SEMINAR REPORT

ON

DRIP IRIGATION

Submitted by

AMIT KUMAR SINGH

(1603085)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

PATNA
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the technical seminar presentation entitled “DRIP
IRRIGATION” is submitted by Amit kumar singh (1603081) in practical
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of bachelor of
technology in CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY PATNA.

Seminar Supervisor HOD

Contents: page no.

Introduction

1.1 General
1.2 Methods of irrigation
1.3 Drip or trickle irrigation method
1.4 Need of drip irrigation

Components and workings

2.1 Water and source

2.2 Pumping system

2.3 Distribution system

2.4 Drip tape

2.5 Injectors

2.6 Filtration system

Design and layout

3.1 Holticultural consideration

3.2 Design considerations

3.3 Layout of beds and rows

System controls

4.1 Pressure regulators

4.2 Water meters

4.3 Pressure gauges

4.4 Soil moisture measuring devices

4.5 Electrical timer

System maintenance

5.1 Water sampling

5.2 The prevention is the best maintenance medicine program

5.3 Watch for leaks

5.4 Chlorine clears clogged emitters

5.5 Chemigation

5.6 Fertilization

5.7 Placement of tape

5.8 Timing and rates

5.9 Standard maintenance

Advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation

6.1 Advantages

6.2 Disadvantages

Applications of drip irrigation

Conclusion

References
 ABSTRACT

Drip irrigation is the slow, even application of low-pressure water to soil and
plants using plastic tubing placed near the plants' root zone. It is an alternative to sprinkler or
furrow methods of irrigating crops. Drip irrigation can be used for crops with high or low water
demands. Why consider drip irrigation? Drip irrigation can help you use water efficiently. A well-
designed drip irrigation system loses practically no water to runoff, deep percolation, or
evaporation. Drip irrigation reduces water contact with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus,
conditions may be less favorable for disease development. Irrigation scheduling can be managed
precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of increased yield and quality. Growers and
irrigation professionals often refer to "subsurface drip irrigation," or SDI. When a drip tape or
tube is buried below the soil surface, it is less vulnerable to damage during cultivation or
weeding. With SDI, water use efficiency is maximized because there is even less evaporation or
runoff. Agricultural chemicals can be applied more efficiently with drip irrigation. Since only the
crop root zone is irrigated, nitrogen already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses, and
applied fertilizer can be used more efficiently. In the case of insecticides, less product might be
needed. Make sure the insecticide is labeled for application through drip irrigation. Additional
advantages of drip irrigation include the following.

◆ Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven topography or soil
texture; these specific factors must be considered when designing the drip system. Drip systems
also can work well where other irrigation systems are inefficient because parts of the field have
excessive infiltration, water puddling, or runoff. Sustainable agriculture techniques Drip irrigation
tubing used to irrigate wine grapes.

◆ Drip irrigation can be helpful if water is scarce or expensive. Because evaporation, runoff,
and deep percolation are reduced, and irrigation uniformity is improved, it is not necessary to
"overwater" parts of a field to adequately irrigate the more difficult parts.

◆ Precise application of nutrients is possible using drip irrigation. Fertilizer costs and nitrate
losses can be reduced. Nutrient applications can be better timed to meet plants' needs.

◆ Drip irrigation systems can be designed and managed so that the wheel traffic rows are dry
enough to allow tractor operations at any time. Timely application of herbicides, insecticides, and
fungicides is possible.
◆ Proven yield and quality responses to drip irrigation have been observed in onion, broccoli,
cauliflower, lettuce, melon, tomato, and cotton.

◆ A drip irrigation system can be automated. For an example of automated drip irrigation, see
the Malheur Experiment Station's 1998 onion drip irrigation trial results. (See "Additional
resources," page 6.) There are some disadvantages to drip irrigation. For example:

◆ Drip irrigation systems typically cost $500 to $1,200 or more per acre. Part of the cost is a
capital investment useful for several years, and part is annual. Systems can be more elaborate and
costly than necessary. Growers new to drip irrigation might want to start with a simple system on
a small acreage.

