Jayvee M.

Coliao September 04,2019

BSCPE-5
CPEN 111 Microelectronics
Assignment # 2

A Brief History of Electronics

Electronics is the science and technology of the motion of charges in a gas,
vacuum or semiconductor. A historical division was made in the beginning of the
twentieth century that separated between the already existing field of electrical
engineering and the emerging field of electronics engineering where electrical
engineering dealt only with devices that depended solely on the motion of electrons in
metals such as motors, generators, light bulbs, and wire communication systems
(telephone and telegraph).

At the end of the twentieth century the historical division between electrical and
electronic engineering no longer serves its original function. The distinction between
information processing and energy processing serves to separate electronics from the
rest of electrical engineering. However, the nature of the discipline of electronics
comprising the four fields: communication, computation, control and components.
In this brief, the principal focus will be on the development and the applications of
electronic devices and the growth of the industries resulting from the exploitation of
these devices in practical circuits and systems.

This history is divided into two main parts: the vacuum- tube era and the transistor era
that started at 1948.Both of them will be mentioned in this brief followed by the
concluding section contains a brief speculation on the future direction of electronics.

Background
In 1837, Samuel Morse demonstrated the telegraph system. The significance of electric
telegraphy was the introduction of an effective method in encoding the information into
electrical signals. The dots and dashes of the Morse code represented the first use of
binary signals.
Nearly 40 years later Bell invented the telephone and introduced a method for coding
information (speech) as a continuous electrical signal and then decoding these signal at
a receiver. Then, at 1877 Edison invented the phonograph record which is considered to
be the first electrical read only memory (ROM).
The introduction of radio communication is based on the major contribution of Clerk
Maxwell who made a prediction of existence of electromagnetic waves which could be
propagated in space. Then, 23 years later Hertz was able to produce such waves
through laboratory experiments. In 1986 Marconi was able to transmit these waves and
detect them.

The Discovery of Vacuum Tubes:

Fleming inverted the diode. It consisted of a heated wire, the filament and was separated
by a short distance from a metallic plate. A positive plate-to-cathode voltage produced a
current, but a negative reduced the current to zero. Two years later, Pickard used a silicon
as a detector. This was the first semiconductor diode. The invention of the triode was the
seminal achievement in the earliest days of electronics. The triode consisted of a third
electrode inserted between the plate and the cathode. The triode provided the properties of
a controlled switch. All electronic circuits exploit device characteristics.

Initial Circuits Application:

The first applications of vacuum tubes were to telephone and radio communication and IRE.
It is a tribute to the imagination and foresight of the early engineers. AIEE focused on the
conventional interests of engineer.
Societies merged into a single organization, AIEE, a move which reflected a half century of
development in the profession.
Notable among the new circuits were cascaded amplifiers, regenerative amplifiers,
oscillators, heterodyning, and multi vibrations. The oscillator was the first instance by which
electronics signals. The multi vibrators were the basics of flip-flops and clock generators.

Electronic Industries:
The amplifier had almost immediate commercial application in long distance telephony. The
advances in tube technology made by telephone companies. Station KDKA was created by
Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Electronic industries fit one or more of the groups:
components, communication, control and computation.
Components:
Components companies came into existence to produce the various types of electron
devise as well as passive circuit elements. Engineers and scientists made significant
advances in developing new and better devices. With new and improved devices, new
circuits were invented.
Communications:
Radio signals transmitted at frequencies above 500 kHz. These signals must be encoded
into and shifted to the higher-transmitting frequencies by a process referred to as
modulation. The types of modulation are AM and FM.
Black-and-white TV began in 1930. The color TV became the dominant TV system
Telephone systems were transformed into one of the major forms of electronic
communication. Radar utilized radio communication as aids in both air and sea navigation.
Many of the newer communications systems utilized discrete signals rather than continuous
signals. New communications systems were operating at high frequencies and based on
new microwave devices.
Computers:
Origins of computers are in the vacuum tube era . In 1633 Schickard described a
mechanical computer for add, sub, multiply and divide using a wheel with spokes unit. In
1642 Pascal had similar ideas. In 1833 Babbage built a mechanical calculator and
called the analytic engine or Babbage's computer. This computer contained all elements
of modern digital computer. It used punched cards invented by Jacquard for input and
output, contained memory, arithmetic unit and was a stored –program machine. But the
technology simply was not available to convert his ideas into practical machine .
The first working electromechanical calculator was built by IBM engineers who directed
by professor Aiken of Harvard university in 1930 . it was called Mark I.
It was 17 (m) long and 3 (m) high. It used for over 15 years. In 1946 the first electronic
calculator was completed at university of Pennsylvania and was called ENIAC ''
electronic numerical integrator and computer'' it was not a general purpose calculator . it
used by armed forces. In1946 IBM introduced the first commercial electronic computer,
the type 603 . 1948 can be considered as the beginning of computer industry .At this
time, a number of institutions was engaged in computer researches funded by several
government agencies, these engineers developed hardware and software concepts.
The IBM 650 considered the workhorse of the industry in 1954.Analog computers were
developed during the later part of vacuum tube, used to solve large systems of
differential equations . the differential analyzer was the first electromechanical analog
computer.

