lubricants

Article
Specific Features of Aerodynamic Journal Bearings
with Elastically Supported Pads
Jiří Šimek
Centre of Industrial Research Techlab Ltd., 190 00 Prague, Czech Republic; j.simek@techlab.cz;
Tel.: +420-607-933-682

Academic Editors: Ron A.J. van Ostayen and Daniel J. Rixen

Received: 7 March 2017; Accepted: 6 April 2017; Published: 11 April 2017

Abstract: Aerodynamic bearings with elastically supported tilting pads have operational properties
comparable with widely-used foil journal bearings. They combine the excellent stability of tilting pad
bearings, as a result of very small cross-coupling stiffness terms, with the positive properties of foil
bearings, namely their ability to adapt to changing operating conditions and presence of additional
damping due to friction between elastic members and bearing casings. Air cycle machines (ACMs)
are used in the environmental control systems of aircrafts to manage the pressurization of the cabin.
An ACM with the abovementioned type of bearings and an operational speed of 60,000 rpm was
designed and successfully tested, even under conditions of strong external excitation. Some problems
with rotor stability in certain operation regimes were encountered. Rotor relative vibrations measured
at both bearing locations increased substantially when excitation frequency was close to the lowest
rotor eigenvalues. In spite of that and the 1000 start/stop cycles passed by the end of the test, any
traces of wear on the bearing sliding surfaces were negligible. When the bearing distance had to be
shortened in order to insert the machine into the defined space, the rotor quickly became unstable at
relatively low speeds. Although rotor stability reserve was reduced only slightly, the rotor had to
be redesigned in order to achieve stability. Operation characteristics of aerodynamic bearings with
elastically supported tilting pads are presented together with rotor dynamic analysis and validated
with measured results.

Keywords: aerodynamic bearings; elastically supported tilting pads; air cycle machine (ACM); rotor
dynamics; rotor stability; measured relative rotor vibration; external excitation

1. Introduction
Air cycle machines (ACMs) are used in the environmental control systems of aircrafts to manage
the pressurization of the cabin. To achieve small dimensions and high efficiency, the rotor should
operate at a very high speed. ACM design is similar to that of a turbocharger, i.e., the rotor is driven
by a turbine and pressurized air is provided by a blower impeller. The majority of contemporary
high-speed rotating machines use aerodynamic foil bearings, which have very good operational
properties [1–6]. However, even better functional properties can be achieved with tilting pad journal
bearings (TPJBs), which have excellent dynamic characteristics. Cross-coupling stiffness terms, which
are known to promote rotor instability, are found in TBJBs two orders lower than the principle stiffness
terms. Rotors in TPJBs are therefore principally stable, unless there is a strong external source of
excitation, such as a high-pressure labyrinth seal. With foil bearing working gap geometry, it is not
possible to achieve such small values of cross-coupling stiffness terms (e.g., [7]), and this is why TPJBs
are a better solution from the standpoint of rotor stability. A new type of aerodynamic bearing with
elastically supported pads, which combines the advantages of foil bearings and tilting pad journal
bearings, was designed and successfully used for ACM rotor support.

Lubricants 2017, 5, 10; doi:10.3390/lubricants5020010 www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 2 of 9

