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r
normal
normal
r
ndex of Refraction, n
e index of refraction of a substance is the ratio of the speed in
ht in a vacuum to the speed of light in that substance:
n=c/v
Medium n
Vacuum 1
= Index of Refraction
Air (STP) 1.00029
= Speed of light in vacuum
Water (20º
(20 C) 1.33
= Speed of light in medium
Ethanol 1.36
Glass ~1.5
te that a large index of
raction corresponds to a
Diamond 2.42
atively slow light speed in that
edium.
Snell’s Law
n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
ave theory – Principle of superposition
S1 and S2 are point sources vibrating in phase At point C; Path difference, S1C-S2C=λ
Crests: Solid lines &Troughs: Dotted lines
Resultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 2acosω
t point A; Path difference, S1A-S2A=0, Corresponds to constructive interference.
esultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 2acosωt At any point P, if the path difference,
orresponds to constructive interference, Where
1(acosωt) and y2 (a cosωt) represent the If S1P-S2P= nλ Constructive interference
isplacements at point A due to S1 and S2 respectively If S1P-S2P= (2n+1)λ/2 destructive interference
Locus of points corresponding to minimum and maximum
Nodal curves
nterference in surface waves: waves emitting are out of phase
At point B; Path difference, S1B-S2B=0
S1 and S2 are point sources vibrating out of phase by π At point C; Path difference, S1C-S2C=λ
Crests: Solid lines &Troughs: Dotted lines
Resultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 0
At point A; Path difference, S2A-S1A=λ/2 Corresponds to destructive interference.
• Coherent sources
• Having zero or any constant phase difference with time between themselves
• Shows interference
• Interference can be produced
A. By the division of wave front- Young’s experiment, Fresnels biprism, Lioyd’s single mirror
B. By the division of amplitude- Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer
• Incoherent sources
• Phase difference changes randomly with time
• Do not show any interference
Interference of light waves by the division of wave front
monstration of inference of light waves using Young’s experiment
Miscellaneous
nterference pattern by the division of wave front:
front Shape of the fringes on the screen
Where i represents the unit vector along the direction of either of the electric fields.
1 and I2 are intensity produced by source S1 (S2) if no light from S2 (S1) is allowed to fall on the screen
terference by a plane parallel film when Illuminated by a plane wave at normal incidence
n is refractive index of the film Where m=0,1,2,3…….. and λ represents free space
d thickness of the film wavelength
G is partially reflecting plate
P is photographic plate
nterference in Thin films)
terference by a thin film when Illuminated by a plane wave at arbitrary angle
n viewed by naked eye E, If Δ = [n1 SQ+n2 (QA+AB)-n1 SB] Light emanating from an extended source (S) illumin
thin film. G represents the partially reflecting plate,
= mλ minimum intensity represents the photo-graphic plate. The eye E is foc
= (m+1/2) λ maximum intensity at infinity
We observe dark and bright concentric rings with the
nded source is necessary to view entire film by keeping eye center lying along the direction θ’= 0. Such fringes,
y one position produced by a film of uniform thickness
nterference in Thin films)
terference by a film with two nonparallel reflecting surfaces by a point source
Intensity of an arbitrary point Q will be determined by the
following equations:
Light from a point source illuminating a wedge. Fringe width (β)= λ/2nφ
E represents the lens of the eye
φ is assumed to be small and Fringes are of equal thickness
nterference in Thin films)
nterference by a film with two nonparallel reflecting surfaces by a extended source
Assumptions:
Near-normal incidence
Extremely small wedge angle
tical flat: An optical grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both sides within
w tens of nanometers.
oth the surfaces are perfectly flat and parallel - Straight, parallel and evenly spaced interference fringes
Inclined, convex, concave surfaces, rough surfaces– fringes appear bended, form a contour or show ring pattern
Beam splitter
Optical component designed to split incident wave into two or more different waves which may or may not have sam
optical power
Fresnels Biprism The obtuse angle of the prism is about 179° and the
other angles are about 30’ each
d = (d1d2)1/2
D = b1 + b2
Fresnel’s biprism arrangement. Points C and L Wavelength of monochromatic light can be given as
represent the positions of the crosswires and the
eyepiece, respectively. λ = dβ/D
L1 and L2 represent the two positions of the lens Where is β fringe width
where the slits are clearly seen D is distance between sources and screen
ngineering applications of Interference Application for division of wave front:
2. Lloyds mirror
Phase change in reflection from rarer and denser medium
Chromatic aberration: It is caused by the materials from which the lens is made and is caused by the material
having different refractive indices for light of different wavelengths
ral chromatic aberration (LCA) of lens= ωFd=F/V Condition to remove chromatic aberration, f 1 /f 2 = -ω 1/ ω2
svese chromatic aberration (TCA) of lens= ω ε0 Where f 1 and f 2 are focal lengths of convex and concave len
ω1 and ω 2 are dispersive powers of convex and conc
re ω is dispersion lenses
V is abbe number and is given as V = 1/ ω
Engineering applications of Interference: Achromatism of prisms
The fringe pattern formed by a single slit consists of alternate bright and dark
fringes and the fringes fade away from the centre.
The diffraction phenomena are usually divided into two categories:
Fresnel diffraction:: the source of light and the screen are, in general, at a finite distance from the
diffracting aperture
Fraunhofer diffraction: the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the aperture; this is
easily achieved by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and placing the screen on
the focal plane of another convex lens
gle slit, double slit and multiple slit (grating)
gle-slit diffraction pattern using Fraunhofer diffraction
Assumption: Slit consist of a large number of
equally spaced points
β = mπ
m where m ⱡ 0, minimum intensity position
b sinθ
θ= mλ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3,…… (minima),
Field produced by first slit at point P The intensity distribution will be of the form
Diffraction Gratings
• A diffraction grating
splits a plane wave
into a number of
subsidiary waves
which can be brought
together to form an
interference pattern.
Action of Diffraction Grating
• Since sin θ 1,
n=2 n
1
θ2
n=1 d
θ1
n=0 d
θ1 n
θ2 n=1
The highest order
The
n=2
number is given by the
value of d/λ
d/ rounded down
to the nearest whole
number.
plications of diffraction Determination of wavelength using diffraction grating
Focal length of eye piece lens is greater Focal length of objective is greater than eye piece.
than the focal length of the objective lens For higher magnification focal length of objective
For higher magnification focal length of should be large
object should should be small
Applications of diffraction: Resolution of telescope and microscope