Controls :
Electronic control industry mean the use of electronic devices in the control machines.
High-voltage high-power tubes were the devices used. These devices were used in
circuits which provided high-voltage , high-power , rectifiers, inventers and high-voltage
transmitting circuit .Applications included motor-speed control , voltage regulation ,
induction and dielectric heating.

Analyses and theory :

The significant analytical and theoretical progress was made since industrial growth ,and
the range of achievements can be indicated as follows briefly :
Circuit analyses and synthesis techniques were developed ,one particular application
was (PCM) technique, sampled data systems introduced were applied in control
applications .
Transducers ,devices by which light ,sound, temperature and other variables are
converted to and from electrical signals were introduced to make advantages afforded
by electronics.

The Transistor ERA:

This era originated in earlier work performed between 1920 and 1945. The major
impetus for development of solid-state devices was not forth coming until 1945. The
director of research and later president of Bell Laboratories had the foresight to
recognize that reliable expanded telephone communication required electronic. He
formed a solid research group ,they hope that the research will obtain a new knowledge
that can be used in the development of completely new and improved component and
apparatus elements of communication system .

Discovery of the Bipolar Junction Transistor :

An experiment was performed in December 1947 two closely spaced gold-wire probes
were pressed into the surface of a germanium crystal. It was observed that the output
voltage at the "collector" probe with respect to the "emitter" probe. The performance of
the first transistor was very poor. They had low gain and band width and were noisy,
and their characteristics varied widely from device to device. Shockley, the group leader,
proposed the junction transistor and developed the theory of its operation. The new
devices depended on charge carriers of both polarities. The two carriers were
electrons and other "strange particles ".These strange particles were called "holes".
Shockley's theory predicted that large current densities could be achieved for small
applied potential. Bell Labs (1950) grew single crystals of germanium. From this
development, the first grown- junction transistors were made and were followed year
later alloy-junction transistors. American telephone and telegraph (AT&T) made a
monumental decision not to keep these discoveries secret. The tube companies, such
as RCA, Raytheon, and Western electric, were the first to fabricate transistor. Texas
Instruments announced the production of silicon transistor in 1954. Shockley was
awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1965 for their invention and contribution to the
understanding of semiconductors. This was the first Nobel award given for an
engineering device in nearly 50 years.

The Bipolar Power Transistor (BPT), as a switching device for power applications, had a
few disadvantages. This led to the development of the power Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET). The power MOSFET is used in
applications such as Switched Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), computer peripherals,
automotive, and motor control. Continuous research has improved its characteristics for
replacing the BJT. This application note is a general description of power MOSFETs and
a presentation of some of Fairchild’s product specifications.

Invention of the Integrated Circuit:

Shortly after joining Texas Instruments in 1958, Kilby built both an oscillator and a
multivibrator from germanium, making circuit interconnections from thermally bonded
gold wire. Kilby announced his solid circuit at a convention in 1959. The real keys to
IC manufacture were the planer and batch processing. The planer process used
transistors in which the base and emitter regions were diffused into the collector. Batch
processing permitted many IC "chips", to be made from a single silicon wafer. By1961,
Texas Instruments was producing ICs commercially, followed soon afterward by other
companies. The following approximate dates give some indication of the increasing
component count per chip: 1951-discrete transistors 1960-small-scale integration
(SSI), fewer than 10 components 1966-medium-scale integration (MSI), 100 to
1000Components.
The electronic industries divide into chip Manufacturers and chip users The IC
manufacturers are the major segment of the component industries, whereas chip users
are most often the companies producing communication, control, and computer
equipment