◆ Drip tape or tubing must be managed to avoid leaking or plugging. Drip emitters are easily
plugged by silt or other particles not filtered out of the irrigation water. Emitter plugging also
can be caused by algae growing in the tape or by chemical deposits at the emitter.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means for the
purpose of cultivation.Ordinarily water is supplied to land by nature through rain but generally it
is not enough for the proper growth of plants.As such as the basic objective of irrigation is to
supplement the natural supply of water to land so as to obtain the an optimum yield from the crop
grown on the land.
In order to achieve this objective of irrigation, an irrigation system is required to developed,
which involves planning, designing, construction, operation and maintenance of various
irrigation works viz, a source of water supply, a distribution system for carrying water from the
source to the agricultural land and its application on the land, and various other associated
works.The factors which necessitate irrigation are:
Ø Inadequate rainfall
Ø Uneven distribution of rainfall
Ø Growing a number of crops during a year
Ø Growing superior crops
1.2 METHODS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation methods are commonly designated according to the manner in which water is
applied to the land to be irrigated.
1.2.1 Surface Irrigation Methods
The water is applied by spreading in it sheets or small streams on the land to be irrigated.
These methods are adopted for perennial irrigation system.
1.2.2 Sprinkler Irrigation Methods
The irrigation water is applied to the land in the form of spray, somewhat as in ordinary rain. It
can be used for all the crops except rice and jute and for almost all soils except very heavy
soils with very low filtration rates.
1.2.3 Sub-Surface Irrigation Methods
The water is applied below the ground surface so that it is supplied directly to the root zone of
the plants. The main advantages of these methods are that the evaporation losses are
considerably reduced and the hindrance caused to cultivation by the presence of borders,
pipes and field channels in the other methods of irrigation is elimina ted.
1.3 DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION METHOD
Drip irrigation,also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation is one of the sub-surface
irrigation method of applying water or frequent application of water to crops through small
emitters in the vicinity of the root zone, wetting a limited amount of surface area and depth of
soil. The theory behind drip irrigation is to apply sufficient moisture to the root of the crops to
prevent water stress. A major difference between drip system and most other systems is that the
balance between crop evapotranspiration and applied water is maintained over limited periods of
24 to 72 hours. The conversion from sprinkler to drip irrigation can result in water use reduction
of 50% and double yield. This is a result of improved water use and fertility and reduced disease
and weed pressure.
1.4 NEED OF DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation can help you use water efficiently. A well-designed drip irrigation system loses
practically no water to runoff, deep percolation, or evaporation. Drip irrigation reduces water
contact with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus conditions may be less favorable for the onset of
diseases. Irrigation scheduling can be managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the
promise of increased yield and quality. Growers and irrigation professionals often refer to
"subsurface drip irrigation,"or SDI. When a drip tape or tube is buried below the soil surface, it is
less vulnerable to damage during cultivation or weeding. With SDI, water use efficiency is
maximized because there is even less evaporation or runoff.Agricultural chemicals can be
applied more efficiently with drip irrigation. Since only the crop root zone is irrigated, nitrogen
already in the soil is less subject to leaching losses, and applied fertilizer N can be used more
efficiently. In the case of insecticides, less product might be needed.
 CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS AND WORKING
In drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, water is applied in the form of drops directly
near the base of the plant. Water is conveyed through a system of flexible pipelines, operating at
low pressure, and is applied to the plants through drip nozzles. This technique is also known as
‘feeding bottle’ technique where by the soil is maintained in the most congenital form by keeping
the soil-water-air proportions in the optimum range. Drip irrigation limits the water supplied for
consumptive use of the plant by maintaining minimum soil moisture, equal to the field capacity,
thereby maximizing the saving. The system permits the fine control on the application of
moisture and nutrients at stated frequencies.

Fig 2.1 Drip Irrigation System Layout and its parts (Credits:Eric Simonne)

The main components of a typical drip irrigation system are:

Ø Water Source
Ø Pumping System
Ø Distribution System
Ø Drip Tape (Drip Tube)
Ø Injectors
Ø Filtration System
2.1 WATER SOURCE
Common water sources for drip irrigation are surface water (pond, river, and creek),
groundwater, and potable water (from municipality, county or Utility Company). Use the water
source that will provide the largest amount of water of greatest quality and lowest cost. Potable
water is of high, constant quality, but is by far the most expensive.
2.2 PUMPING SYSTEM
The role of the pumping system is to move water from the water source to the field through the
distribution system. Pumping systems may be classified as electric powered systems, gas/diesel
powered systems, and gravity systems.Gas/diesel pumps offer the greatest versatility in isolated
fields.

Fig 2.3 Diesel Powered Pumping System (Credits:Eric

Simonne)

2.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The role of the distribution system is to convey the water from the source to the field.
Distribution systems may be above ground (easily movable) or underground (less likely to be
damaged).Pipes is most commonly made of PVC or polyethylene plastics. Aluminum pipes are
also available, but are more difficult to customize, cut, and repair. The size and shape of the
distribution system may vary widely from field to field and from farm to farm.

