The bacteria living in your soil and depending on wheat and barley roots to survive may

be lending the plants a helping hand in return.

Scientists are looking into the possibility that the bacteria can biologically control root-
rot fungi — a pest that causes crop yield losses of 10 to 30 per cent each year in the U.S.
Pacific Northwest and elsewhere.

These beneficial bacteria are known as Pseudomonas. There are 11 strains of this
bacteria that hinder the growth of Pythium and Rhizoctonia fungi, fungi known to cause
diseases in wheat and barley. These diseases are hard to control. There are no resistant
wheat or barley varieties, fungicides aren’t effective and control with rotations is
challenging due to the pathogens’ broad plant-host range.

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Pseudomonas bacteria
Pseudomonas bacteria secrete enzymes and biochemicals that keep fungal rivals at bay.
Some strains can trigger immune-system response in plants. Other bacteria make
hormone-like matter that stimulate root and shoot growth in host plants.

Dr. Patricia Okubara, a scientist with the USDA Agricultural Research Service in
Washington, is researching plant defense responses to pathogens, pathogen diagnostics,
and control of soilborne pathogens of wheat and barley. Basically, she says, “I study root
disease problems of wheat.”

Okubara has been surveying the root-rot pathogens Rhizoctonia and Pythium.
Pseudomonas may be one answer to controlling these fungal diseases “Commercial
potential of the new strains of Pseudomonas is being examined in collaboration with Dr.
Christopher Taylor at Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohia, and scientists at a small
U.S. agro-products company,” said Okubara. She is unaware of any Canadian research
being done on cereal root-rot pathogens.

“Certain strains of bacteria can directly benefit the plant if they produce growth-
promoting plant hormones that stimulate root or shoot growth,” Okubara says. Plants
can reap these benefits even without the presence of a pathogen.

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This won’t be simple. “Control of soilborne pathogens by introduced biocontrol bacteria

— bacteria added as a seed treatment or in fertilizer — in large-acreage production
systems is expected to be difficult to achieve.”
Difficult, but not impossible. She says, “There are cases of naturally occurring biological
control of soilborne pathogens in the field through a process called disease suppression.
In these cases, beneficial microbes that antagonize or suppress the pathogen arise
naturally, control the pathogen, and increase crop health and yield.

“But enhancing the efficacy of introduced biocontrol strains, not necessarily native to
the soil into which they’re being introduced, is still in its infancy. †

Microbial and bacterial contamination of wheat flour has seldom been a concern due to the fact that it has
low water activity level. Water activity (Aw) refers to the availability of water in a food or beverage and
represents the amount of water that is available to microorganisms. Pure water has an Aw of 1.00. A
water activity level of greater than 0.95 is required to support the growth of bacteria.

Wheat flour generally has an Aw level of 0.87 or lower depending on flour moisture and temperature. The
concern with wheat flour is that bacteria can be carried or stored and emerge from dormancy when the
flour is further processed into a food product. In the milling process, prevention and reduction of microbial
or bacterial contamination are good alternatives with elimination options growing in acceptance, but
adding significant cost to production.

Prevention

While most of the food safety stories in the media are linked to E. coli or Salmonella bacteria,
Deoxynivalenol (DON), generally referred to as vomitoxin, is a mycotoxin that may be produced in wheat
kernels. These kernels are usually infected by Fusarium head blight (FHB) or scab prior to harvest while
in the field. The best method to manage DON contamination is to prevent it from entering the milling
process.

To avoid DON contamination, the best practice is to implement quality checks of the incoming wheat and
reject supply sources that exceed the safe level. The FDA restriction for DON in flour is a level less than 1
ppm. The common practice in the wheat industry is to set the maximum acceptable level of DON in wheat
at 2 ppm.

Quick tests, such as ELISA test kits for DON, are available from several laboratory supply companies,
which allow milling companies to quickly and effectively screen incoming wheat deliveries. In some
situations it is necessary, due to supply or origination constraints, to receive and process wheat in excess
of 2 ppm of DON. In these scenarios, it is possible to remove DON-contaminated wheat kernels during
the wheat cleaning process using gravity tables and optical sorters. This is not an ideal solution as it
concentrates the DON in the wheat screenings, preventing it from use in animal feed rations and creates
an additional economic loss for the mill.

