348) + 891 = 3652
∆𝐻 = −82𝑘𝐽

(c) ∆𝐻𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 4(200) = 800

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 941 + 3(242) = 1667
∆𝐻 = −867
8.71 Using table 8.4, estimate ΔH for each of the following reactions:
(a) 2 CH4 (g) + O2 (g)  2 CH3OH (g)
(a) Δ𝐻 = −321𝑘𝐽
(b) H2 (g) + Br2 (g)  2 HBr (g)
(b) Δ𝐻 = −103𝑘𝐽
(c) 2 H2O2 (g)  2 H2O (g) + O2 (g)
(c) Δ𝐻 = −203𝑘𝐽
 Concept Test continue
8) In the Lewis symbol for a sulfur atom, there are _____4_____ paired and _____2_____ unpaired
electrons.
A) 2, 2
B) 4, 2
C) 2, 4
D) 0, 6
E) 5, 1
9) In the nitrite ion (NO2-), ____ both bonds are the same____.
A) both bonds are single bonds
B) both bonds are double bonds
C) one bond is a double bond and the other is a single bond
D) both bonds are the same
E) there are 20 valence electrons
10) Based on the octet rule, boron will most likely form a _____B3+_____ ion.
A) B3-
B) B1+
C) B3+
D) B2+
E) B2-
11) A valid Lewis structure of _____SeF4_____ cannot be drawn without violating the octet rule.
A) PO43-
B) SiF4
C) CF4
D) SeF4
E) NF3
12) The central atom in ____CF4______ does not violate the octet rule.
A) SF4
B) KrF2
C) CF4
D) XeF4
E) ICl4-
13) The ion PO43- has _____PO43−_____ valence electrons.
A) 14
B) 24
C) 27
D) 29
E) 32
14) As the number of covalent bonds between two atoms increases, the distance between the atoms
_____decreases_____ and the strength of the bond between them _____increases_____.
A) increases, increases
B) decreases, decreases
C) increases, decreases
D) decreases, increases
E) is unpredictable