7

Part 6

Commentary

— 2017 —

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section/Article Description Page

6.1 Materials Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2

6.1.1 Structural Grades of Lumber and Timber and Method of Their Derivation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
6.1.3 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
6.1.4 Examples for Inquiry or Purchase Order (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
6.1.7 Specifications For Timber Bridge Ties (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5 1

6.2 Design Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-6

6.2.2 General Features of Design (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-6
6.2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-6
6.2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-6
6.2.5 Notes on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-8 3
6.3 Rating Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-13
6.3.1 Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and T restles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-13

6.4 Construction and Maintenance Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-15

6.4.5 Driving Timber Piles (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-15
6.4.6 Superstructure (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-15
6.4.7 Support, Repair, Preserve, or Replace Damaged Portions of the Structure (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-15

6.5 Inspection Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-16

6.A1 Contemporary Designs and Design Aids Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-16

6.A1.3 Pile Design Aids (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-16
6.A1.6 Timber Trestle Details (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-16

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

7-6-1 Chart Showing Relation of Design Stress to Duration of Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-11

7-6-2 Typical Slope Cut Notches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-13

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

7-6-1 Derivation of listed values, using combination 16F-1.5E DF as an example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12

SECTION 6.1 MATERIALS COMMENTARY

6.1.1 STRUCTURAL GRADES OF LUMBER AND TIMBER AND METHOD OF THEIR

DERIVATION (2010)

a. Lumber, including structural lumber, is the product of the saw and planing mill not further manufactured than by
sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a standard planing machine, cross cutting to length and working. After
the lumber is produced, it is necessary to inspect each piece individually to determine its grade. Lumber which is so
graded that working stresses can be assigned is called stress-graded or structural lumber.

b. Traditional design values for wood are based on testing of small clear samples; results summarized in ASTM D2555,
and are developed in accordance with ASTM D245 with reductions applied to account for various wood defects. For a
detailed explanation of the intial concepts see AREA Proceedings Vol. 30, 1929, pages 1206 to 1224. Starting in the
1980s, the coordinated Canadian and U.S. in-grade testing program started to develop properties based on full-sized
structural tests of members (Madsen) using proof loading concepts. At present there is a large database for dimension
lumber sizes in Douglas-fir-/Western Larch, Hem-Fir and Spruce-Pine-Fir. As in-grade testing is expanded to timber
sizes and other species, the values from this program will replace the results of tests done on small clear samples
adjusted for defects.

LUMBER INDUSTRY ABBREVIATIONS (2007)

a. The same as American Softwood Lumber Abbreviations, as approved by the American Lumber Standards Committee.

b. These standard lumber abbreviations are commonly used for softwood lumber, although all of them are not necessarily
applicable to all species. When used in the preparation or writing of contracts and other documents arising in
transactions of purchase and sale of American Softwood Standard Lumber, these abbreviations shall be construed as
provided therein.

NOMENCLATURE OF COMMERCIAL DOMESTIC HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS

(2007)

The standard commercial names for lumber cut from species or species groups of domestic hardwoods or softwoods are the
same as those used in the current standard grading rules for the species

6.1.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS (2017)

6.1.3.1 Structural Glued Laminated Timber - Glulam

Glued laminated timbers (glulam) are manufactured by end jointing individual pieces of stress-graded lumber together with
rigid structural adhesives to create long lamination lengths. The laminations are then face bonded to create the desired

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 Commentary

member depth in accordance with layup specifications. The manufacturing standard for the glulam industry is America
National Standard - ANSI A190.1.

Chapter 7 Sections 1.3.1 and 2.4 are to be used in conjunction with railroad design practices and design methodology provided
in other sections of the chapter, and in conjunction with basic structural engineering equations. Glulam material properties to
be used for design are available primarily from industry technical trade associations. The values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-
8 are traceable to association sources and the glulam section of the National Design Specification (NDS).

The glulam content in Chapter 7 has been heavily edited from building design and construction reference documents (such as
the NDS), to serve the needs of railroad bridge designers. Content in Sections 1.3.1 and 2.4 has been arranged to simplify use
of the material for design engineers that may not be familiar with glulam properties and recommended practices as they apply
to the use of glulam in railroad bridge applications. The primary need for editing glulam design reference tables and design
literature excerpts was to reduce the information by removing adjustment factors and design considerations commonly used in
building construction, but not applicable to railroad bridge design. Decisions on options for this simplification process were
guided primarily by committee members knowledgeable in railroad timber bridge design practices, input from glulam industry
members on Committee 7, and through contact with the glulam industry technical trade associations.