Reduction

Whereas DON-infected wheat kernels can be identified and removed in the wheat cleaning process, other
forms of microbial contamination cannot be seen. Several treatments of wheat during the cleaning
process are being investigated and researched to determine their effectiveness in lowering the microbial
load of flour.
One processing method that has proven effective is aggressive scouring or abrasion of the wheat to
remove the outer layers of bran prior to milling. Referred to as debranning or peeling, this processing step
can be added during the wheat conditioning process.

Drawbacks of using abrasion to remove the bran include the high amount of energy required to abrade
the wheat and controlling the rate of bran removal. This method cannot completely remove the bran from
the crease of the kernel which may be the part of the wheat berry most susceptible to microbial
contamination. Debranning also has the drawback of concentrating the microbial contamination in the
bran portion removed, creating the challenge of how to dispose or treat the byproduct.

Another method to control bacterial growth being extensively researched is the treatment of tempering
water with ozone or chlorine. Ozone is an unstable and poisonous allotrope of oxygen. It is an effective
oxidant widely used as an industrial air deodorizer, water purifier and in food processing as a disinfectant.

It has been used in grain storage as a fumigant to control insect infestation. A primary benefit of using
ozone is that it is a natural solution. It degrades into oxygen, leaving no chemical residue in the grain,
flour or processing equipment.

A more common practice in the milling industry is the treatment of tempering water with chlorine.
Chlorination is a lower-cost solution and more effective method as compared to ozone. However, it may
leave behind hazardous residues and poses greater risk to the working environment and employees.

Elimination

Once the wheat has been milled into flour, the options to eliminate microbial contamination become more
expensive. However, of greater concern to the end-user is the potential to impact the functional properties
of the flour while treating it to eliminate or reduce the bacteria present.

Irradiation of flour using gamma rays has been proven effective and is an approved method of reducing
microbial counts in some food products. The challenge with gamma ray radiation is that studies have
shown a negative impact on dough quality characteristics such as gluten strength and development time.
Other forms of irradiation that have been tested or are currently being studied include radio frequency and
ultraviolet. Neither method has been proven effective.

Heat treatment of the flour after milling is a proven strategy to reduce bacterial and microbial
contamination. Heating can have significant impact on flour functionality and, in fact, is used as a
treatment to change flour functionality. Water absorption, gluten strength and dough stability are all
quality characteristics that can be impacted using heat treatments. For these reasons, the use of heat to
reduce microbial contamination poses significant risks and potential at the same time.

Excessive heat will cause the browning of the flour, denaturing of the functional proteins and, of course,
significant moisture loss. The heating of higher moisture flour or the use of dry steam has proven more
effective in reducing microbial count with minimal impact on flour performance. The most critical aspect of
a heat treatment process is to assure even and thorough distribution of heat into the flour to maintain
uniformity of the finished product.

Implementation
Regardless of the process or stage in flour production where the prevention, reduction or elimination of
bacteria is implemented, maintaining a clean environment including proper food safety protocols is critical
in the effectiveness of any treatment procedure. A comprehensive HACCP program or similar food safety
standard is necessary to assure the treated flour is not re-contaminated further down the process.

Proactive prerequisite programs including sanitation schedules, effective cleaning practices, chemical and
pest control as well as the sanitary design of equipment, storage bins and work areas is a critical part of
any treatment to reduce bacterial contamination and food safety policy.

Proper filtration and maintenance of compressed air and air make up (or air stabilization) systems are
central to maintaining a clean environment. Pneumatic conveying is the primary method of moving
finished flour and carries the risk of creating an environment that supports mold growth by triggering
condensation in dead spaces and equipment. A comprehension food safety program includes the
packaging lines, storage and transportation of the product.

The flour milling industry has a long history of proactively pursing methods of delivering a safe and
reliable product to consumers. Current good manufacturing practices, wheat cleaning methods, magnets
and the numerous steps of grinding and sifting may effectively eliminate physical hazards in the finished
flour, but the risk of microbial contamination still exists.

The low water activity and the inability for bacteria to grow may not be sufficient for our current and future
customers and consumers. The belief that further processing, baking or cooking will kill any bacteria
present in the flour may no longer be enough to protect the industry and assure a safe product. The new
FSMA rules and the increased consumer awareness of food safety may be causing a fundamental shift in
the standards required by the milling industry to deliver a safe, quality and essential ingredient.