2. Materials and5,Methods
Lubricants 2017, 10 2 of 9

Aerodynamic
2. Materials andtilting pad journal bearing characteristics were designed with help of the computer
Methods
program code “DATPJB.” Standard bearing configuration covers three pads with static load acting
Aerodynamic tilting pad journal bearing characteristics were designed with help of the
symmetrically between the two lower pads. The program code “DATPJB” provides the solution of
computer program code “DATPJB.” Standard bearing configuration covers three pads with static
the Reynolds
load acting equation for compressible
symmetrically between themediumtwo loweraccording
pads. The toprogram
[8]. In the process
code “DATPJB”of calculation,
provides the it was
necessary to find the equilibrium of the pad position and static position of
solution of the Reynolds equation for compressible medium according to [8]. In the process of the journal in the bearing.
Dynamic stiffness
calculation, and necessary
it was damping to coefficients were calculated
find the equilibrium of the for
padsmall harmonic
position journal
and static movement
position of the in
the vicinity
journal of in the
the equilibrium
bearing. Dynamicposition, whichand
stiffness enabled
dampingus tocoefficients
also determine
were the stability
calculated forofsmall
the pad
movement.
harmonic The computer
journal movementprogram
in the“AXSPDR4,” based
vicinity of the on principles
equilibrium stated
position, which in enabled
[9], wasus used for the
to also
determine
design the stability spiral
of the aerodynamic of thegroove
pad movement. The computer
thrust bearings, providingprogram “AXSPDR4,”
bearing load capacity,based
frictiononloss
principles
and film stiffnessstated
as ainfunction
[9], was of
used for the
speed anddesign of the aerodynamic spiral groove thrust bearings,
film thickness.
providing
Dynamic bearing load capacity,
rotor analysis friction
was carried loss
out andthe
with film stiffness“DYNROT-R,”
program as a function ofwhichspeedenable
and film us to
thickness.
calculate critical speeds, response to unbalance and pertinent stability reserve. The program involved
Dynamic rotor analysis was carried out with the program “DYNROT-R,” which enable us to
graphic superstructure, enabling easy generation of the rotor model. The program also provided
calculate critical speeds, response to unbalance and pertinent stability reserve. The program involved
graphic outputs, such as Campbell diagrams or graphic representations of rotor response to unbalance
graphic superstructure, enabling easy generation of the rotor model. The program also provided
in selected
graphicsections.
outputs,All computer
such programs
as Campbell are available
diagrams according
or graphic to standardofcommercial
representations conditions.
rotor response to
Relative rotor vibrations during tests were measured by means
unbalance in selected sections. All computer programs are available according to standard of eddy current sensors
Micro-epsilon
commercial S04 (Micro-Epsilon Messtechnik, Ortenburg, Germany) connected to units Micro-epsilon
conditions.
eddyNCDT 3300 (Micro-Epsilon
Relative rotor vibrations during Messtechnik,
tests wereOrtenburg,
measured by Germany)
means ofwith
eddyresolution in nanometers
current sensors Micro-
and bandwidth up to 100 kHz.Messtechnik,
epsilon S04 (Micro-Epsilon Vibration signals were Germany)
Ortenburg, recorded by National
connected toInstrument measuring
units Micro-epsilon
USB eddyNCDT
DAQ card 3300 with(Micro-Epsilon
16 analog inputs Messtechnik,
and samplingOrtenburg, Germany)
frequency up to with
1.2 resolution
MHz. The incard
nanometers
operation
and bandwidth
was controlled by the up program
to 100 kHz. VibrationNI,
ScopeWin signals were recorded
enabling by National of
graphic processing Instrument
measured measuring
signals and
USBelaboration
statistic DAQ card with 16 analog data,
of measured inputse.g.,
and evaluating
sampling frequency
RMS valuesup toof1.2measured
MHz. Thedata cardor operation
providing
was controlled
frequency spectra. by the program ScopeWin NI, enabling graphic processing of measured signals and
statistic elaboration of measured data, e.g., evaluating RMS values of measured data or providing
External excitation was realized by mounting the ACM on a vibration table, which could provide
frequency spectra.
excitation either in horizontal or in vertical directions. Maximum acceleration of the table was 2g
External excitation was realized by mounting the ACM on a vibration table, which could provide
m·s−2 ). either in horizontal or in vertical directions. Maximum acceleration of the table was 2g (~20
(~20 excitation
m·s−2).
3. Results
3. Results
3.1. Aerodynamic Bearings with Elastically Supported Tilting Pads
3.1.
ThereAerodynamic Bearings
are several patentswith Elastically
covering Supported
bearing designTilting Padsthe simplest of which is illustrated in the
[10,11],
left-hand There
section areofseveral
Figurepatents
1. Tilting pads 2bearing
covering are supported by elastic
design [10,11], the members
simplest of4 which
with the shape-enabling
is illustrated in
free pad tilting in section
the left-hand a peripheral direction.
of Figure The
1. Tilting detail
pads of supported
2 are the pad elastic support
by elastic is in the
members centre
4 with theofshape-
Figure 1.
The pad is held
enabling freeinpad
position
tilting by
in athe pin 3, which
peripheral alsoThe
direction. enables
detailthe adjustment
of the pad elasticofsupport
basic bearing
is in the clearance
centre
of Figure
by means 1. The
of the nutpad is heldbearing
5. Basic in position by the pinenabling
clearance, 3, which easy
also enables
run–upthe adjustment
without of basicwear,
excessive bearing
is the
clearance by means of the nut 5. Basic bearing clearance,
most important advantage of TPJBs in comparison with foil bearings. enabling easy run–up without excessive
wear, is the most important advantage of TPJBs in comparison with foil bearings.

