2.3.

DETERMINATION OF SMOKE POINT

I. INTRODUCTION

In this laboratory experiment, the objectives of this is to be able to compare the smoke points of
several fats and oils, to be able to relate the chemical properties of oil samples with their smoke points
and to enumerate and discuss the factors that can affect smoke points of fats.

Lipids are one of the large groups of organic compounds, which are of great importance in the food
we eat because they are readily digested and utilized in the body. They are widely distributed and almost
every natural food has considerable quantities of them. Fats are also often added to foods during their
preparation, either as shortening, as a method of transferring heat in frying, or for flavor and richness
in preparing vegetables, puddings, etc. Occasionally lecithin is added as an emulsifying agent, but the
fats are by far the most important additives among lipids (Meyer, L.H 1968).

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The smoke point is the temperature at which a fat or oil gives off a thin bluish smoke. It is measured
by a standard method in an open dish specified by the American Society for testing materials so that the
evolution of smoke can be readily seen (Meyer, L.H 1968).

The smoke point of a fat is not a specific temperature. As a fat is used at high temperatures over a
period of time, its smoke point will gradually drop until the flavor and appearance of the foods fried in it
are unacceptable. Different oils used for frying naturally have somewhat different original smoke points,
but the point is sufficiently above 190° C (374°F) that the most oils can be used satisfactorily for a
reasonable length of time before smoke point drops to frying temperature below (McWilliams, M., 2017).

Shortenings or other fats that have monoglycerides present quickly are altered so that the smoke
point is too low for acceptable fried products. This result is not surprising because only one fatty acid as to
be removed before glycerol is available to begin forming acrolein (McWilliams, M., 2017).

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiment 2.3 Determination of Smoke Point

Materials:

Vegetable oils: corn, soybean, olive, coconut oil

Solid fats: lard, butter, margarine, shortening

Small beakers

Thermometers

Hot plate

Methods:

Heat oil sample

Immerse thermometer in fat

Record temperature at which the

sample starts to emit smoke

Figure 1.3: Shows the procedure on the determination of smoke point

The samples for the determination of smoke point are the vegetable oils such as: coconut

oil, corn oil, soybean oil and olive oil and as well as solid fats like lard, shortening, butter and

margarine, which was bought from the local supermarket. 50 mL of the oils and fats are

transferred into small beakers for heating in the hot plate. Set a thermometer on stand with the

bulb submerged in the fat. Record the temperature at which the each sample starts to emit smoke.

Use a dark background to observe the fumes.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 3. Determination of Smoke Point

Sample Smoke Point

Temperature
 Corn 66°C
Soybean 65°C
Olive 60°C
coconut 70°C
Lard 50°C
Butter 65°C
Margarine 60°C
Shortening 65°C

80

70 70
66 65 65 65
60 60 60
TEMPERATURE IN CELCIUS

50 50

40

30

20

10

0
Corn Soybean Olive Coconut Lard Butter Margarine Shortening
FATS

Figure 13. Fats and its Smoke Point temperature

As shown in Table 3, the smoke point temperature of each fat varies because amount of
free fatty acids present in oil or fat. Fats and oils with low fatty acid weight have low smoke
points.

V. CONLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

For a given sample of oil or fat, the temperature is progressively higher for smoke point,
flash point and fire point. The temperatures vary with the amount of free fatty acids present in
oil or fat, decreasing with increased free fatty acids present in an oil or fat is important. The
smoke point of a fat used for deep fat frying decreases with the use of fat. Fats and oils with
lower molecular weight fatty acids have low smoke points, flash and fire points. The number
of double bonds present has little effect on the temperature required. Smoke, flash and fire
points are particularly useful in connection with fats used for any kind of frying. (Meyer
 1968).

For high temperature cooking, select cooking oils with a high smoke point. For low
temperature cooking, or adding to dishes and salad dressings, chose oils with a higher
Omega-3 fatty acids since they promote healthy cells and decrease stroke and heart attack
risk

VI. REFERENCES

Belitz, H., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. (2004). Food chemistry. Berlin: Springer.

Edelstein, S. (2014). Food science an ecological approach. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett

Learning.

Lawson, H. W. (1985). Standards for fats & oils. Westport, CT: AVI Pub. Co.

McWilliams, M. (2017). Foods: experimental perspectives. Boston: Pearson.