A number of modifications to basic glulam industry practice were included in this section to tailor the material for railroad
bridge structure applications. For this reason, direct comparisons with common glulam industry standards and specifications
will show differences.

6.1.3.1.1 General and Appearance

b. Appearance Classifications
1
Industry recommendations for finished appearance of glued laminated timber typically identify four classifications:
Premium, Architectural, Industrial and Framing. Framing and Industrial appearance classifications are shown.
Premium and Architectural appearance classifications are not applicable to railroad bridge applications.

It should be noted that appearance classifications are cosmetic in nature and do not affect the structural properties of
glulam members. 3
The glulam manufacturer should be contacted for details on Framing appearance classification.

Wane is not allowed for glued laminated timber members used in railway applications.

6.1.3.1.2 Layup Combinations

4
Layup combinations listed in the reference design property tables (Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8) have been limited to bending
"Stress Groups" that are most likely to be used for railroad bridge applications. Note that while both balanced and unbalanced
combinations are available in the respective stress groups, only balanced combinations are specified in Table 7-2-7 for the two
major species (Douglas-fir and Southern pine) used for railroad structures in North America. This is because only balanced
beams should be used in railroad applications where the top and bottom of the member are stressed in tension (see Article
6.1.3.1.3), or when the preservative treatments may make it difficult to distinguish the tension side.

A comprehensive list of all available layup combinations (for a variety of lumber species) is available from agencies, such as
APA - The Engineered Wood Association (http://www.apawood.org) or West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau/American
Institute of Timber Construction (WCLIB/AITC, http://www.aitc-glulam.org) certifying glulam manufacturers.

Glulam members may also be supplied with all laminations of a single grade, from the desired species. Combinations for this
option are intended primarily for axial loading, such as columns. Combinations listed in Table 7-2-8 are for all one grade of
given species. All one-grade combinations are identified by number designations that identify specific lumber grade
categories within species groups.

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Grade Requirements

Layup grade requirements may be achieved with the use of both visual and mechanically graded lumber sources in a variety of
species. Glulam manufacturers have the option to use alternate sources of lumber as long as species criteria are maintained in
layup grade requirements. Douglas-fir and Southern pine species are generally available in the United States, with Spruces
more common in Canada.

Manufacturing specifications for layup combinations are generally not needed by the designer. Glulam industry
manufacturing specifications are referenced in ANSI A190.1. Customized layup options are possible to meet specialized
design requirements within the scope of industry standards for glulam manufacture.

Bending Members

Bending members are typically specified on the basis of the maximum allowable bending stress and modulus of elasticity of
the member. For example, a 24F-1.8E designation indicates a member with an allowable bending stress of 2400 psi and a
MOE of 1,800,000 psi. This “stress class” may be produced in a variety of different species, each with the same properties
listed for the 24F-1.8E stress class. Table 7-2-7 is a simplified version of a stress class table listing only DF and SP balanced
combinations.

Glulam layup combinations are specified to provide the highest lumber grades in the zones of the member depth where
bending stresses are highest. Layup stress group combinations for members stressed primarily in bending are listed in Table 7-
2-7. Layup combinations may be provided based on selective grade zones through the member depth. However only
properties for balanced combinations are shown in Table 7-2-7.

6.1.3.1.3 Balanced Beams

Balanced beams should be used in railroad applications such as continuous stringers, where both the top and bottom of the
member are stressed in tension.

6.1.3.1.6 Finished Sizes

Finished sizes are provided for typical bridge stringers, deck panels and pile caps only. Other sizes are available.

Glulam can be manufactured in widths greater than 12-inch nominal widths through the use of laminations made up of
multiple-pieces of lumber. Specifications for special order members of this type should be negotiated directly with the glulam
manufacturer.

Multiple-piece laminations may be used to develop glulam members in widths greater than nominal lumber widths. Where
multiple-piece laminations are used, the allowable gap between laminations shall be limited to a maximum of 1/16 inch if a
gap-filling structural adhesive is specified. Otherwise, multiple-piece laminations to be used for pile cap applications shall be
edge-glued.

Typical Net Finished Glulam Deck Panels:

Depths (Thickness): 2-1/2 to 12-1/4-in. (hit & miss surfaces)

Widths: 45 to 52 in.
Lengths: 24 to 24 ft.
Other sizes may be supplied for specific applications as required.