Abstract
The microbial ecology of a commercial bread
production line was assessed by plate counts and
characterization of microbial populations of raw
materials, dough, equipment surfaces, air inside the
bakery and baked bread. Aerobic plate counts for raw
materials were higher than mould counts. Dough
samples had high aerobic plate counts, but low mould
counts. Mould counts on pre-baking equipment
surfaces were lower than those on post-baking
equipment surfaces, while aerobic plate counts on
equipment surfaces varied. Counts of bacteria and
moulds on bread increased during storage at 30 °C and
moulds predominated over bacteria on air settle plates.
Of the 316 bacterial isolates, 50% were Bacillus and
31.6% Micrococcus. Of the 97 mould isolates, 37.1%
were Penicillium, 18.6% Aspergillus and 13.4% Cladosporium. Bacillus,
Aspergillus and Penicillium were isolated predominantly from
baked bread.

Recent food-borne illness outbreaks have been attributed to the consumption of raw wheat
flour. This has caused many in the grain industry to rethink the assumption that wheat flour
will undergo heat treatment (e.g., baking, cooking, frying, etc.) before consumption. Ozone,
heat, and irradiation are among the treatments that have been explored as possible means
of inactivating microorganisms in flour. In general there is a tradeoff between the
destruction of microorganisms and the effects on the functional properties of wheat flour:
moderate treatments that do not negatively affect flour functionality have little impact on
microbial inactivation, while severe treatments are very effective at reducing bacteria but
also reduce flour functionality. Research in this area is necessary and urgent to provide safe
products for consumers.

Total Plate Count

The total plate count is the enumeration of aerobic, mesophillic organisms that grow in
aerobic conditions under moderate temperatures of 20-45°C. This includes all aerobic
bacteria, yeast, molds and fungi that grows in the specific agar. This count includes all
pathogens and non pathogens and is used to determine the hygienic status of food
produced.
Aerobic Plate Count

The Aerobic Plate Count (APC) is used as an indicator of bacterial

populations on a sample. It is also called the aerobic colony count, standard
plate count, Mesophilic count or Total Plate Count.

The test is based on an assumption that each cell will form a visible colony
when mixed with agar containing the appropriate nutrients. It is not a
measure of the entire bacterial population; it is a generic test for organisms
that grow aerobically at mesophilic temperatures (25 to 40°C; 77 to 104°F).

APC does not differentiate types of bacteria.

APC can be used to gauge sanitary quality, organoleptic acceptability,
adherence to good manufacturing practices, and to a lesser extent, as an
indicator of safety. APC may also provide information regarding shelf life or
impending organoleptic change in a food.

APCs are poor indicators of safety in most instances, since they do not
directly correlate to the presence of pathogens or toxins. A low APC result
does not mean the product or ingredient is pathogen free. However, some
products or ingredients showing excessively or unusually high APCs may
reasonably be assumed to be potential health hazards, pending pathogen
screening results. Interpretation of the APC results must take into
consideration knowledge of the product and whether a high APC is expected.

Depending on the situation, APC can be valuable in evaluating food quality.

Large numbers of bacteria may be an indication may be an indication of poor
sanitation or problems with process control or ingredients. Certain products,
such as those produced through fermentation, naturally have a high APC.
Again, low APC numbers do not equate to an absence of pathogens. Often, it
is necessary to assay foods for specific pathogens or spoilage organisms
before ruling on food safety or food quality.

Quality and safety guidelines or specifications are often applied to raw

materials and finished goods. Using APC for ingredients may or may not be
appropriate as a quality indicator. A food manufacturer’s decision to apply
APC guidelines on ingredients must be based on the ingredient’s effect on the
finished product. For instance, in dried foods, APC can be used as a means
of assessing the adequacy of moisture control during the drying process. For
meats, APC can be used to check to the condition of incoming carcasses to
potentially identify suppliers who prove those with excessively high counts.
APC can also be used to evaluate sanitary conditions of equipment and
utensils. This can be done during processing to monitor buildup and after
sanitation to gauge its effectiveness.

The table below offers some general guidelines for expected aerobic plate
counts on ingredients and finished products. Bear in mind, APC specifications
are not always appropriate. For example, raw agricultural commodities can
have widely fluctuating plate counts. In these situations, APC can provide
meaningful data to the processor who has a better understanding of factors
that may influence the count, but they provide little value in relation to
acceptance criteria.
 COLIFORM BACTERIA AND DRINKING WATER
What are coliforms?
Coliforms are a broad class of bacteria found in our environment, including the
feces of man and other warm-blooded animals. The presence of coliform
bacteria in drinking water may indicate a possible presence of harmful,
disease-causing organisms.
Why use coliforms to indicate water quality?
Drinking water must be free of disease-causing organisms called pathogens.
Pathogens can be viruses, protozoa or bacteria. Waterborne pathogens cause
diseases such as hepatitis, giardiasis, and dysentery. To actually test water
for specific harmful viruses, protozoa and bacteria is very time consuming and
expensive. In addition, not all water laboratories are equipped and approved
to do the testing required. Therefore, testing water for specific organisms is
limited to investigating specific waterborne disease outbreaks. Coliform
bacteria are used as water quality indicators for two main reasons:

 Coliforms may be associated with the sources of pathogens contaminating water.