Meyer, L. H. (1968). Food chemistry. New York: Van Nostrand reinhold.

Sikorski, Z. E., & Kolakowska, A. (2003). Chemical and functional properties of food lipids.

Boca Raton (Fla.): CRC Press.

VII. APPENDICES

Table 3.1. Data for the determination of smoke point of liquid fats

Sample Smoke Point

Celsius Fahrenheit
Corn 66oC 150.8oC
Soybean 65oC 149oC
Olive 60oC 140oC
Coconut 70oC 158oC

Formula of converting 0C to 0F
T (0F) = T (0C) x 1.8 + 32

o
C to 0F (Corn) 660C x 1.8 + 32 = 150.80F
 o
C to 0F (Soybean) 600C x 1.8 + 32 = 1400F
650C x 1.8 + 32 = 1490F o
C to 0F (Coconut)
o
C to 0F (Olive) 700C x 1.8 + 32 = 1580F

Table 3.2 Data for the determination of smoke point of the solid fats

Sample Smoke Point

Celsius Fahrenheit
Lard 50oC 122oC
Butter 65oC 149oC
Margarine 60oC 140oC
Shortening 65oC 149oC

Formula of converting oC to 0F
T (0F) = T (0C) x 1.8 + 32

o
C to 0F (Lard) o
C to 0F (Margarine)
50oC x1.8 + 32 = 122oC 60oC x 1.8 + 32 = 140o C
o
C to 0F (Butter) o
C to 0F (Shortening)
65oC x 1.8 +32 = 149oC 65oC x 1.8 + 32 = 149oC

2.6 Water Absorption Capacity of Fats

I. Introduction
In certain food systems, fats must be mixed and remained mixed. The extent to which fats can
absorb water is called water-absorbing capacity and is important in food systems such as cakes. Fats
differ in their ability to absorb water, largely based on differences in their composition. Now slosh some
cream around for a few minutes, and inevitably the fat will separate from the milk and you will get butter.
Butter keeps longer than fresh milk or cream and can be made from the milk of any lactating animal.
Because water droplets are suspended in the fat it is referred to as a water-in-oil emulsion. The objectives
of this experiment are to demonstrate the water- absorbing capacity of commercial fats, relate the
chemistry of fats and oils with their water absorbing capacity, enumerate and discuss the factors that
affect the emulsifying capacity of fats and to be able to discuss the relevance of water absorption of fat in
foods.
II. Review of Related Literature
Butter is used for cooking and especially baking because of its flavor. Butter is so popular as a
spread that other nondairy spreads called “butter”, such as peanut butter or apple butter. Clarified, or
drawn, butter is melted butter from which all of the milk solids and most of the water have been removed,
which makes it suitable for high-temperature cooking because it does not burn easily.

Unlike other liquids made from water, which vaporize at 100 ℃, fats maintain their liquid states
well past 200 ℃. Giving them the ability to brown and crisp the surface of the food, something steam and
boiling could never do.

Cold fats can be solid. Fats are integral part of cell membranes and the production of hormones
and they are essential for brain development and activity and the workings of the nervous system and
liver.

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiment 2.6 Water Absorbing Capacity of Fats

Materials:

Solids Fats: lards, butter, 25 mL burettes Spoon

margarine, shortening Burette stand

Distilled water Small bowls

Methods:
 Transfer 100 g of fat into a
bowl

Run water from the burette

into the bowl of fat

Beat the fat at a slow speed

until separation occurs

Note the volume of the water

taken up of the 100 g fat

Figure 1.6: Shows the procedure on the water absorbing capacity of fats

Solid fats such as lard, butter, margarine and shortening are the samples used on the absorbing capacity of

fats. Prepare 25 mL burettes with distilled water. Note the initial volume of the burettes. Transfer 100g of

each fat onto a small bowl at room temperature. At slow speed, run water from the burette into the fat and

beat until separation occurs. Observe and take note of the final volume of the water in the burette to

determine the water taken up by 100g of fat.

IV. Results and Discussion

Table 6. Water Absorbing Capacity of fats

Sample Volume of Water

Lard 6.5 mL
Butter 6.5 mL
Margarine 22 mL
Shortening 14.5 mL

25

20
Volume of water absorbed

15

10

0
Lard Butter Margarine Shortening
Fats

Figure 16. Water Absorbed of Fats

As shown in Table 6, the solid fat samples varied in water absorption capacity. Lard and butter

showed a low and similar capacity of absorption because of its high saturated fatty acid component. On the

other hands, Margarine have a high water absorption since it is made from vegetable oils, which contains

unsaturated fats such as polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. Shortening, a semi solid fat, have

greater water absorption capacity than lard and butter because it is hydrogenated vegetable oil.