Typical Net Finished Glulam Pile Caps:

Depth: 14 in., 16 in. or deeper as required

Width: 12 in. (hit & miss), 11-3/4 in. finished
Multiple-piece lams for 14 in., 16 in. or wider

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 Commentary

Length: Stock lengths up to 60 ft.

6.1.3.1.7 Preservative Treatments

In general, pressure preservative treatment processes commonly used for glulam do not affect the strength properties of glued
laminated timbers. Information on the possible effects of specific treatment is available through the AWPA or the treatment
provider.

Waterborne Treatments

Waterborne treatments are typically applied to lumber prior to the laminating process. Waterborne treatments applied to
glulam after the laminating process can cause dimensional changes such as warping, and twisting, in addition to excessive
checking as the result of the necessary re-drying process.

6.1.3.1.9 Certification, Wrapping and Shipping

Glulam members may be supplied in virtually any length, limited only by treating facilities, shipping routes and jobsite
handling capabilities. Glulam members to be pressure-treated with preservatives after manufacture may be supplied without
cover depending on conditions, or load wrapped as needed. If wrapping is to be specified for environmental protection or for
other reasons, members may be supplied either load wrapped, bundle wrapped or individually wrapped.

6.1.3.1.10 Storage and Handling

Seasoning checks in glulam members may be excessive if members are stored flat and placed unprotected in an environment
where changes in the relative moisture content of members is forced to change rapidly.
1

6.1.4 EXAMPLES FOR INQUIRY OR PURCHASE ORDER (2010)

Example 1: 30,000 fbm 2 x 8 x 12 feet, S4S, Select Structural joist and plank, Bald Cypress, Grading for structural Cypress,
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB).
3
Example 2: 120 pieces 3 x 12 x 20 feet, S4S, selected structural joists and planks, Douglas-fir, coast region, in accordance
with Paragraph 123(a) Standard No. 17, Grading Rules for West Coast Lumber issued by West Coast Lumber Inspection
Bureau, except to have 90% heartwood.

Example 3: 48 pieces 2 x 12 x 12 feet, rough, dense select structural, Southern Yellow Pine, in accordance with Paragraph
401.1 of Southern Pine Inspection Bureau’s Grading Rules, except to be free of wane.
4
6.1.7 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE TIES (2017)

6.1.7.8 Bridge Tie Installation (2017)

6.1.7.8.1 Bridge Tie Spacing and Spacers

c. The end and edge distance for dowel type connections as per the National Design Specification for Wood Construction
(NDS) are based on the direction of load. The loaded edge distance perpendicular to grain is 4d, where d is the
diameter of the shank of the dowel type fastener. The loaded end distance parallel to grain is 7d for softwoods, and 5d
for hardwoods. The following lead holes sizes are specified in the NDS for bolts, drift pins and lag screws. Lead holes
for bolts shall be a minimum of 1/32” (1 mm) to a maximum of 1/16” (2 mm) greater than the bolt shank diameter. The
lead hole for the shank portion of lag screws shall equal the shank diameter. The lead hole for the threaded portion shall
have a diameter equal to 65% to 85% of the shank diameter in wood with G > 0.6, 60% to 75% in wood with 0.5 < G ≤
0.6, and 40% to 70% in wood with G ≤ 0.5 and a length equal to at least the length of the threaded portion of the lag
screw. This lead hole total length equals the sum of the shank lead hole length and the threaded portion lead hole

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Timber Structures

length. The NDS goes on to say the larger diameter in each range shall apply to lag screws of greater diameters. Lead
holes for drift pins shall be 0” to 1/32” (1 mm) smaller than the actual pin diameter. The likelihood of wood splitting is
affected by specific gravity, moisture content, lead hole diameter and end distance. If there is no lead hole or too small
a diameter lead hole in the tie then there is a very strong possibility that the tie will split at the end due to shrinkage
stresses at the specified end and edge distances discussed above. See Table 7-2-5 for values of G (Specific Gravity).

SECTION 6.2 DESIGN COMMENTARY

6.2.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN (2016)

6.2.2.3 Stringers (2009)

An approximate analysis to determine the division of rail load to several stringers is given in the chart, Figure 7-A1-1, in
Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids.

6.2.2.5.1 Tie Spacers, Guard Timbers and Guard Rails

In the past, spacer timbers and guard timbers were terms used interchangeably. With the use of metal strap timber spacers,
which do not function as guards, the need to differentiate between tie spacers and guard timbers became apparent (see Chapter
7 Glossary).

Metal fastenings between timber tie spacers and ties are more effective than dapping of spacer timbers, because of the
tendency of the wood to split off between daps.