Figure
Figure 1. Two
1. Two types
types ofofTPJBs
TPJBsaccording
according to
toCzech
Czechpatent
patentspecifications. 1–bearing
specifications. casing,casing,
1–bearing 2—pad,2—pad,
3—
pin, 4—elastic member, 5—nut, 6—insert, 7—screw.
3—pin, 4—elastic member, 5—nut, 6—insert, 7—screw.
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 3 of 9

Some problems
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 with TPJBs of the simplest design may occur due to uneven deformation 3 of 9of the
elastic member, which can result in two-point contact restraining free pad movement. That is why
Some problems with TPJBs of the simplest design may occur due to uneven deformation of the
a more sophisticated design with defined geometry of contact between the pad and its supporting
elastic member, which can result in two-point contact restraining free pad movement. That is why a
member was devised. Its design is shown in the right-hand section of Figure 1. The pad 2 is supported
more sophisticated design with defined geometry of contact between the pad and its supporting
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 3 of 9
by the insert
member 6 with
was a curved
devised. Its design surface,
is shownon in which the pad section
the right-hand can freely
of Figuretilt in circumferential
1. The pad 2 is supported and axial
directions. The
Someinsert
by the insert with6aiscurved
6problems supported
with TPJBs of by
surface,theon the elastic
which
simplest themember
designpadmay 4; basic
canoccur
freely
due tilttobearing
in clearanceand
circumferential
uneven deformation can be set by
axial
of the
the screw 7.
directions. Dynamic
The insert
elastic member, bearing
6 is can
which properties
supported
result inby are very
the elastic
two-point good
member
contact due to the
4; basicfree
restraining very
bearing small cross-
clearance can
pad movement. coupling
Thatbeisset
why stiffness
by athe
terms, which
screw
more is a property
7. Dynamic
sophisticated bearing inherent
design propertiesto tilting
with definedare very padgood
geometry bearings.
due
of to the
contact Thanks
very small
between totheelastic
cross-
pad members
and coupling the bearings
stiffness
its supporting
member
terms,
also acquire which wasis devised.
propertiesa property
found Its design
in foilisbearings,
inherent shown in the
to tilting pad right-hand
i.e., bearings.
the section
Thanks
adaptability of Figure
to
to elastic 1. The
changing pad
members 2 isthe
operatingsupported
bearings
parameters
alsoby the insert
acquire
and additional 6 withdue
properties
damping afound
curved
to in surface, ofonelastic
foil bearings,
friction which the
the pad
i.e.,members canonfreely
adaptability tilt
thetoinner in circumferential
changing operating
surface and axial body.
of theparameters
bearing
and directions.
additional The insert 6 due
damping is supported byof theelastic
elasticmembers
member 4; onbasic bearing clearance canbearing
be set bybody.
the
Dynamic characteristics oftothe
friction
bearings used in ACM, the inner surface
calculated by theof the
method described in
screw 7. Dynamic bearing properties are very good due to the very
Dynamic characteristics of the bearings used in ACM, calculated by the method described in small cross- coupling stiffness
Section terms,
4, are presented in Figure 2. Bearings
to tilting25 mm in diameter with l/Dmembers
ratio ofthe0.72 were loaded
Section 4, which is a property
are presented inherent
in Figure 2. Bearings pad
25 mm bearings. Thanks
in diameter to elastic
with l/D ratio of 0.72 were bearings
loaded
with 4.4also
N at the turbine (TB) and 4.9 N at the blower (DB) side, respectively.
acquire properties found in foil bearings, i.e., the adaptability to changing operating parameters
with 4.4 N at the turbine (TB) and 4.9 N at the blower (DB) side, respectively.
and additional damping due to friction of elastic members on the inner surface of the bearing body.
Dynamic characteristics of the bearings used in ACM, calculated by the method described in
Section 4, are presented in Figure 2. Bearings 25 mm in diameter with l/D ratio of 0.72 were loaded
with 4.4 N at the turbine (TB) and 4.9 N at the blower (DB) side, respectively.