V. Conclusion and Recommendation

Lipids are soluble in organic solvents but not in water. Water insolubility is the analytical
property used as basis for their facile separation from proteins and carbohydrates. According to Belitz,
they are greasy to the touch and have lubricating properties. They are not volatile and do not leave any
residue when burned. The factors which affect the emulsifying capacity of fats depends on its droplets
characteristics and emulsion appearance; droplet concentration affect appearance, flavor, texture and shelf
life. Emulsion appearances determine product desirability, perceived product quality and consumer
sensory expectations. Fats composed mainly of saturated fatty acids that are solid at room temperature
and the greater the saturated fat content; the higher will be the temperature of melting. Oils on the other
hand, generally stay liquid at cooler temperatures because of the greater degree of unsaturation most oils
have. These oils may also be referred to as polyunsaturated fats. Examples of these fats are corn, soy,
sesame, and sunflower. There are also fats called monosaturated fats wherein they only have one double
or triple bond in their chains. Examples of these kinds of fats are olive, peanut, and canola oils.

VI. References
Daniel, JR. and Weaver, CM. (2003) The Food Chemistry Laboratory: A Manual for
Experimental Foods, Dietetics, and Food Scientists Second Edition. (57) CRC Press Book.
United Kingdom
Joachin, D., Schloss, A., and Handle, A P., (2008). The Science of Good Food. (73-74, 218-
219). Toronto Ont.: Robert Rose

VII. Appendices

Sample Initial Reading (mL) Final Reading (mL) Volume of Water

Lard 0 mL 6.5 mL 6.5 mL
Butter 6.5 mL 13 mL 6.5 mL
Margarine 0 mL 22 mL 22 mL
Shortening 22 mL 36.5 mL 14.5 mL

2.9 Fat Absorption

I. Introduction
Deep-fat frying, also known as immersion frying, is one of the oldest and most common unit
operations used in the preparation of food. Fats collects heat gradually and maintains a constant heat
gradually and maintains a constant temperature easily. Because it is fluid it can easily wrap around the
product and transfer its heat eventually and steadily. Unlike water it maintains its liquid for up to 200°C
without evaporating, giving them the availability to brown and crisp the surface of the food. Numerous
processed foods are deep-fat fried because of the unique flavor–texture combination imparted to the food
(Varela, 1988). Fried products are of great importance to the food industry because of their popularity
among consumers and the huge quantities of fried food and oils that are used at industrial and commercial
levels. A critical aspect of deep-fat fried food is the high amount of oil that is absorbed during the
process. Numerous studies have revealed that excess consumption of fat is a key dietary contributor to
coronary heart disease and perhaps cancer of the breast, colon, and prostate (Browner et al., 1991),
imposing an alert to human consumption. Despite this, consumption of oils and fats is still high because
some people wouldn’t sacrifice the unique flavor of a deep-fried food. That’s why in this experiment we
aim to enumerate and explain the factors affecting the extent of fat absorption in doughnuts; to explain
why is it desirable to hold the fat absorption to a minimum during frying and to enumerate ways to lessen
the amount of fat absorbed by food during frying.

II. Review of Related Literature

According to Joachim and Schloss (2008); fat is the cooking medium utilized in both shallow-fat and deep
fat frying. Many different fruits, vegetable, meats, eggs, poultry fish and even some dough are batter-dipped
products may be fried. Frying is the quickest and most popular way in preparing foods because it gives of
a crisp texture that develops on the surface of well-prepared fried foods.

Shallow-fat frying good heat control is the key to a successful shallow-fat frying. The food should
be frying briskly, but with little spattering and no smoking of the fat. If the heat is too high, the fat will start
to smoke. The food will become tough and dry or may even be burned on the exterior if the fat is too hot.
Too low a heat creates greasy food due to the absorption of extra fat during the extended frying period.
Deep fat frying a thermometer is an important adjunct to successful deep fat frying. For temperature
control, must be maintained if the food is to be cooked through without burning or becoming greasy. Most
deep fat fried frying is done at 190°C, and the fat should be heated to this temperature before any food is
added. If it is not hot enough, excess grease will be absorbed by the food.