Steel rail guard rails have been used in the past on the field side of the running rail but this is not considered recommended
practice in the industry.

6.2.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES

6.2.3.6 Longitudinal Force (2013)

d. Since longitudinal bracing in timber trestles is essentially there to provide L/d stability and geometrical constraint, the
longitudinal forces are transferred through the stringer and deck system with some help from the rails in proportion to
their axial stiffness. Where stringers are discontinuous, the load is likely transferred through the dowels to the cap and
back to the next set of stringers. This load path needs to be adequate to do this.

Traditionally this has been accomplished by the use of earth fill or similar fire barriers at 400-foot intervals but with the
addition of Articles 2.3.6.b, c and d it is necessary to include this limitation, as some of these fire details would not
transmit any appreciable force.

6.2.3.9 Deflection (2013)

The cases listed in the tables in Appendix 1 meet this criteria provided permanent set is not an issue.

6.2.4 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS

6.2.4.1 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) (2006)

Methods used to establish glulam design properties take into account basic lumber properties. Lumber properties published by
the grading agencies for Douglas-fir and Southern pine are derived from standard practices provided in ASTM D245 in

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conjunction with clear wood properties published in ASTM D2555. Basic lumber grade characteristics are adapted to a glulam
beam design modeling method described in ASTM D3737 to establish glulam beam properties for the various layup
"combinations" listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8. Railroad bridge design applications require the use of basic structural
engineering principles and design equations in conjunction with published glulam allowable stresses.

6.2.4.1.1 Allowable Stresses

The National Design Specification (NDS) provides an "equation format" that may be used with the specialized equations and
loading requirements specified in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for design of bridge structures. Design
methodology for connections is also included in the NDS. The allowable stresses included in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 may be
used directly for glulam bridge design. Appropriate stress adjustment factors for typical railroad bridge applications described
in the NDS and glulam industry design publications have been applied to these table values to simplify use of the values in
basic engineering equations.

Glulam beams are "engineered" to optimize grade characteristics of the lumber used to make the product. The highest
lamination grades are used in the outer zones of the beam depth. The X-X, Y-Y and Axial orientations are defined here to
explain the use of these terms as they are used in glulam product design.

Fasteners: The design methodology provided in Section 2.4 is applicable to glulam products. In addition, the information
provided in the NDS for fasteners in solid sawn members is applicable for glulam design. Fastener capacities for withdrawal,
single shear, double shear, and fastener group patterns in glulam members are controlled by wood species and the specific
gravity within species groups. Specific gravity values to be used with the stress groups listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 are
provided.

6.2.4.1.2 Tabular Design Values

1

See Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids.

6.2.4.1.3 Adjustment Factors

Adjustment factors for wet-use, cyclic loading and the RR Use as defined in this section have been applied to the appropriate 3
values in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8. Other factors that may be considered have been included in Table 7-2-3. In cases where
factors are not applicable, "none" is entered in the table. If adjustment for a given condition may be considered, but has been
judged to be not necessary for glulam applications, a value of 1.0 is noted in the table. For example the Beam Stability factor
CL is 1.0 when the compression side of a bending member is supported throughout its length, and the ends at points of bearing
have lateral support to prevent rotation.

Temperature effects (CT) are reversible for normal day/night cycles even in climates where daytime temperatures may be 4
extreme. The US Forest Service Handbook No. 72 indicates that potential temporary strength reductions due to temperatures
above 120oF will be offset by low member moisture content common to arid climates. The depth of heat penetration in given
members must also be recognized when considering the possible effect of temporary (daily) exposure to high temperatures on
beam properties. The Railroad Use Factor as defined for use in Chapter 7 is a duration of load adjustment not applicable to the
glulam shear stress values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 since a compensating adjustment to account for cyclic loading has
already been applied by glulam industry standard recommendations. A factor of 0.72 has been applied to the listed values to
account for possible cyclic loading effects. The base value for glulam shear (prior to adjustment) is derived from full-scale
beam test results using static loading. Base shear values used in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8, prior to application of the wet use
factor, are 265 psi for Douglas-fir and 300 psi for southern pine. This base value is higher than values originally derived from
small sample blocks shear tests and ASTM D245 adjustment factors.

Design shear stresses may also require adjustment to account for seasoning checks when they are expected to exceed 15% of
the member width in high shear zones --center half of the depth, in the end fourths of the member length, and mid depth over
intermediate supports. Technical Notes on the evaluation of checking in glued laminated timbers are available from industry
trade associations.