Figure 2. Stiffness and damping coefficients of air cycle machine (ACM) bearings.
Figure 2. Stiffness and damping coefficients of air cycle machine (ACM) bearings.
The diagrams in Figure 2 show principle bearing stiffness and damping coefficients for the
coordinate
The diagrams systemFigure 2. Stiffness
inshown
Figure and 1.
in Figure
2 show damping coefficients
Cross-coupling
principle of airstiffness
cycle
stiffness
bearing machine
terms xy,(ACM)
Kand as bearings.
Kyxdamping
well as coefficients
damping termsfor the
B xy, Bxy are zero.
coordinate system shown in Figure 1. Cross-coupling stiffness terms K , K as well as damping
xy coefficients
The diagrams in Figure 2 show principle bearing stiffness and damping yx for the
terms Bxy , Bxy aresystem
coordinate zero. shown in Figure 1. Cross-coupling stiffness terms Kxy, Kyx as well as damping terms
3.2. Rotor Dynamic Analysis
Bxy, Bxy are zero.
3.2. RotorAn ACM with
Dynamic aerodynamic TPJBs, designed in 2012 [12], is shown in Figure 3. The rotor 1 is
Analysis
3.2. Rotor
supported byDynamic Analysis
two TPJBs with elastically supported pads 3. Axial forces are taken up by aerodynamic
An ACM
spiral with
groove aerodynamic
thrust bearings TPJBs,
4, 5. designed
Turbine (left) andin 2012 [12], is impellers
shown inare Figure 3. overhang
The rotor 1 is
An ACM with aerodynamic TPJBs, designed in blower (right)
2012 [12], is shown in Figure at
3. rotor
The rotor 1 is
supported
ends. by two
Rotor TPJBsvibrations
relative with elastically supported
are observed pads
by two 3. Axial
pairs of eddy forces aresensors
taken up by aerodynamic
supported by two TPJBs with elastically supported pads 3. Axial forcescurrent 9, which
are taken up by aerodynamic have
spiralmeasuring
groove
spiral groove thrust bearings 4, 5. Turbine (left) and blower (right) impellers are at rotor overhang ends.
thrust
range bearings
of 0.5 mm 4, 5.
and Turbine
typical (left) and
sensitivity blower
of 28 (right)
mV/µ m. impellers are at rotor overhang
Rotor relative vibrations
ends. Rotor relativeare observed
vibrations are by two pairs
observed of eddy
by two current
pairs of sensors
eddy current 9, which
sensors havehave
9, which measuring
range ofmeasuring
0.5 mm and
rangetypical sensitivity
of 0.5 mm of sensitivity
and typical 28 mV/µm. of 28 mV/µ m.

Figure 3. Air cycle machine design. 1—rotor, 2—casing, 3—pad, 4,5—thrust bearings, 6—elastic
member, 7—pin, 8—nut, 9—sensor.
Figure
Figure 3. Air 3.cycle
Air cycle machine
machine design.1—rotor,
design. 1—rotor, 2—casing,
2—casing, 3—pad,
3—pad,4,5—thrust bearings,
4,5—thrust 6—elastic
bearings, 6—elastic
member, 7—pin, 8—nut, 9—sensor.
member, 7—pin, 8—nut, 9—sensor.
 Lubricants
Lubricants 5, 105, 10
2017,2017, 4 of 9 4 of 9

Dynamic analysis of the rotor showed that there are four critical speeds associated with the rigid
Dynamic analysis of the rotor showed that there are four critical speeds associated with the
rotorrigid
on bearing
rotor onaerodynamic film, which
bearing aerodynamic film, ranged from 7,000
which ranged to 15,500
from 7,000 rpm.rpm.
to 15,500 The The
firstfirst
bending critical
bending
Lubricants
speed 2017, 5, 10
of co-rotating precession is higher thanthan
200,000 rpm, 4 of 9
critical speed of co-rotating precession is higher 200,000 rpm,asascan beseen
can be seenfromfrom
the the potential
potential
intersection of the
intersection redred
of the lineline
withwiththethe
speed
speedline inin
line the
theCampbell
Campbelldiagram
diagram inin Figure
Figure 4.4. The
The branch
branchofof the
Dynamic analysis of the rotor showed that there are four critical speeds associated with the rigid
same eigenvalue with counter-rotating (backward) precession (light blue line) is not excited
the same eigenvalue with counter-rotating (backward) precession (light blue line) is not excited by by
rotorunbalance
on bearing aerodynamic film, which ranged from 7,000 to 15,500 rpm. The first bending critical
unbalance andand therefore
therefore it is
it is notconsidered
not considered as aa critical
criticalspeed.
speed.
speed of co-rotating precession is higher than 200,000 rpm, as can be seen from the potential
intersection of the red line with the speed line in the Campbell diagram in Figure 4. The branch of the
same eigenvalue with counter-rotating (backward) precession (light blue line) is not excited by
unbalance and therefore it is not considered as a critical speed.