:The History Field Effect Transistor

The theory behind the Field Effect Transistor (FET) has been known since 1920~1930,
which is 20 years before the bipolar junction transistor was invented. At that time, J.E.
Lilienfeld of the USA suggested a transistor model having two metal contacts on each
side with a metallic plate (aluminum) on top of the semiconductor. The electric field at
the semiconductor surface, formed by the voltage supplied at the metallic plate, enables
the control of the current flow between the metal contacts. This was the initial concept of
the FET. Due to lack of appropriate semiconductor materials and immature technology,
development was very slow. William Shockely introduced Junction Field Effect
Transistors (JFETs) in 1952. Dacey and Ross improved on it in 1953. In JFETs,
Lilienfeld’s metallic field is replaced by a P-N junction, the metal contacts are called
source and drain, and the field effect electrode is called a gate. Research in small-signal
MOSFETs continued without any significant improvements in power MOSFET design,
until new products were introduced in the 1970s. In March of 1986, Fairchild formed with
nine people and began research on power MOSFETs. 1990’s, Fairchild has developed a
QFET devices using planar technology and low-voltage PowerTrench products using
.trench technology
:FETS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) There are two types of JFETs: an N-channel
type and a Pchannel type. They both control the drain-to-source current by the voltage
supplied to the gate. As shown in Figure 1 (a) , if the bias is not supplied at the gate, the
current flows from the drain to the source. When the bias is supplied at the gate, the
depletion region begins to grow and reduces the current, as shown in Figure 1 (b). The
reason for the wider depletion region of the drain, compared to the source depletion
region, is that the reverse bias of the gate and the drain, VDG (=VGS+VDS), is higher
.than the bias between the gate and the source, VGS
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) The two types of
MOSFETs are depletion type and enhancement type, and each has a N/P–channel type.
The depletion type is normally on and operates as a JFET (refer to Figure 2). The
enhancement type is normally off, which means that the drain-to-source current
increases as the voltage at the gate increases. No current flows when no voltage is
.supplied at the gate (refer to Figure 3)

: Structure of a MOSFET
Lateral Channel Design
The drain, gate, and source terminals are placed on the surface of a silicon wafer. This is
suitable for integration, but not for obtaining high power ratings because the distance
between source and drain must be large to obtain better voltage blocking capability. The
.drain-to-source current is inversely proportional to the length

Vertical Channel Design

The drain and source are placed on the opposite sides of
a wafer. This is suitable for a power device, as more space
can be used as source. As the length between the source
and drain is reduced, it is possible to increase the drain-to-
source current rating and increase the voltage blocking
.capability by growing the epitaxial layer (drain drift region)

The VMOSFET Design: the first to be commercialized, .1

this design was has a V-groove at the gate region, as
shown in Figure 4 (a). Due to stability problems in
manufacturing and a high electric field at the tip of the V-
.groove, VMOSFETs were replaced by DMOSFETs
The DMOSFET Design: has a double-diffusion structure .2
with a P-base region and a N+ source region, as shown in
.Figure 4 (b). It is the most commercially successful design
The UMOSFET Design: As shown in Figure 4 (c), this .3
design has a U-groove at the gate region. Higher channel
density reduces the on-resistance as compared to the
VMOSFETs and the DMOSFETs. UMOSFET designs with
the trench etching process were commercialized in the
.90’s