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The KcE factor to be used in the column stability equation (shown as 0.418 for glulam), is related to stiffness COV (Coefficient
of Variation), and varies between products. The COV for glulam Modulus of Elasticity is assumed to be 10% for members
with 6 or more laminations.

Glued laminated timer members manufactured with wane lumber are not permitted for use in railway applications. Wane
lumber will affect the shear strength of structural glued laminated timber under repeated loading in railway structures and
voids may hold water, which could result in favorable conditions for decay.

6.2.4.2 Design Equations (2014)

In addition to basic structural design principles, the use of specialized design procedures and assumptions to account for
loading conditions unique to railroad bridge structures, as presented in Section 2.5, may be applied for glulam design in
conjunction with stresses listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.

Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8: To simplify use of these tables, basic adjustment factors that are to be applied generally for railroad
bridge applications have been applied to the respective values listed in the tables (see Article 6.2.4.1.3).

6.2.5 NOTES ON THE USE OF STRESS-GRADED LUMBER

6.2.5.1 Working Unit Stresses (1988)

Introduction

To make the most effective and efficient use of any material the designer should be familiar with the characteristics of that
material. In the following, the important characteristics which affect the strength of lumber are discussed briefly. Other
characteristics, such as durability, resistance to splitting, resistance to wear, hardness, holding power of nails, finishing
characteristics, etc., are not discussed, although they may be important and must not be overlooked.

Basic Stress

The term “basic stress” is used to denote the allowable working stress for lumber which is unchecked, straight grained, and
clear, and which will be subject to maximum load for a long time and will be saturated all of the time. The basic stress is not a
working stress for any commercial grade. It must be modified for the grade of the lumber and for actual loading and moisture
conditions to obtain working unit stresses. For basic stresses and for the quantitative effect of lumber characteristics on
strength, see the Wood Handbook. The stresses given in Table 7-2-9 take into account the characteristics permitted in the
grading rules.

Knots and Holes

The distortion of the grain around a knot causes stresses across the grain which limit the allowable stress in tension and
compression parallel to grain for fully intergrown knots the same as for loose knots and knot holes. The effect of knots and
knot holes on compression perpendicular to the grain and on shear stress may ordinarily be disregarded. Holes from other
causes, such as bored holes, have approximately the same effect as knots. If there are many holes or large holes or grooves
made in the lumber during fabrication and erection, their effect on stress should not be disregarded.

Slope of Grain

Lumber is much stronger in both tension and compression along the grain than in any other direction, and since in a straight
beam or post there will be a component of stress across the grain whenever the grain is not parallel to the axis of the beam or
post, it is necessary to limit slope of grain. Ordinarily, grading rules limit the slope of grain throughout the length of posts, but
only in the middle half of beams and joists, on the assumption that the slope of grain near the ends will not be much greater
than the slope in the central part. If a beam or joist is to be used for continuous spans or a tension member, the slope of grain
should be further limited (see Note 8, Table 7-2-9). Since the allowable slope of grain for posts is somewhat greater than for

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beams and joists, it is not considered necessary to limit specifically the slope of grain near the ends of beams or joists which
are to be used as posts.

Pitch and Gum Pockets, Seams and Streaks

The effect of pitch or gum on the strength of wood may be disregarded, although it is sometimes associated with pockets or
seams where the absence of wood may affect the strength.

Wane

Wane is permitted in most structural grades. Its effect on the strength of the piece in bending or compression parallel to grain is
not great. Wane at a point of bearing perpendicular to grain has a proportional effect on bearing stress and, in addition, may
cause eccentricity of load or support. Where bearing stresses are high or eccentricity is objectionable, the structure can be
designed so that the wane will be removed in framing or the lumber can be ordered “to be free of wane.”

Density

Density has a large effect on the strength of lumber. For a few species a visual inspection method has been developed which
will separate the lumber into two density classifications, but there is considerable overlap of actual densities in the two
classifications. If a more accurate method of density segregation, economically applicable to commercial production, could be
devised, a large increase in allowable stress could be made for most lumber.

Warp, Cup, Bow

Warp, cup and bow may cause eccentricity of loading and torsional stresses and difficulties in framing. For ordinary
1
construction the stresses produced can be disregarded if the member is straight enough for easy framing.