 The analysis of drinking water for coliforms is relatively simple, economical and efficient.

The presence of coliforms in drinking water indicates

possible contamination and potential health risk.
Sample submission
Sample containers may be picked up in all Health District offices during
regular business hours. Request a bacteriological or Coliform analysis.
Samples must be received and setup within 30 hours of sample collection and
kept cool during transit.

When collecting samples take care not to contaminate the sample container.
Go to a tap where you draw your drinking water and remove aerators,
screens, or other devices. Turn the water on to a moderate flow and let run for
a minimum of 3 minutes. Without altering the flow, collect your sample. Leave
a ½ inch air space at the top of the bottle. Cap the bottle and return it to the
laboratory as soon as possible.

What to do if coliforms are found in your drinking water:

Drinking water analyzed for coliforms will be reported as SATISFACTORY
(coliforms absent) or UNSATISFACTORY (coliforms present). If your drinking
water tested unsatisfactory, you should have received information on how to
disinfect your well. If you did not receive this information, contact the
laboratory at 460 4206 or the Environmental Health Division at 460 4205. The
information can then be mailed to you or instructions can be given over the
phone.

If your drinking water tested UNSATISFACTORY, it may be contaminated with

disease-causing organisms. It is important that you do not drink the water and
that appropriate action is taken until the problem is corrected. One option is to
obtain bottled water from a safe source on a temporary basis. Another option
is to boil the water vigorously for 3-5 minutes to render it safe from bacterial
contamination.

If coliforms are not present in your drinking water samples (you received a
SATISFACTORY result), it indicates that your well is probably free of disease-
causing organisms at the time of the sample. Be sure to have your water
tested annually; more often if you notice a change in taste or odor of the
water, or if there are changes in the environment of your well control area
(such as flooding).

What are Coliforms?

Coliforms are bacteria that are always present in the digestive tracts of animals, including humans, and are found in

their wastes. They are also found in plant and soil material.
"Indicator" Organisms

Water pollution caused by fecal contamination is a serious problem due to the potential for contracting diseases from

pathogens (diseasecausing organisms). Frequently, concentrations of pathogens from fecal contamination are small,

and the number of different possible pathogens is large. As a result, it is not practical to test for pathogens in every

water sample collected. Instead, the presence of pathogens is determined with indirect evidence by testing for

an "indicator" organism such as coliform bacteria. Coliforms come from the same sources as pathogenic organisms.

Coliforms are relatively easy to identify, are usually present in larger numbers than more dangerous pathogens, and

respond to the environment, wastewater treatment, and water treatment similarly to many pathogens. As a result,

testing for coliform bacteria can be a reasonable indication of whether other pathogenic bacteria are present.

Total Coliforms, Fecal Coliforms, and E. Coli

The most basic test for bacterial contamination of a water supply is the test for total coliform bacteria. Total coliform

counts give a general indication of the sanitary condition of a water supply.

A. Total coliforms include bacteria that are found in the soil, in water that has been influenced by surface

water, and in human or animal waste.

B. Fecal coliforms are the group of the total coliforms that are considered to be present specifically in the gut

and feces of warm-blooded animals. Because the origins of fecal coliforms are more specific than the origins

of the more general total coliform group of bacteria, fecal coliforms are considered a more accurate

indication of animal or human waste than the total coliforms.

C. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the major species in the fecal coliform group. Of the five general groups of

bacteria that comprise the total coliforms, only E. coli is generally not found growing and reproducing in the

environment. Consequently, E. coli is considered to be the species of coliform bacteria that is the best

indicator of fecal pollution and the possible presence of pathogens.

Are Coliform Bacteria Harmful?