According to McWilliams (2013), fats that are absorbed by a food during frying is dependent on
the time of cooking, temperature of the cooking fat, the total surface area of the food and the composition
and nature of the food. In terms of time, the longer the food is cooked in oil, the more oil would be absorbed
by the food. With some foods cooked at high temperature, coagulate material or a hardened crust may
prevent greater fat absorption with longer cooking. When foods that are high in fat percent it may lose fat
because solid fats (such as store animal fats) that are heated turn into liquid state. When cooking in deep
fried foods are cooked at high temperature, foods absorb less oil than usual. This is due to the fast
coagulation of food materials or quick formation of the crust at high temperature. Some foods are cooked
at moderate temperatures to thoroughly cook the food without excessive browning. The larger the surface
for a given weight of material the greater the area over which fats may be absorbed. Cracks caused by
handling or expansion in cooking, rolling thin rather than thick, roughened surfaces, due to little mixing or
other causes, stretching and pulling the material out of shape in handling, all increase the surface area and
thus tend to increase the fat absorption. The composition and nature of the food may also affect the fat
absorption. For example, if a product is composed of large amount of flour may tend to have more fat
absorbed because of absorption of fats by the flour. Other foods with smooth surface like egg may not
absorb much oil because of the coagulation of the proteins which is not absorbing oil rather oils are just at
the surface of the egg itself. Foods that contain sugar, fat, liquid, egg, flour and baking powder may show
different amount of fat absorbed; it only depends on the type of treatment being used, such as; time being
cooked, surface area, type of oil and additional ingredients and mixing time.

According to Joachim and Schloss (2008); there are different types of oil; one is from animal fat
and the other is from plant fat. Butter is concentrated far from milk, usually cow’s milk, and butter taste of
sweet, fresh dairy. It can be salted for flavor and to extend shelf life. Butter is about 82% fat, 62% saturated.
Butter is used for cooking and especially baking because of its flavor. Lard also known as pig fat, lard is
100% fat 61% unsaturated. The quality of lard depends on where on the pig the fat came from. The highest-
quality lard, known as leaf lard, comes from the dense, dry fat that surrounds the kidneys. The nest highest
grade, called fat back, is from the fat that lies along the spine right under the skin. Most lard is rendered
from mixture of fatback and lesser pig fats. Poultry fats is generally rendered fat from poultry and it is about
98% fat and 30% saturated, making it a healthy fat. Suet; the hard, dry fat that surrounds the kidneys of the
beef and sheep is 99% fat and 52% saturated. Because of its high saturation and lack of moisture, rendered
suet, called tallow, is very dense and stores extremely well, which made it a favorite fat before the advent
of refrigeration.
Margarine is a generic term for butter substitute because this came from a plan source. Is it made
from vegetable oils hydrogenated to be solid at room temperature and flavored with skimmed milk and salt.
Oils are fats from plants that tend to be bland and less saturated than the animal’s fats. Soy oil, sold, as
vegetable oil is the most common type, accounting for about a quarter of the world consumption. Oils are
liquid at room temperature, giving then limited uses in baking, but are convenient for use in cold and
uncooked foods. Shortening are vegetable oils that are hydrogenated into shortening in order to make them
look like an animal’s fat. Compared to liquid oils, shortening is less prone to rancidity and has a higher
smoke point.
III. Materials and Methods
Experiment 2.9: Fat Absorption

Materials:

2 ¾ cup Flour 1 pc Egg Shortening Measuring glass

1 T Baking powder ½ cup Sugar (white) Mixing bowls Measuring spoon

(calumet) ½ cup Milk Wooden spoon Baking sheet

½ t Salt (fine) Coconut oil Electric beater Deep frying pan

1 T Butter Corn oil Measuring cups Electric stove

Methods:
Set aside flour for dusting

Sift 2 ½ c of flour with

baking powder

Mix sugar, butter and

eggs altogether in a bowl

Stir mixture 30 times

Add milk to mixture

Using a wooden spoon, mix

with a total of 80 strokes

Roll the dough in the

baking sheet with a total
of 50 strokes. Then, cut.