Checks, Splits, Shakes

Some grading rules limit checks, splits and shakes throughout the length of structural lumber because of their effect on hazard
of decay, appearance, etc., and these considerations are the primary ones in post grades. In beams and joists the checks, splits 3
and shakes within the middle half of the height of the piece within a distance from each end equal to three times the height of
the piece are limited because of their effect on shear stresses. Outside of these limits checks, splits or shakes large enough to
cause a shear failure are unlikely.

Mismanufacture

Mismanufacture affects framing primarily. If the strength of the pieces is based on the smallest size permitted, mismanufacture 4
may be disregarded.

Moisture Content

a. The strength of lumber in tension, compression and shear is a function of the moisture content at the time and is
practically independent of its previous condition. However, changes in moisture content produce checks, and enlarge
checks and splits already present. The amount of checking will increase with an increase in the size of the piece and
will vary with the method of seasoning and exposure to weather. In Table 7-2-9, assume the lumber has not become
more severely checked, because of improper seasoning or severe exposure to weather, than contemplated by the
grading rules.

b. Under most conditions lumber which has been installed when green or saturated will dry out in service, and prolonged
exposure to moisture will be required to raise the moisture content very much. Lumber of joist and plank sizes and
larger which is not submerged or framed to retain moisture will not acquire much moisture content in exposure to usual
weather most places in the United States. Some contact surfaces, such as the bearing between stringers and caps of

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Timber Structures

railway trestles, are conducive to the retention of moisture, and at such surfaces it is recommended that the stresses be
limited to those applicable to green or saturated lumber.

c. Good timber preservatives do not affect the strength-moisture content relations.

Decay

Decay weakens wood. The decrease in strength may be very marked when the decay is barely perceptible, and since decay
may spread rapidly, infected structural members should be inspected frequently until replaced. It is common practice to reduce
the allowable stresses for untreated lumber subject to decay hazard to offset loss of strength due to undetected decay. Such
reductions should not be relied on to compensate for loss of strength due to known decay. Good preservatives can protect
wood against decay for many years, and if applied by modern treating processes, properly conducted, the damage to the wood
by the treating process may be disregarded.

Duration of Load

The allowable load varies with the length of time the load is applied. Figure 7-6-1 shows graphically the approximate relation
of allowable stress to time. If the load is removed before failure is reached, there will be some recovery, but so little is known
about the amount of recovery that it should be disregarded, and the duration of load should be figured as the sum of all the
lengths of time that the load is applied. If lumber is subjected to several different loads with different durations, each
combination should be investigated, and if each alone is safe the lumber may be considered safe.

T emperature, Heat

The stresses recommended in Table 7-2-9, and the provisions in these notes on the use of stress-graded lumber assume the
lumber is to be used under ordinary conditions of temperature. If abnormal temperatures are anticipated, the designer should
refer to the U.S. Forest Laboratory Report No. R 471, Effect of Heat on the Properties and Serviceability of Wood.

6.2.5.6 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber (2012)

6.2.5.6.1 Working Stresses

Table 7-6-1, Note 4: Inland Douglas-fir and Douglas-fir-/Western Larch are deemed to be refractory and hence very difficult to
treat. Douglas-fir South is not produced in sufficient quantities and is somewhat weaker; its suitability for Timber Railroad
Bridges is questionable.

The grades Dense Structural 86, 72 & 65 for Southern Yellow Pine are no longer included in Table 7-2-9 because the Southern
Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB) has indicated that none of their members currently supply timbers meeting these grades as
published in the SPIB Special Product Rules. The last printing of the Special Product Rules was October 15, 1991.

The current Design tables in this Chapter for Sawn wood are in part based on tests on full-scale Douglas-fir and Southern
Yellow Pine timber stringers conducted at Texas A & M University (References 1, 16).

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 Commentary

Figure 7-6-1. Chart Showing Relation of Design Stress to Duration of Load

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Timber Structures

Table 7-6-1. Derivation of listed values, using combination 16F-1.5E DF as an example

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 Commentary

6.2.5.10 Notched Beams (2016)

If notches are not slope cut there is a significant amount of tension perpendicular to grain stress development caused by
differential stiffness between the notched and the non-notched sections. Wood is anisotropic and its strength in the
perpendicular to grain direction, typically found in the notch zone in beams in bending, is very weak. The deeper the notch, the
higher the peeling stress that develops. The higher the stress in relation to the capacity of the element, the higher the peeling
stresses as well. Effectively, it is a deflection based stress caused by differential stiffness where the smaller the radius of
curvature of flexure in the element the greater the notch reentrant corner crack potential. Any slope for the notch is better than
a 90 degree angle with 1:6 being acceptable to reduce the stress in tension perpendicular to grain and reduce the potential for
reentrant corner cracking.

