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Course Code: PHY1008

Course Title: Modern Physics

Module No.1: Wave Optics


eflection & Refraction
an interface between two media, both reflection and refraction can occur. The angles of incidence, reflection, and
fraction are all measured with respect to the normal. The angles of incidence and reflection are always the same. If
ht speeds up upon entering a new medium, the angle of refraction, r , will be greater than the angle of incidence,
depicted on the left. If the light slows down in the new medium,
medium r will be less than the angle of incidence, as
own on the right.

r
normal

normal
r
ndex of Refraction, n
e index of refraction of a substance is the ratio of the speed in
ht in a vacuum to the speed of light in that substance:

n=c/v
Medium n
Vacuum 1
= Index of Refraction
Air (STP) 1.00029
= Speed of light in vacuum
Water (20º
(20 C) 1.33
= Speed of light in medium
Ethanol 1.36
Glass ~1.5
te that a large index of
raction corresponds to a
Diamond 2.42
atively slow light speed in that
edium.
Snell’s Law

nell’s law states that a ray of light bends in


uch a way that the ratio of the sine of the
ngle of incidence to the sine of the angle of i ni
fraction is constant. Mathematically,
nr
ni sin i = nr sinr
r
ere ni is the index of refraction in the original
edium and nr is the index in the medium the
ght enters.  i and r are the angles of
cidence and refraction, respectively. Willebrord
Snell
ell’s Law Derivation Two parallel rays are shown. Points A an
B are directly opposite one another. The
top pair is at one point in time, and the
bottom pair after time t. The dashed lin
connecting the pairs are perpendicular t
A 1 the rays. In time t, point A travels a

1 x distance x, while point B travels a
A distance y.
• d • B
sin1 = x / d, so x = d sin1
y
• sin2 = y / d, so y = d sin2
B Speed of A: v1 = x / t
Speed of B: v2 = y / t
2

 n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
ave theory – Principle of superposition

Light travels in the form of waves-Crest,


Crest, trough, amplitude, wavelength
Constructive interference: Crest of one wave superimposes on the crest of second wave
Destructive interference: Crest of one wave superimposes on the trough of second wave
Instantaneous displacement of two waves can be written as; R=y1+y2
where y1 and y2 are the instantaneous displacements of first and second waves respectively
nterference in surface waves: waves emitting are in phase

At point B; Path difference, S1B-S2B=λ/2


Resultant displacement at point B, y=y1+y2 =0
corresponds to destructive interference, where
Displacement due to S1 is y1 =(a cosωt)
Displacement due to S2 is y1 =(a cosωt-π) =- a cosωt
Points having minimum intensity corresponding to
destructive interference and are called nodes

S1 and S2 are point sources vibrating in phase At point C; Path difference, S1C-S2C=λ
Crests: Solid lines &Troughs: Dotted lines
Resultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 2acosω
t point A; Path difference, S1A-S2A=0, Corresponds to constructive interference.

esultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 2acosωt At any point P, if the path difference,
orresponds to constructive interference, Where
1(acosωt) and y2 (a cosωt) represent the If S1P-S2P= nλ Constructive interference
isplacements at point A due to S1 and S2 respectively If S1P-S2P= (2n+1)λ/2 destructive interference
Locus of points corresponding to minimum and maximum

Nodal curves
nterference in surface waves: waves emitting are out of phase
At point B; Path difference, S1B-S2B=0

Resultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 2acosωt


Corresponds to constructive interference, Where
y1(acosωt) and y2 (a cosωt) represent the
displacements at point B due to S1 and S2 respectively

S1 and S2 are point sources vibrating out of phase by π At point C; Path difference, S1C-S2C=λ
Crests: Solid lines &Troughs: Dotted lines
Resultant Displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 = 0
At point A; Path difference, S2A-S1A=λ/2 Corresponds to destructive interference.