2.4 DRIP TAPE (OR DRIP TUBE)

The drip-irrigation system delivers water to each plant through a thin polyethylene tape (or tube)
with regularly spaced small holes (called emitters). Selection of drip tape should be based on
emitter spacing and flow rate. The typical emitter spacing for vegetables is 12 inches, but 8
inches or 4 inches may be acceptable. Dry sections of soil may develop between consecutive
emitters when a wider emitter spacing (18 inches) is used on sandy soils. Flow rates are classified
into low flow (<20gal/100ft/hr), medium flow (20 to 30 gal/100ft/hr) and high flow(>30
gal/100ft/hr). The risk of emitter clogging is generally higher with the lower-flow drip tapes.In
the field, drip-irrigation tape should be installed with emitters upward (looking up) to prevent
clogging from sediment deposits settling in the emitters between irrigation events. Drip tapes are
widely available from several manufacturers.
 Fig 2.4 Drip Tapes (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.5 INJECTORS
Injectors allow the introduction of fertilizer, chemicals and maintenance products into the
irrigation system. Florida law requires the use of an anti-siphoning device (also called backflow-
prevention device) when fertilizer, chemicals or any other products are injected into a drip-
irrigation system. Backflow-prevention devices ensure the water always moves from the water
source to the field. The devices prevent chemicals in the water from polluting the water source.
The most common injectors used with small drip-irrigation systems are the Venturi (or Mazzei)
injector and the Dosatron.Because Venturi injectors involve no moving parts and are less
expensive, they are commonly used on small farms. The injector is typically located as close as
possible to the irrigation zone, but before the filter.

Fig 2.5 Venturi Injector (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Fig 2.6 Dosatron Injector (Credits:Eric Simonne)

2.6 FILTRATION SYSTEM
Because drip-irrigation water must pass through the emitters, the size of the particles in the
water must be smaller than the size of the emitter to prevent clogging. Nearly all manufacturers
of drip-irrigation equipment recommend that filters be used. The filtration system removes
"large" solid particles in suspension in the water. Different types of filters are used based on the
type of particles in the water. Media filters (often containing angular sand) are used with surface
water when large amounts of organic matter (live or dead) need to be filtered out. Screen filters
or disk filters may be used with groundwater. A 200-mesh screen or equivalent is considered
adequate
for drip irrigation. When the water contains sand, a sand separator should be used. Rapid
clogging may occur when no filter or the incorrect type of filter is used. A filter needs to
be cleaned when the difference in pressure across the R filter (measured before and after the
filter) is greater than 5 - 8 psi. A drip-irrigation system should never be operated without a filter
even if the filter requires clogged drip-tape emitters, often resulting in poor uniformity and
sometimes in crop loss. The filter should be cleaned as often as needed. Efforts should be made
to understand the cause of the rapid clogging, and remediation for the problem should
developed. The presence of the filter after the point of fertilizer injection means totally soluble
fertilizers must be used. Otherwise fertilizer particles may contribute to filter clogging.

F ig 2.7 Disk filters (Credits:Eric Simonne)

The whole field is divided into suitable plots. A secondary line is provided for each such plot,
and a number of trickle lines are connected to each secondary line. A discharge regulator is
provided at the beginning of each secondary line, and its capacity is fixed in accordance with the
size and the number of nozzles used. The automatic valve at the head is so adjusted to deliver the
desired quantity of water and the irrigation terminates automatically after this amount is
discharged.
 CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND LAYOUT
3.1 HOLTICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
The goal of drip irrigation is to bring water to the crop. The main parameters that determine crop
water use are the type of crop planted and row spacing. A drip irrigation system should be able to
supply 110% - 120% of crop water needs. In other words, the system should be slightly
oversized. In designing a drip-irrigation system, it is common to consider that vegetable crops
ordinarily need approximately 1.5 acre-inches of water for each week of growth or
approximately 20 acre-inches of water per crop. Actual crop water use will be more or less than
this amount, depending on weather and irrigation efficiency.

3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Start with what is already available, the water source or the field. If a water source is already
available (pond or well), the amount of water available may be used to calculate the maximum
size of each irrigation zone.
If no water source is available, the amount of water needed by the crop, based on the size of the
planted area, may be used to calculate the type of well or pond size needed.

3.3 LAY OUT OF BEDS AND ROWS

Because differences in altitudes affect water pressure, it is preferable to lay out beds
perpendicular to the slope. This arrangement of rows is called "contour farming”.