Record the weight of the oil

before frying.
Note the duration of
cooking of doughnuts

Record the weight of

donuts after frying
Record the weight of fat
after frying
Figure 1.9: Shows the procedure on fat absorption of mini donuts

Prepare a mixing bowl and sift 2 ½ cups of flour with calumet baking powder. Add sugar, butter, egg and

milk and stir 30 times. Mix with a wooden spoon or electric beater to a total of 80 strokes. Dust the

baking sheet with flour and roll the dough for an entire 50 strokes, unless otherwise stated. Cut the dough

into doughnut form using a 1/3 measuring cup. Record the weight of oil before frying. Note the time for

the doughnuts to be cooked. The temperature of the fat should reach the specified temperature and

maintained during the whole cooking process. Record the weight of the doughnuts after cooking and the

weight of fat after frying. Observe and evaluate the doughnut samples’ flavour, color, tenderness and

greasiness for each treatment using the 9-point Hedonic Scale.

IV. RESULTS AN D DISCUSSIONS

Table 9.1 Sensory Attributes of the Doughnuts in Various Treatments

Treatment Observations
Flavor Color Tenderness Greasiness
Coconut oil 8 Golden-Brown 7 5
Corn oil 4 Golden-brown 5 6

Shortening 5 golden-brown 6 4
Increased 5 Light golden- 5 7
mixing time brown
Coconut Oil 7 Dark brown 7 6
(150°C)
Coconut Oil 7 Light brown 7 6
(210°C)
Double sugar 7.5 Dark brown 8 7

Double fat 6 Golden-brown 6 4

 As shown in Table 9.1, doughnuts fried in coconut oil was more preferred in in terms of flovor and

tenderness even with differences in temperature, sugar and fat treatment. The use of corn oil,shortening and

increasing the mixing time into 160 strokes showed slight preference in flavour, tenderness and greasiness..

Table 9.2 Percentage fat absorbed by the donuts

Treatment Cooking Wt. of Fat Wt. of Fat Fat Weight of % Fat

Time (min) before after Absorbed Cooked Absorbed
Cooking (A) Cooking (B) (A-B) Donuts

Coconut oil 2-3 min 423.2 g 409 g 14.2 g 158.1 g 8.98%

(180 °C)
Corn Oil 3-5 min 421.1 g 406.6 g 14.5 g 143.7 g 10.09 %
(180 °C)
Shortening 2 min 500 g 452.5 g 47.5 g 484.7 g 9.80 %
Increased 51 sec 581.1g 554.6g 16.5g 188.1g 8.77%
Mixing Time

Coconut Oil 2 min 409 g 399.7 g 9.3 g 148.9 g 6.25 %

(150 °C)
Coconut Oil 1 min 399.7 g 380.2 g 19.5 g 146.5 g 13.31 %
(210 °C)
Double 2-3 min 506.8 g 445.8 g 61 g 478.8 g 12.74 %
Sugar
Double Fat 2-3 min 549.5 g 506.8 g 42.7 g 437. 9 g 9.75 %
 Fat Absorbed and Percent Fat absorbed

0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04 Series 1
Series 3
0.02 Series 2
0 Series 1
Series 3

Variations

Figure 11. Fat absorbed of the doughnuts

The doughnuts varied in treatment in terms of fat used for frying and its temperature; mixing time, and

sugar and fat treatment. As shown in the figure doughnuts fried in coconut oil at 210°C and doughnuts with

double sugar treatment significantly absorbed more fats than other variations. Usage of coconut oil, corn

and shortening as fat at 180°C and doughnuts prepared with double fat have similar fat absorbed. Coconut

oil at 150°C accumulated a low absorption of fat.

V. Conclusion and Recommendation

Fried foods must eat rarely because when frying using oil it could add calories into the food
itself by fats absorption. There are factors that affect the quality or the foods being fried and factors
that contribute to the fats absorbed by the food being fried. In deep frying try to use a thermometer
to keep a constant and controlled heat which is said to be 190°C (Joachim and Schloss, 2008). If
the temperature goes beyond the 190°C the product would result to have a dark color on the outside
and rarely cooked in the inside. This is cause by the hotness of the oil on the outside layer that it
cooks fats the outer part of the food before it even cooks the inside of the food. Lower that 190°C
could have larger amount of fat absorbed, because as we know cooking in low temperature takes
more time so that means, the more that the food is soaked in the oil the more it absorbs the oil,
especially when it is made out of starch. The area of the food could also affect the fat absorption
because if the food has greater surface area the more it is exposed to the oil and the more capacity
 for carrying the oils. It is desirable for a food to contain lesser amounts of oil because, too much
fats that are consumed by the human body could result to; coronary heart disease and perhaps cancer
of the breast, colon, prostate and many more. One way to control the amount of oil being absorbed
by the food is that, always maintaining the heat required to fry a food; not too high and not too low
heat just an average of 190°C. That’s why in deep-fat frying always maintain the right temperature
to avoid excessive fat absorption. Avoid overloading a fryer so that food will be fried at the correct
temperature rather that becoming greasy due to low temperature. If the food is done properly drain
the food in a paper towel to remove excess fat clinging to the surface. Cut a very small slit in the
product at the center to check doneness.