Resultant displacement at point A, y=y1+y2 =0


orresponds to destructive interference, where At any point P, if the path difference,
Displacement due to S2 is y1 =(a cosωt)
Displacement due to S1 is y1 =(a cosωt-π) =- a cosωt S2P-S1P= nλ Destructive interference
Points having minimum intensity corresponding to S2P-S1P= (2n+1)λ/2 Constructive interference
destructive interference and are called nodes
rference of light waves

• Coherent sources
• Having zero or any constant phase difference with time between themselves
• Shows interference
• Interference can be produced
A. By the division of wave front- Young’s experiment, Fresnels biprism, Lioyd’s single mirror
B. By the division of amplitude- Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer

• Incoherent sources
• Phase difference changes randomly with time
• Do not show any interference
Interference of light waves by the division of wave front
monstration of inference of light waves using Young’s experiment

Resultant displacement, Y=y1+y2


=R sin (ωt+θ)

where R=a12+a22+2a1a2cos δ is the resultant amplitude

At point P, Phase difference δ=2π/λ(S2P-S1P)

and S2 are point sources, d is distance between


nt sources and D is distance between source and For arbitrary point P (on line LL’), the path difference
een
S2P-S1P=nλ, where n=0,1, 2,…… corresponds to
placement at point P due to S1, y1=a1 sinωt constructive interference
placement at point P due to S2, y2=a2 sin (ωt+δ) S2P-S1P=(2n+1)λD/d, where n=0,1, 2,…… corresponds
ere δ is the phase difference between two waves to destructive interference
terference pattern: different Shape of the fringes on the screen

Straight lines Concentric rings Miscellaneous Elliptical Miscellaneous

Miscellaneous
nterference pattern by the division of wave front:
front Shape of the fringes on the screen

Distance between two consecutive light (dark) fringes


Fringe width (β)= yn+1-yn = λD/d

Both light and dark fringes are equally spaced

Locus of image points on the screen can be given by equ

Fig: Arrangement for observing interference pattern

Thus the shape of the fringes is hyperbolic


Distance of the nth fringe on y axis from the center
of the screen, if yn<<D,
If x2 << D2, loci are straight lines parallel to the x axis
Yn=nλD/d
The interference pattern: Intensity distribution

Electric field produced at point P by S1 and S2 are given by E1 and E2

Where i represents the unit vector along the direction of either of the electric fields.

The resultant field is given by, E=E1+E2

The intensity of the fringes is given by I= KE2

1 and I2 are intensity produced by source S1 (S2) if no light from S2 (S1) is allowed to fall on the screen

he variation of intensity with δ


onditions for interference of light

Condition for sustained interference:

Zero or constant phase difference between the two sources (i.e


•Zero ( coherent sources)
Two sources ,must emit continuous waves of same wavelength and period
•Two

Conditions for observation:

•“d” must be small


•“D” must be large
•Background should be dark

Conditions for good contrast

•Both the sources must be monochromatic


Amplitude of two sources must be equal or nearly equal
•Amplitude
•Sources must be extremely narrow
Interference of light waves by the division of amplitude (Interference in Thin films)

terference by a plane parallel film when Illuminated by a plane wave at normal incidence

Film is placed in air


Refractive index (n) of film > Refractive index of air (1)

The phase change of the reflected wave


From upper surface of the film is π
From lower surface of the film is 0

2nd = mλ Destructive interference


= (2m+1)λ/2
(2m+1) Constructive interference

n is refractive index of the film Where m=0,1,2,3…….. and λ represents free space
d thickness of the film wavelength
G is partially reflecting plate
P is photographic plate
nterference in Thin films)
terference by a thin film when Illuminated by a plane wave at arbitrary angle

Optical path difference between two reflected rays can


be given as, Δ=n2(BD+DF)-n1BC
= 2n2dcosθ’
where θ’ is the angle of refraction
This equation is known as cosine law

The intensity of fringes on the photographic plate (P)


and path difference are related as;
Δ = 2n2dcosθ’ = mλ minimum intensity
Solid and dashed lines represents Crests = (m+1/2) λ maximum intensity
erference in Thin films)
erference by a plane parallel film when illuminated by a point source