Figure
Figure4.4.Campbell
Campbell diagram ofcritical
diagram of criticalspeeds.
speeds.

As can be seen
As can be seenin in
Figure
Figure5,5,real
realparts
parts ofof the fourrelevant
the four relevanteigenvalues
eigenvalues areare negative,
negative, so that
so that the the
rotorrotor
operation is stable.
operation Rotor
is stable. Rotorresistance
resistanceto toinstability isusually
instability is usuallydetermined
determined by by means
means of logarithmic
of logarithmic
decrement, designated as as Figure
loglog 4.
δ, δ,definedCampbell diagram of critical speeds.
decrement, designated definede.g.,
e.g., in
in [13]. However,totomake
[13]. However, make thethe situation
situation moremore obvious,
obvious,
we can
we define thethe
can define stability reserve
stability reserveofofthethe rotor
rotor asas aapercentage
percentagebyby thethe following
following equation:
equation:
As can be seen in Figure 5, real parts of the four relevant eigenvalues are negative, so that the
rotor operation is stable. Rotorχ resistance to instability
= log δ × 100/π= −200 × isReusually determined
(λ)/Im (λ) (%), by means of logarithmic
(1)
decrement, designated as log δ, defined e.g., in [13]. However, to make the situation more obvious,
where
we can Re (λ)
define and
the Im (λ) represent
stability reserve of the real
the and as
rotor imaginary part ofby
a percentage eigenvalue respectively.
the following equation:

Figure 5. Damping of the four lowest eigenvalues.

χ = log δ × 100/π= −200 × Re (λ)/Im (λ) (%), (1)

where Re (λ) and Im (λ) represent theDamping
Figure5.5.Damping
Figure real and of the
of the four
fourlowest
imaginary lowesteigenvalues.
parteigenvalues.
of eigenvalue respectively.
The stability reserve of the two lowest eigenvalues at operation speed of 60,000 rpm are 10% and
The stability reserve of the two lowest eigenvalues at operation speed of 60,000 rpm are 10%
13.5% respectively, which correspond
χ = log δ × to logarithmic
100/π= −200 × Re decrement
(λ)/Im (λ)of 0.31 and 0.42. Such values(1)of
(%),
and 13.5% respectively, which correspond to logarithmic decrement of 0.31 and 0.42. Such values of
stability reserve are in most cases quite sufficient. The results of rotor response to unbalance were
wherestability
Re (λ)reserve
and Im are(λ)
in represent
most cases the
quitereal
sufficient. The results
and imaginary of rotor
part response torespectively.
of eigenvalue unbalance were also
also quite
quitesatisfactory,
satisfactory,
with
with
only
only
a
a slight
slight increase
increase
of
of vibration
vibration amplitude
amplitude
in the
inaround
region
the region around the
the “bearing”
The stability reserve of the two lowest eigenvalues at operation speed of 60,000 rpm are 10% and
“bearing”
criticalcritical speed
speed from from
8000 8000 to
tocorrespond
18,000 rpm,18,000
i.e., rpm, i.e.,
outside outside
standard standard
operating operating range.
13.5% respectively, which to logarithmic decrement ofrange.
0.31 and 0.42. Such values of
stability reserve
3.3. Operation are in most cases quite sufficient. The results of rotor response to unbalance were
Tests
also quite satisfactory, with only a slight increase of vibration amplitude in the region around the
Operation
“bearing” tests
critical were
speed carried
from 8000out in a test
to 18,000 loop
rpm, with
i.e., the turbine
outside standard driven by pressurized
operating range. air, as in
real conditions [14,15]. The machine could be operated up to 68,000 rpm with minimum values of
 Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 5 of 9

3.3. Operation Tests

Operation tests were carried out in a test loop with the turbine driven by pressurized air, as in real
conditions [14,15]. The machine could be operated up to 68,000 rpm with minimum values of relative
rotor vibrations. As shown by the amplitude-frequency characteristics depicted in Figure 6, the5RMS
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 of 9
values of vibration amplitudes were measured in two different tests. The RMS values of vibration in
radial direction
vibration in radial indirection
both testsinwere
bothlower than 2lower
tests were µm (double
than 2 µamplitude
m (doublelower than 5lower
amplitude µm). Thethansensor
5 µ m).at
the sensor
The bloweratsidethein the horizontal
blower direction
side in the wasdirection
horizontal damagedwas
during tests, and
damaged therefore
during its signal
tests, and was its
therefore not
included into the right diagram.
signal was not included into the right diagram.