It is recommended that the notch is slope cut at 1:6 minimum to reduce the potential for reentrant corner splits and to improve
longevity of the element. To improve longevity in the element, the length of the notch into the span should be kept to a
minimum and limited to 8” maximum as shown in Figure 7-6-2 (below).

4
Figure 7-6-2. Typical Slope Cut Notches

SECTION 6.3 RATING COMMENTARY

6.3.1 RULES FOR RATING EXISTING WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES

6.3.1.3 Carrying Capacity (2013)

a. There are many factors affecting the strength of lumber for which no satisfactory, commercially applicable methods of
evaluating the effects have been found. These factors produce a variability among pieces which otherwise seem to be
alike. Since the allowable stresses of Table 7-2-9 are based on the strength of the weakest pieces that may occur in the

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Timber Structures

grade and assume that each piece must carry its load, it follows that if a load is carried by several members, not
independent of each other, the designer could reasonably allow somewhat higher stresses. Conversely, if the failure of
a single member would cause unusually great damage, the allowable stress on that member should be reduced. An
overload of 50 percent will cause failure in only rare cases, but if the load is doubled, failures will be frequent.

b. To be considered stable the structure must be able to safely transfer all loads from point of application to the ground or
suitable substructure in a manner that ensures the integrity and geometry of the structure.

6.3.1.4 Inspection (2013)

h. With regards to stability of bents:

• Bents should not be out-of-plumb by more than 1 inch in 4 feet, in the direction of the track without evaluation.

• Out of plumb bents should be straightened as much as possible without damaging the bent, and/or additional bracing
or struts added, and bolts tightened. If this repair does not hold for any appreciable time (6 to 12 months), then the
bent should be considered for additional strengthening or re-construction.

• If the problem is known to be purely a ground condition, then ground stabilization measures should be considered.

6.3.1.14 Unit Stresses (2017)

a. The decision to use all or any of the stresses for rating that exceed the design allowable stresses should be made by the
Engineer considering the effect of the increased stresses on the desired longevity of the structure being rated.

c. This paragraph is meant for Railroad owners who have the personnel and control over operations to meet the
conditions listed in the paragraph. Applying this paragraph will reduce component life. It is not common practice to
apply Article 3.1.14.c unless the rating is done by a person very well versed in timber rating and inspection (at least 4+
years of experience in tactile timber inspection and rating). If the person doing the rating is relying on other inspectors
and has any doubt in how the inspection was performed or to the condition of the timber; not applying Article 3.1.14.c
is the appropriate engineering judgment.

h. If wane is found during a tactile inspection of glued laminated wood beams, the following reduction factors should be
applied to the unit shear stress of an element when calculating shear capacity; 0.83 for wane one side and 0.67 for wane
both sides.

Wane is allowed in glued laminated wood beams as per the ANSI A190.1 Standard for Wood Products-Structural
Glued Laminated Timber (ANSI A190.1 – 2012) and APA ICC- ES Evaluation Report ESR-1940 (January 2016)
Glued-Laminated Timber Combinations and The GAP2006 Computer Program. This allowance applies to glued
laminated wood beams used in dry conditions. Dry conditions are defined as ambient conditions that cause wood, a
hygroscopic material, to equilibrate at a moisture content of 16-19% or lower. The threshold for moisture content is
different depending on whether full beam members are being considered or connections respectively. Due to this factor
wane may be found in railway bridge glulam beams. Wane is allowed in the following combinations as per the two
standards cited above; 24F-V4 SP/SP as per the ANSI A117 standard and EWS 24F-V4M1 DF/DF, EWS 24F-V4M2
DF/DF, EWS 24F-V8M1 DF/DF (balanced layup), EWS 24F-V8M2 DF/DF (balanced layup), EWS 16F-V5M1 SP/SP
(balanced layup), EWS 24F-V3M1 SP/SP, EWS 24F-V3M2 SP/SP, EWS 24F-V5M2 SP/SP (balanced), EWS 24F-
V5M3 SP/SP (balanced), EWS 26F-V3M1 SP/SP, EWS 26F-V3M2 SP/SP, EWS 26F-V4M1 SP/SP (balanced), EWS
26F-V4M2 SP/SP (balanced). In the EWS 24F-V3M1 SP/SP, EWS 24F-V5M2 SP/SP (balanced), EWS 26F-V3M1
SP/SP, EWS 26F-V4M1 SP/SP (balanced) layups, there is no wane allowed in the center 40% of the depth during
manufacturing and therefore there is no reduction factor required. Since layup combinations contained within each
stress group shown in Tables 7-2-7 may contain combinations that do now allow wane the specific combination being
inspected must be established to ascertain whether the unit shear stresses contained in the table apply to the
combination and subsequent application of reduction factors is proper. Table 7-2-8 combinations do not allow wane.
The maximum wane allowed can be up to 1/6th the width of the interior laminations on each side.