Point source: Source of radiation concentrated at a point


and considered as having no spatial extension

The intensity of fringes on the photographic plate (P)


and path difference are related as;
Δ = mλ minimum intensity
= (m+1/2) λ maximum intensity
where Δ = [n1 SF+n2 (FG+GH)+n1 HQ] – [n1 (SA+AQ)]

If we put a photographic plate (parallel to the surface of


the film), we will obtain dark and bright concentric rings

Limitation: The whole film can not be viewed by


keeping eye at one position.
terference in Thin films)
erference by a plane parallel film when illuminated by a extended source

xtended source: consists of many point sources separated


terally such that it has very low degree of coherence

n viewed by naked eye E, If Δ = [n1 SQ+n2 (QA+AB)-n1 SB] Light emanating from an extended source (S) illumin
thin film. G represents the partially reflecting plate,
= mλ minimum intensity represents the photo-graphic plate. The eye E is foc
= (m+1/2) λ maximum intensity at infinity
We observe dark and bright concentric rings with the
nded source is necessary to view entire film by keeping eye center lying along the direction θ’= 0. Such fringes,
y one position produced by a film of uniform thickness
nterference in Thin films)
terference by a film with two nonparallel reflecting surfaces by a point source
Intensity of an arbitrary point Q will be determined by the
following equations:

[SA + n ( AB + BC) + CQ] – ( SD + DQ) = (m+1/2)λ maxima


=mλ

Δ = 2n2dcosθ’ = mλ minimum intensity


= (m+1/2) λ maximum intensity
Extended source is necessary to view entire film by keeping
eye at any one position

Straight fringes parallel to the edge of the wedge are observ

Light from a point source illuminating a wedge. Fringe width (β)= λ/2nφ
E represents the lens of the eye
φ is assumed to be small and Fringes are of equal thickness
nterference in Thin films)
nterference by a film with two nonparallel reflecting surfaces by a extended source

Assumptions:
Near-normal incidence
Extremely small wedge angle

The fringes formed by a wedge


will be parallel to the edge OO’

calized interference fringes produced by an


tended source S. Fringes will be seen only
hen the eye is focused on the upper surface of
e film
terference in Thin films)
wton rings

Condition for Maximum intensity, 2nt = (m+1/2) λ


Condition for Minimum intensity, =mλ

where m=0,1,2,…… and t is thickness of the air film

ght from an extended source S is allowed to fall on a thin film


ormed between the plano-convex
convex lens AOB and the plane glass
ate POQ. M represents a traveling microscope
ngineering applications of Interference
wton rings (determination of wavelength of light)
rm2 = t(2R-t)

Newton’s rings as observed in reflection


Wavelength of light can also be measured using
repesents the radius of the m th dark ring
he thickness of the air film (where the m th dark ring
formed) is t
represents the radius of curvature of the convex
rface of the lens Where Dm is diameter of mth ring, where Dm = 2rm
gineering applications of Interference
asuring the thickness of a thin transparent sheet

Fringe pattern gets shifted by,

D and d can be measured from biprism experiment


Δ can be measured by replacing a monochromatic source by
white light with and with the absence of thin transparent
sheet on the way of interfering waves

Thus thickness can be measured


Thin transparent sheet (of thickness t) is
introduced in the path of one of the beams
gineering applications of Interference
tical flat: Testing the flatness of the surface

tical flat: An optical grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both sides within
w tens of nanometers.

s is placed on the surface whose flatness has to be checked.


tness can be checked to – within a fraction of wavelength of the light used

oth the surfaces are perfectly flat and parallel - Straight, parallel and evenly spaced interference fringes
Inclined, convex, concave surfaces, rough surfaces– fringes appear bended, form a contour or show ring pattern
Beam splitter
Optical component designed to split incident wave into two or more different waves which may or may not have sam
optical power