VI. References
Drummond, K. E. (2004). Nutrition for food service and culinary professionals. Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.

Joachim, D., Schloss, A., & Handel, A. P. (2008). The science of good food. Toronto, Ont.:
Robert Rose.

VII. Appendices
Table 9.1 Quality observations of the cooked donuts

Legends:
 Treatment Observations
Flavor Color Tenderness Greasiness
Coconut oil 8 Golden-Brown 7 5
Corn oil 4 Golden-brown 5 6

Shortening 5 golden-brown 6 4
Increased 5 Light golden- 5 7
mixing time brown
Coconut Oil 7 Dark brown 7 6 Table

(150°C) 9.1

Coconut Oil 7 Light brown 7 6

(210°C)
Double sugar 7.5 Dark brown 8 7

Double fat 6 Golden-brown 6 4

shows the different qualities of donuts when fried at different oils, temperature and doubled ingredient
such as sugar and fat. In terms of flavor the sweetest was the double sugared donuts, then the 210°C, and
the coconut oil that has given a sweet after taste. Other treatments gave a not so sweet taste (corn oil),
taste like a bread (150°C), salty flavor (lard), raw dough taste (Increased mixing time) and a buttery taste
(double fat). In terms of color lard gave the lightest color, the corn oil, double sugar and increased mixing
time treatment resulted into a Light golden brown color; both coconut oil and 150°C treatment gave a
golden-brown color, the double fat gave a dark golden brown color while the 210°C treatment gave a very
dark brown in color. In terms of tenderness only the 150°C treatment had a spongy feel. And in terms of
greasiness, 150°C treatment had the least greasy texture, increasing mixture time, corn oil and double
sugar are quite greasy, and the double fat and coconut oil treatment has the greasiest test.

Table 9.2 Percentage fat absorbed by the donuts

Treatment Cooking Wt. of Fat Wt. of Fat Fat Weight of % Fat

Time (min) before after Absorbed Cooked Absorbed
Cooking (A) Cooking (B) (A-B) Donuts

Coconut oil 2-3 min 423.2 g 409 g 14.2 g 158.1 g 8.98%

(180 °C)
Corn Oil 3-5 min 421.1 g 406.6 g 14.5 g 143.7 g 10.09 %
(180 °C)
Shortening 2 min 500 g 452.5 g 47.5 g 484.7 g 9.80 %
 Increased 51 sec 581.1g 554.6g 16.5g 188.1g 8.77%
Mixing Time

Coconut Oil 2 min 409 g 399.7 g 9.3 g 148.9 g 6.25 %

(150 °C)
Coconut Oil 1 min 399.7 g 380.2 g 19.5 g 146.5 g 13.31 %
(210 °C)
Double 2-3 min 506.8 g 445.8 g 61 g 478.8 g 12.74 %
Sugar
Double Fat 2-3 min 549.5 g 506.8 g 42.7 g 437. 9 g 9.75 %

In this table the most amount of fat absorbed is the donuts cooked using shortening within 2 seconds.

Table 9.3 Computation for the percent fat absorbed

Treatment Percent computation for fat absorbed

Coconut oil 14.2g/ 158.1g x 100 = 8.98%

Corn oil 14.5g/ 143.7g x 100 = 10.09%

Lard 47.5g/ 484.7g x 100 = 9.80%

Increased mixing time 16.5g/ 188.1g x 100 = 8.77%

Coconut Oil (150°C) 9.3g/ 148.9g x 100 = 6.25%

Coconut Oil (210°C) 19.5g/ 146.5g x 100 = 13.31%

Double Sugar 61g/ 478.8g x 100 = 12.74%

Double Fat 42.7g/ 437.9g x 100 = 9.75%