Most coliform bacteria do not cause disease. However, some rare strains of E. coli, particularly the strain 0157:H7,

can cause serious illness. Recent outbreaks of disease caused by E. coli 0157:H7 have generated much public

concern about this organism. E. coli 0157:H7 has been found in cattle, chickens, pigs, and sheep. Most of the
reported human cases have been due to eating under cooked hamburger. Cases of E. coli 0157:H7 caused by

contaminated drinking water supplies are rare.

Coliform Testing
Testing for bacteria is the only reliable way to know if your water is safe. You cannot tell by the look, taste, or smell of

the water if disease-causing organisms are in it. The New York State Department of Health recommends that well

owners test their water for coliform bacteria at least once a year. If you have experienced bacteria problems in the

past, it is recommended that you test your well more frequently.

When Should I Test?

Late spring or early summer are the best times to test your well, since coliform contamination is most likely to show

up during wet weather. Whether your test results are positive or negative, understand that the sample you collected is

just a "snapshot" of your well's water quality. The more samples you have tested, the more confident you can be

about the quality of the water you are drinking.

What do the Results Mean?

If coliform bacteria are present in your drinking water, your risk of contracting a water-borne illness is increased.

Although total coliforms can come from sources other than fecal matter, a positive total coliform sample should be

considered an indication of pollution in your well. Positive fecal coliform results, especially positive E. Coli results,

should be considered indication of fecal pollution in your well.

What Should be done if Coliform Bacteria are

Detected in a Well?
When coliforms have been detected, repairs or modifications of the water system may be required. Boiling the water

is advised until disinfection and retesting can confirm that contamination has been eliminated. A defective well is

often the cause when coliform bacteria are found in well water.

What Kinds of Defects can Allow Contamination?

 a missing or defective well cap - seals around wires, pipes, and where the cap meets the casing may be

cracked, letting in contaminants

  contaminant seepage through the well casing - cracks or holes in the well casing allow water that has not

been filtered through the soil to enter the well. This seepage is common in the wells made of concrete, clay

tile, or brick

 contaminant seeping along the outside of the well casing - many older wells were not sealed with grout

when they were constructed

 well flooding - a common problem for wellheads located below the ground in frost pits that frequently flood

during wet weather.

Long-Term Options for Dealing with Bacterial

Contamination of a Well
 Connecting to the regional public water system, if possible

 Inspecting wells for defects and repairing them if possible

 Constructing a new well

 Installing continuous disinfection equipment

 Using bottled water for drinking and food preparation

What is Coliform?
What is coliform? Coliform is a rod-shaped bacteria which are always present
in the digestive tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Coliforms
are found in human and animal waste, and are also found in water, plants and
soil.

Most coliform bacteria don’t cause disease, but some such as a few strains
of E. Coli can cause illness. Positive coliform bacteria tests of food and water
indicate the possibility of fecal pollution, and are often associated with the
outbreak of disease.

Ground water pollution caused by fecal contamination is a serious problem,

and can be associated with disease. But, testing for every possible type of
bacterial infection would be far too expensive to undertake. Coliform bacteria
have the same origin as disease-causing bacteria, ie. fecal contamination.
Since it would be cost-prohibitive to test water for every type of possible
bacterial infection, laboratories test for indicator organisms such as colliform
bacteria.

Total coliform count offers a general indication of the condition of water

supply. The higher the count, the poorer the water’s condition; however total
coliforms can come from sources other than feces, which means total coliform
count can only give a general indication of water supply condition. This does
mean though that a positive total coliform count should still be considered an
indication of fecal contamination.

Fecal coliforms are the coliform that is found in the digestive tract of animals
and humans, and is an indicator of fecal contamination. A high count of fecal
coliforms is considered an accurate indicator of animal or human waste.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a major species of the fecal coliforms. Of the
groups of coliforms present in total coliforms, E. coli is not found growing
naturally in the environment and is therefore the best indicator of the presence
of pathological bacteria in your drinking water. E. coli can cause serious
illness.

If coliforms are found in your drinking water, it is an indication of possible

contamination and your risk of contracting an illness from your drinking water
is increased. This means that you should repair or modify your drinking
supply as soon as possible. Until your water source is repaired or modified,
water should be boiled before consuming it until retesting indicates the
contamination has been removed.

If you use a water well system for your drinking supply, the most common
ways contamination can get into your water include:

 Missing or defective well caps

 Cracks or holes in the well casing
 Seepage along the outside of the well casing
 Flooding in wells that are in low-lying areas

What you need to do in order to restore clean drinking water is repair the
problem, “shock” the well, and then test again before allowing anyone to drink
water that has positive bacterial coliform counts