Figure
Figure6.6.RMS
RMSvalues
valuesofofrotor
rotorvibration
vibrationfrom
fromthe
the first
first and
and second
second test.
test. TB/DB—turbine/blower
TB/DB—turbine/blowerside,
side,
vert./hor.—vertical/horizontal direction.
vert./hor.—vertical/horizontal direction.

Typical records of rotor run-up and run-down are illustrated in Figure 7. The vibration signal in
Typical records of rotor run-up and run-down are illustrated in Figure 7. The vibration signal
axial direction is distorted by damaged measured surface, so that only quasi-static shifts can be
in axial direction is distorted by damaged measured surface, so that only quasi-static shifts can be
evaluated. Quasi-static shifts in radial directions are caused by the change of rotor axis due to thrust
evaluated. Quasi-static shifts in radial directions are caused by the change of rotor axis due to thrust
runner alignment according to the position of thrust bearing sliding surface. It is more evident from
runner alignment according to the position of thrust bearing sliding surface. It is more evident from
the rotor run-down in the right section of Figure 7, where the change of axial force direction results
the rotor run-down in the right section of Figure 7, where the change of axial force direction results in
in relatively big deviations of the rotor in a radial direction. This phenomenon is caused by relatively
relatively big deviations of the rotor in a radial direction. This phenomenon is caused by relatively
low stiffness of pad supports in comparison with thrust bearing film stiffness. This by-product of
low stiffness of pad supports in comparison with thrust bearing film stiffness. This by-product of
elastic pad support contributes to a significant increase of thrust bearing load capacity. The average
elastic pad support contributes to a significant increase of thrust bearing load capacity. The average
coefficient p/u (specific load, i.e., load acting on unit of sliding surface area, divided by circumferential
coefficient p/u (specific load, i.e., load acting on unit of sliding surface area, divided by circumferential
speed on bearing pitch diameter) was exceeded by more than three times due to this possibility of
speed on bearing pitch diameter) was exceeded by more than three times due to this possibility of
sliding surface alignment.
sliding surface alignment.
Some tests were carried out with strong external excitation with variable frequency. Some
excitation frequencies caused severe vibrations of the otherwise stable running rotor. The regimes with
vibration amplitudes increased by external excitation are documented in Figure 8 for the speeds of
30,000 and 60,000 rpm. Excitation frequencies inducing severe rotor vibrations ranged from about
60 to about 200 Hz; lower or higher excitation frequencies had no adverse effect on rotor vibration.
The abovementioned frequencies are in the vicinity of the four lowest eigenvalues, i.e., critical speeds
of the rigid rotor on the aerodynamic bearing film.
At the end of test, the machine had endured 1000 start-stop cycles without any traces of excessive
wear or sliding surface damage. As is illustrated by Figure 9, neither the pads nor shaft in the bearing
location shows significant sliding surface damage; at the pad surface there are still visible traces of the
original machining.

Figure 7. Vibration amplitudes at run-up to 23,000 rpm (left) and run-down from 60,800 rpm (right).
in relatively big deviations of the rotor in a radial direction. This phenomenon is caused by relatively
low stiffness of pad supports in comparison with thrust bearing film stiffness. This by-product of
elastic pad support contributes to a significant increase of thrust bearing load capacity. The average
coefficient p/u (specific load, i.e., load acting on unit of sliding surface area, divided by circumferential
speed on bearing pitch diameter) was exceeded by more than three times due to this possibility of
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 6 of 9
sliding surface alignment.

Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 6 of 9

Some tests were carried out with strong external excitation with variable frequency. Some
excitation frequencies caused severe vibrations of the otherwise stable running rotor. The regimes
with vibration amplitudes increased by external excitation are documented in Figure 8 for the speeds
of 30,000 and 60,000 rpm. Excitation frequencies inducing severe rotor vibrations ranged from about
60 toFigure
about 200 Hz; lower or higher excitation frequencies had no adversefrom
effect on rotor vibration.
7. Vibration
Figure 7. Vibration amplitudes
amplitudes at
at run-up
run-up to
to 23,000
23,000 rpm
rpm (left)
(left) and run-down
and run-down 60,800
from 60,800 rpm (right).
rpm (right).
The abovementioned
Top
Top down:
down: TB
frequencies
TB vertical
vertical are
direction,
direction, TB
in
TB the vicinity
horizontal
horizontal
of theDB
direction,
direction,
four
DB lowest eigenvalues,
horizontal
horizontal direction,
direction,
i.e.,
axial
axial
critical speeds
direction,
direction, DB
of theDBrigid rotor
vertical on the
direction; aerodynamic
maximum bearing
vibration film.
double amplitude 10 µm at DB vertical
vertical direction; maximum vibration double amplitude 10 µ m at DB vertical direction. direction.

Figure 8. Vibration
Vibrationamplitudes
amplitudesatat30,000 (left)
30,000 and
(left) 60,000
and rpm
60,000 (right)
rpm with
(right) external
with excitation
external 2 g. Top
excitation 2 g.
down:
Top TB vertical
down: direction,
TB vertical TB horizontal
direction, direction,
TB horizontal DB horizontal
direction, DB horizontaldirection, axialaxial
direction, direction, DB
direction,
vertical
DB direction;
vertical maximum
direction; maximum vibration double
vibration amplitude
double 450450
amplitude µ mµm at DB vertical
at DB direction
vertical direction

At the
The end of test,
problem withthe machine
rotor hadappeared
stability endured when
1000 start-stop
the bearingcycles
spanwithout
had toany traces of excessive
be reduced to assure
wear or sliding surface damage. As is illustrated by Figure 9, neither the pads nor
that the machine would fit into the defined space. The rotor with a bearing span reduced shaft in the
frombearing
80 to
location shows significant sliding surface damage; at the pad surface there are still visible
45 mm exhibited instability already at relatively low speeds, around 30,000 rpm. This is illustrated by traces of
the vibration
the original machining.
signals around 30,000 and 50,000 rpm in Figure 10. Very distinct subharmonic frequency
components, which varied from 1/4 to 1/7 of rotational frequency, can be observed in vibration signals
in Figure 10. Its frequency could be determined by comparing vibration signals with speed signals.
 vertical direction; maximum vibration double amplitude 450 µ m at DB vertical direction

At the end of test, the machine had endured 1000 start-stop cycles without any traces of excessive
wear or sliding surface damage. As is illustrated by Figure 9, neither the pads nor shaft in the bearing
location 2017,
Lubricants shows
5, 10significant sliding surface damage; at the pad surface there are still visible traces
7 ofof
9
the original machining.

Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 7 of 9

frequency components, which varied from 1/4 to 1/7 of rotational frequency, can be observed in
vibration signals in Figure 10. Its frequency could be determined by comparing vibration signals with
speed signals. Figure 9. Bearing
Figure 9. Bearing pads
pads and
and rotor sliding surface
rotor sliding surface after
after test.
test.

The problem with rotor stability appeared when the bearing span had to be reduced to assure
that the machine would fit into the defined space. The rotor with a bearing span reduced from 80 to
45 mm exhibited instability already at relatively low speeds, around 30,000 rpm. This is illustrated
by the vibration signals around 30,000 and 50,000 rpm in Figure 10. Very distinct subharmonic

Figure 10. Vibration

Figure 10. Vibration amplitudes
amplitudes around
around 30,000
30,000 rpm
rpm (left)
(left) and
and 50,000
50,000 rpm
rpm (right).
(right). Top
Top down:
down: speed
speed
signal, TB vertical direction, TB horizontal direction, DB horizontal direction, axial direction,
signal, TB vertical direction, TB horizontal direction, DB horizontal direction, axial direction, DB vertical
DB
direction; maximum
vertical direction; vibrationvibration
maximum double amplitude 225 µm at
double amplitude 225TBµ in
m horizontal direction.direction.
at TB in horizontal