:Advantage and Disadvantage of a MOSFET

ADVANTAGES
High Input Impedance — Voltage Controlled Device — Easy to Drive .1
To maintain the on-state, a base drive current 1/5th or 1/10th of collector current is
required for the current-controlled device (BJT). A larger reverse base drive current is
needed for the high-speed turn-off of the current-controlled BJT. Due to these
characteristics, base drive circuit design becomes complicated and expensive. On the
other hand, a voltage-controlled MOSFET is a switching device driven by a channel at
the semiconductor’s surface due to the field effect produced by the voltage applied to the
gate electrode, which is isolated from the semiconductor surface. Because the required
gate current during switching transient, as well as the on and off states, is small; the
.drive circuit design is simpler and less expensive
UniPolar Device — Majority Carrier Device — Fast Switching Speed .2
As there are no delays due to storage and recombination of the minority carrier, as in the
BJT, the switching speed is faster than the BJT by orders of magnitude. Therefore, it has
an advantage in a high-frequency operation circuit where switching power loss is
.prevalent
Wide Safe Operating Area (SOA) .3
It has a wider SOA than the BJT because high voltage and current can be applied
simultaneously for a short duration. This eliminates destructive device failure due to
.second breakdown
Forward-Voltage Drop with Positive Temperature Coefficient .4
Easy to use in Parallel When the temperature increases, forward-voltage drop also
increases. This causes the current to flow equally through each device when they are in
parallel. Hence, the MOSFET is easier to use in parallel than the BJT, which has a
.forwardvoltage drop with a negative temperature coefficient

Disadvantage
In high breakdown voltage devices over 200 V, the conduction loss of a MOSFET is
larger than that of a BJT, which has the same voltage and current rating due to the
onstate voltage drop

:Digital Integrated Circuits

New IC concepts resulted in new computer architectures.3 speed, power consumption,
and component density are important considerations in digital ICs. The use of MOSFETs
was attractive because very high component densities are obtained. The complementary
metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS), a circuit configuration employing both (PMOS) and
(NMOS) devices. More than half of Mos ICs produced in1970 went into manufacture of
calculators. Several ICs manufacturers proposed calculator architectures into its circuit
functions. Four bit microprocessor first developed at Intel (1969)

Four bit microprocessor were introduced (1971). another development arising from MOS
technology is the charge coupled device (CCD), invented at Bell Labs. (1970), consists
of a MOS device along chain of closely gates is formed between drain and source. It
.have been used for memories and registers in 1977

:Analog Circuit

The first analog ICs came in 1964 by Fairchild semiconductor, developed the first
operational amplifier. Op Amp has become the “workhorse”. othe circuits and subsystem
have been subsequently developed and include analog multiplier, (D/A) and (A/D)
converter and active filter

:Fabrication Techniques

These advantages include epitaxial growth (1960), electron beam mask production
.(1969) and ion implantation (1971)

Communication and controls industries :

These industries are developed now almost all equipment, except that involving high
power, is transistorized. Both discrete transistors and ICs are utilized.Discrete transistors
are used primarily in audio output stages, automobile ignition systems; power switches
for tape drive, power supplies, and etc. communications satellites became feasible and
economically viable because of microelectronics. Since 1980 however, digital
transmission has surpassed analog transmission. The telephone systems now employ
digital ICs for switching and memory. Active filters for both voice and detection of touch-
tone frequency pair are realized with analog ICs.
Traditional circuits have been adapted to new technologies and uses by many circuits'
innovations; others are new like switched-capacitor filters and digital filters. A whole new
area of electronics, called digital signal processing, has evolved because ICs have made
the "marriage" of communications and computation possible.
Similarly, the introduction of microprocessors, microcomputers, and other digital ICs has
led to "smart" instruments and continuously increasing variety of digital control systems.
With microelectronics, computers have become integral components of control systems.

The Computer Industry:

The most dramatic outgrowth of the microelectronics industry has been the virtual
creation of an entirely new industry the modern computer industry The IBM 7090/7094,
(1959) was the first general purpose second –generation computer that is, transistorized
machine. Hybrid ICs (many discrete transistors on a single substrate) characterized the
third generation computer (IBM 360 series in 1964) .Semiconductor memories were
subsequently used in third generations' machines (IBM 370 series in 1970). In 1965 the
Digital Equipment Corporation introduced its PDP8 minicomputer the first machine to sell
for under $20,000 in the 1980 s, the fourth generation of machines is being developed
and introduced .These computers employ VLSI chips for both processing and memory
.Today, electronic computer are available in a variety of sizes ranging from the simplest
of microprocessors to supercomputers capable of executing hundreds of millions of
instructions per second. To achieve higher speeds, increased computational capability,
and more flexible processing, many innovations were made. In addition, time-sharing
and distributed computation have had an important effect on computer usage the impact
of microelectronics was dramatically expressed in 1977;'Today's microcomputer at
accost of perhaps $100 has mare computing capacity than the first large electronic
computer, ENIAC .