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 Commentary

Wane that is ¼” (6mm) across the wide face of the lamination is commonly called pencil wane, which is allowed
without any reduction in unit shear design values.

SECTION 6.4 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE COMMENTARY

6.4.5 DRIVING TIMBER PILES (2017)

6.4.5.2.8.5 Bracing

Care should be taken so that spike-grids or other shear connectors do not penetrate beyond the depth of preservative treatment.

6.4.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE (2017)

6.4.6.1 Open Deck Bridges (2016)

6.4.6.1.2 Lining and Gauging

a. Prior to deck installation, verify condition of the rail. If the rail shows significant signs of wear, it may be necessary to
replace the rail prior to deck installation.

b. Identify the running rail, and start by lining it. Gauge the rail accordingly. 1
6.4.6.2 Ballast Deck Bridges (2017)

6.4.6.2.1 Decks on Timber Bridges

b. Deviations over 1-1/2 inches between centerline of bridge and track may result in the overstressing of the stringer load
carrying capacity for certain track speeds. Depending on the track speed and loading of bridge, it will be up to the
3
Railroad Bridge Engineer to determine the acceptable deviation between centerline of bridge and track for the
structure.

6.4.6.2.2 Ballast Depth

a. Recommendation of six (6) inch minimum is based on some former standards and practices. For new construction and 4
design, see Part 2, Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading.

6.4.6.4 Walkways

a. Single walkways can be installed on the downstream side of the bridge for access for drift removal or consistently on
the same side of the bridge(s) in-line to allow train crew to inspect train. Other factors may include location of
switches, derails, curves, wayside detectors, and general terrain.

6.4.7 SUPPORT, REPAIR, PRESERVE, OR REPLACE DAMAGED PORTIONS OF THE

STRUCTURE (2014)

6.4.7.2 Field Application of Preservative Chemicals (2014)

a. Liquids are brushed, squirted or sprayed on the surface and may be injected into timber.

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Timber Structures

b. Semi-solids, greases or pastes are spread on the affected area. They are mostly used in ground line applications or
treating fresh cuts.

c. Fumigants are normally injected into the wood. They originally are liquid and volatilize, creating a gas which
permeates wood cells inhibiting decay.

d. Plugs or pastes containing salts, which, when combined with moisture release an active ingredient which permeates
wood cells inhibiting decay.

SECTION 6.5 INSPECTION COMMENTARY

6.5.2.1 Identification

b. The Global Position System (GPS) location point(s) used for identification may be taken at the location on the bridge
as designated by the Engineer such as either or both bridge ends, channel span, piers or other applicable locations.

SECTION 6.A1 CONTEMPORARY DESIGNS AND DESIGN AIDS COMMENTARY

6.A1.3 PILE DESIGN AIDS (2016)

The procedure to use the Method of Consistent Deformations to determine pile load distributions was first introduced into the
A.R.E.A. manual in 1942. In 1943, the procedure was augmented to include transverse deformation of the cap in contact with
the pile and also shear deformation of the cap. In doing so, a few additional assumptions and material properties were required.

For timber members, neither the behavioral assumptions nor the material properties required (G and Et) improve the estimate
of pile load distribution. In fact, the outcome is a slight increase in the load apparently taken up by remote pile and a decrease
in load taken by near-rail pile. In addition, use of the 1943 procedures creates a difficulty when considering concrete or steel
caps. Neglecting the 1943 additions simplifies the form of the required calculations, generalizes the procedure to be valid for
alternative-material caps, and slightly changes the load distribution outcomes by less than 2% and in conservative direction for
the piles receiving the highest loads.

6.A1.6 TIMBER TRESTLE DETAILS (2015)

Figure 7-A1-26. The positives and negatives of a number of details going back to the 1930s from various railroads were
reviewed. There are several other good options, but the two details shown were determined to be the most suitable for E80
loading and current timber quality. The main objectives are to reduce water ingress while ensuring a good connection. The
locations of the bolts with respect to the rail, guard timbers, piles, and ties must be considered in the use of these connection
details.

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