Pellical beam splitter


Plate beam splitter Cube beam splitter
• Thin optical grade films stretched
ptical coating optimized for 45° over Al ring
ngle of incidence • Constructed using two typically right • Broad wavelength range of
ess chromatic aberration angled prisms operation
ess absorption due to less glass • Only be used with collimated beams • No chromatic aberation
host images are formed • No ghost images
ngineering applications of Interference
he michelson Interferometer • S represents a light source
• L represents a ground glass plate so that an extended
source of almost uniform intensity is formed.
• G1 is a beam splitter; i.e., a beam incident on G1 gets
partially 2reflected and partially transmitted.
• M1 and M2 are good-quality plane mirrors having very
high reflectivity.
• One of the mirrors (usually M2) is fixed and the other
(usually M1) is capable of moving away from or toward
the glass plate G
• mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular to each other and
G1 is at 45° to the mirror

Condition for destructive interference


2dcosθ = mλ , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
where d=X2-X1
θ= angle that rays make with the axis
Schematic of Michelson interferometer
Condition for destructive interference
2dcosθ = (m+1/2)λ, where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
ngineering applications of Interference
he michelson Interferometer

In an actual interferometer there is also a


compensating plate G2
Computer-generated interference pattern produced by a
Computer
G2introduced mainly to observe fringes during Michelson interferometer.
white light illumination
gineering applications of Interference Application for division of wave front:

Fresnels Biprism The obtuse angle of the prism is about 179° and the
other angles are about 30’ each

d1 be the distance between the two images when the lens


is at position L1 (at a distance b1 from the eyepiece)
d2 be the distance between the two images when the lens
is at position L2 (at a distance b2 from the eyepiece)

d = (d1d2)1/2
D = b1 + b2
Fresnel’s biprism arrangement. Points C and L Wavelength of monochromatic light can be given as
represent the positions of the crosswires and the
eyepiece, respectively. λ = dβ/D
L1 and L2 represent the two positions of the lens Where is β fringe width
where the slits are clearly seen D is distance between sources and screen
ngineering applications of Interference Application for division of wave front:
2. Lloyds mirror
Phase change in reflection from rarer and denser medium

Reflection from denser medium introduces “π”


phase change

Hence central fringe appears dark unlike bright


central fringe in Fresnels Biprism
Prism Lenses

A transparent glass that separates Convex: surfaces bulge outside


white light that passes through it into Concave: surface that cave in
different colors

Positive lens Negative lens


(Converging) (Diverging)
Chromatic aberration

Chromatic aberration: It is caused by the materials from which the lens is made and is caused by the material
having different refractive indices for light of different wavelengths

Longitudinal Chromatic aberration Lateral Chromatic aberration


Engineering applications of Interference: Achromatism of lenses

The minimization or removal of chromatic aberration

ral chromatic aberration (LCA) of lens= ωFd=F/V Condition to remove chromatic aberration, f 1 /f 2 = -ω 1/ ω2

svese chromatic aberration (TCA) of lens= ω ε0 Where f 1 and f 2 are focal lengths of convex and concave len
ω1 and ω 2 are dispersive powers of convex and conc
re ω is dispersion lenses
V is abbe number and is given as V = 1/ ω
Engineering applications of Interference: Achromatism of prisms

The minimization or removal of chromatic aberration

Crown glass Flint glass Arrangement of prisms to remove


achromatism

Transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) of Prism = ε/V

The condition for minimization or removal of chromatic aberration ε1/V1= ε2/V2


Diffraction
Diffraction refers to the spreading or bending of waves around edges.

The fringe pattern formed by a single slit consists of alternate bright and dark
fringes and the fringes fade away from the centre.
The diffraction phenomena are usually divided into two categories:

Fresnel diffraction:: the source of light and the screen are, in general, at a finite distance from the
diffracting aperture

Fraunhofer diffraction: the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the aperture; this is
easily achieved by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and placing the screen on
the focal plane of another convex lens
gle slit, double slit and multiple slit (grating)
gle-slit diffraction pattern using Fraunhofer diffraction
Assumption: Slit consist of a large number of
equally spaced points

The corresponding phase difference φ is given by

Resultant field at point P is given by

The corresponding intensity distribution is given by,

Where I0 represents the intensity at θ = 0

Diffraction of a plane wave incident normally on a long


narrow slit of width b
Intensity distribution
Intensity of diffraction pattern

When β=0, sin β/β=1 and I = I0, corresponds to


the maximum of the intensity

β = mπ
m where m ⱡ 0, minimum intensity position

b sinθ
θ= mλ where m = ±1, ±2, ±3,…… (minima),

Since sin β cannot exceed unity, the maximum value of m is th


integer which is less than b/λ
b/ where b is slit width.