Vibration amplitudes in the region of instability were very high, reaching practically the whole
bearing clearance,
bearing clearance,andandititwas
wasonly
onlythanks
thanksto to
thethe elastic
elastic padpad support
support thatthat immediate
immediate failure
failure didtake
did not not
take place.
place. RotorRotor dynamic
dynamic analysis
analysis carriedcarried out disclosed
out disclosed that, duethat, duebearing
to the to the bearing span reduction,
span reduction, the
the stability
stabilityof
reserve reserve of theeigenvalue
the lowest lowest eigenvalue
at 60,000atrpm
60,000 rpm decreased
decreased from 9.8% fromto 9.8%
7.3%.toOur
7.3%. Our experience
experience shows
shows
that that in
in most most
cases of cases
a rotorofsupported
a rotor supported in aerodynamic
in aerodynamic tilting padtilting
journalpad journaleven
bearings, bearings,
5% ofeven 5%
stability
of stability
reserve reservetoisensure
is sufficient sufficient to ensure
stability, stability,
but in this specialbutcaseinthe
this special
rotor had tocase the rotor had
be redesigned to be
to achieve
redesigned
stable to achieve stable operation.
operation.

4.
4. Discussion
Discussion
The
The reason
reason forforthe
theinstability
instabilityofofthe
therotor with
rotor thethe
with reduced
reducedbearing
bearingspan waswas
span discovered
discoveredwithwith
the
help of several
the help experiments,
of several one of
experiments, onewhich was carried
of which out with
was carried the blower
out with impeller
the blower removed.
impeller The rotor
removed. The
without the blower impeller exhibited stable operation in the whole operating range
rotor without the blower impeller exhibited stable operation in the whole operating range up to up to 60,000 rpm.
Dynamic
60,000 rpm.analysis
Dynamic of the rotor with
analysis such
of the geometry
rotor showed
with such that stability
geometry showedreserve was increased
that stability reservefrom
was
7.3% to 10%,
increased i.e.,7.3%
from the value calculated
to 10%, i.e., the for thecalculated
value rotor with for
the the
original
rotorbearing
with thespan. To achieve
original bearingat span.
least the
To
achieve at least the same stability reserve as that of the rotor without the blower impeller, the thrust
bearing was relocated between journal bearings so that the bearing span could be increased to 63
mm. The rotor dynamic analysis proved that this new configuration increased stability reserve of the
lowest eigenvalue to 12%, which was even higher than that for original rotor with a bearing span of
80 mm. The modified rotor has therefore all the prerequisites for stable operation.
Lubricants 2017, 5, 10 8 of 9

same stability reserve as that of the rotor without the blower impeller, the thrust bearing was relocated
between journal bearings so that the bearing span could be increased to 63 mm. The rotor dynamic
analysis proved that this new configuration increased stability reserve of the lowest eigenvalue to 12%,
which was even higher than that for original rotor with a bearing span of 80 mm. The modified rotor
has therefore all the prerequisites for stable operation.

5. Conclusions
A new type of aerodynamic tilting pad bearings was used for the rotor support of an air cycle
machine for aircraft cabin pressurization. Bearings with elastically supported pads were able to secure
stable operation of the rotor with a mass of 0.7 kg up to a speed of 68,000 rpm. Pad elastic support leads
to additional positive bearing properties, such as the possibility of adaptation to changing operating
conditions, and provides additional bearing damping. Preset basic bearing clearance reduces sliding
surface wear and contributes to easy run-up. Elastic pad support enables, among other features,
very rapid rotor run-up to maximum speed without the danger of bearing clearance reduction due to
different temperature dilations of the bearing and shaft. Similarly, as with foil bearings, vibrations
from the rotor to the outside structure and vice versa are substantially damped. As a by-product of the
journal bearing design, the thrust bearing load carrying capacity is increased due to the possibility of
aligning the rotor axis according to the thrust bearing sliding surface position.
The above described example shows that no strict rules can be defined as concerns rotor stability.
While some rotors in aerodynamic bearings exhibit stable operation with a stability reserve lower than
5% (log δ ~0.15), in the present case more than 7% was not sufficient. The reason for this behavior
may be found in the effect of high-gyroscopic moments of impellers at both overhanging ends of the
rotor. Most high-speed machines with heavy impellers overhanging the rotor end exhibit somewhat
unorthodox behavior (e.g., [16]), which should be further investigated.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic under project
PID TA02011295 “Verification of air bearing technology”. Many thanks to Petr Lindovský and Lukáš Chromek for
performing the experiments and providing data for analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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