Position of maximum and minimum positions

sin β = 0, or β = m π (m ⱡ 0), corresponds to zero intensity


positions

The conditions for maxima are roots of equation tan β = β


β corresponds to central maxima
Other roots can be determined from the points of intersection
(a) The intensity distribution corresponding to
the curves y= β and y=tan β
the single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
(b) Graphical method for determining the roots
of the equation tan β = β
Fraunhofer diffraction by circular aperture
mportance of circular aperture over single slit: Circular forms of lenses are employed as objective lens and eye
piece in microscope and telescope
The intensity distribution is given by

a being the radius of the circular aperture,


l the wavelength of light,
q the angle of diffraction;
I0 is the intensity at q = 0 (which represents the central
maximum)
J1 ( v ) is known as the Bessel function of the first order

Experimental arrangement for observing the


Fraunhofer diffraction pattern by a circular aperture.
ecause of the rotational symmetry of the system, the f is the focal length of the lens
iffraction pattern will consist of concentric dark and The angular spread of the central beam (known as
right rings; this diffraction pattern (as observed on the airys disc) is approximately given by
ack focal plane of the lens) is known as the Airy
attern
Double-slit diffraction pattern using Fraunhofer diffraction
mportance of multiple slit diffraction: Diffraction through grating is basically the diffraction of light through
multiple slits
Phase difference between the disturbances reaching
point P from two corresponding points on the slits

The resultant electric field, E=E1+E2

Field produced by first slit at point P The intensity distribution will be of the form
Diffraction Gratings

• A diffraction grating
splits a plane wave
into a number of
subsidiary waves
which can be brought
together to form an
interference pattern.
Action of Diffraction Grating

X • If d is the slit spacing then the


path difference between the
light rays X and Y = d sin θ.
θ • For principal maxima,
d sin θ = nλ.
θ Y
d • The closer the slits, the more
widely spaced are the
θ diffracted beams.
• The longer the wavelength of
light used, the more widely
spaced are the diffracted
beams.
Number of Diffraction beams

• Since sin θ  1,
n=2 n
 1
θ2
n=1 d
θ1
n=0 d
θ1 n 
θ2 n=1 
The highest order
The
n=2
number is given by the
value of d/λ
d/ rounded down
to the nearest whole
number.
plications of diffraction Determination of wavelength using diffraction grating

Where m is the order of diffraction,


Θ is Angle if diffraction
d the distance between two consecutive
slits

The angles of diffraction for various orders of the grating


spectrum can be measured, and knowing the value of d ,
one can calculate the wavelength of different spectral
lines

Fraunhofer diffraction of a plane wave incident


normally on a grating.
Applications of diffraction : Microscope and telescope

Focal length of eye piece lens is greater Focal length of objective is greater than eye piece.
than the focal length of the objective lens For higher magnification focal length of objective
For higher magnification focal length of should be large
object should should be small
Applications of diffraction: Resolution of telescope and microscope

For points P and Q to be just resolved, point Q’ shou


on the first dark ring surrounding point P’,

The image of two distant objects on the focal plane of Therefore


a convex lens.
If the diffraction patterns are well separated, they are D is objective of diameter, Α is diffraction angle, n’ rep
said to be resolved. the refractive indices of image space, λ 0 Is wavelength
light in free space
Angular separation between two peaks should be
Smallest distance a microscope can be resolved
Δθ=1.22λ/D Y ≈ 0.61λ0/nsin i
Nsin i is numerical aperture of the optical system
Where D is diameter of circular aperture of diameter
Microscope
Telescope

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