Fig 3.1 Layout of Beds and Rows (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Excessive water velocities (>5 feet/second) in the lines, the result of a too-small diameter are
likely to create a water hammer (pressure wave), which can damage the delivery lines. Growers
should be aware of the maximum acreage that can be
irrigated with different pipe sizes at a water velocity of 5 feet/second.
The maximum length of drip tape should be based on the manufacturer's recommendation and
the actual terrain slope. Typically 400 - 600 feet are
maximum values for drip-tape length. Excessive length of laterals will result in poor uniformity
and uneven water application. When the field is longer than 400 - 600 feet, consider placing the
secondary (sub main) line in the middle of the field rather than at the end and connect drip tape
on both sides.

Table 3.1 Maximum length of drip tape (feet) and maximum irritable field size (acre) with
low-and medium-flow drip tape at a water velocity of 5-feet-per-second for selected diameters
of Class 160 PVC pipes
 CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM CONTROLS

System controls are devices that allow the user to monitor how the drip-irrigation system
performs. These controls help ensure the desired amount of water is applied to the crop
throughout the growing season. The different devices used for the control are:
Ø Pressure Regulators
Ø Water Meters
Ø Pressure Gauges
Ø Soil moisture Measuring Devices
Ø Electrical Timers
4.1 PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pressure regulators, installed in-line with the system, regulate water pressure at a given water
flow there by helping to protect system components against damaging surges in water pressure.
Pressure surges may occur when the water in the pipe has a velocity >5 feet /second ("water
hammer") or when water flowing in the pipe has no avenue for release due to a closed valve or a
clog in the pipe.

Fig 4.1 Pressure Regulators (Credits:Eric Simonne)

4.2 WATER METERS

Water meters monitor and record the amount of water moving through a pipe where the water
meter is installed. When a stopwatch is used together with a water meter, it is possible to
determine the water flow in the system in terms of gallons-per-minute.
 Fig 4.2 Water meters installed near the field (Credits:Eric Simonne)

4.3 PRESSURE GAUGES

Pressure gauges monitor water pressure in the system and ensure operating pressure remains
close to the recommended or benchmark values. Based on where the pressure gauge is installed,
it will measure water pressure in a various ranges, from 0-100 psi near the pump to 0-20 psi at
the end of drip tape .Pressure gauges may be installed at set points (near the pump, before and
after the filter, near the Field. They can also be mounted as portable devices and installed
temporarily at the end.

4.4 SOIL MOISTURE MEASURING DEVICES

Soil-moisture-measuring devices (such as tensiometers, capacitance probes or Time Domain
Reflectometry probes) are used to measure soil moisture in the root zone of the crop.

4.5 ELECTRICAL TIMERS

Electrical timers connected to solenoid valves may be used to automatically operate a drip-
irrigation system at pre-set starting and ending operating times of day.

Fig 4.3 Portable Pressure Gauge (Credits:Eric Simonne)

Fig 4.4 Electrical Timer (Credits:Eric Simonne)

 CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM MAINTENENCE

The goal of drip-irrigation maintenance is to preserve the high uniformity of water application
allowed by drip irrigation. A successful program of maintenance for a drip-irrigation system is
based on the prevention-is-the-best-medicine approach. It is
easier to prevent a drip tape from clogging than to"unclog" it or replace it.

5.1 WATER SAMPLING

An essential part of drip-irrigation management is determining water quality through water

testing. Water testing will help determine water chemical composition, pH, and hardness. These
parameters have direct implications on chlorination, acidification and filtration needs for
irrigation water.

Table 5.1 Water quality parameter levels for emitter plugging potential
of Drip irrigation systems

5.2 THE PREVENTION IS THE BEST MEDICINE MAINTENANCE PROGRAM

This maintenance program is based on filtration, chlorination/acidification, flushing

and observation.
 Table 5.2 Components of the “prevention is the best medicine” maintenance plan

5.3 WATCH FOR LEAKS

Leaks can occur unexpectedly as a result of damage by insects, animals, or farming tools.
Systematically monitor the lines for physical damage. It is important to fix holes as soon as
possible to prevent uneven irrigation.

5.4 CHLORINE CLEARS CLOGGED EMITTERS

If the rate of water flow progressively declines during the season, the tubes or tape may be
slowly plugging, resulting in severe damage to the crop. In addition to maintaining the filtering
stations, regular flushing of the drip tube and application of chlorine through the drip tube will
help minimize clogs. Once a month, flush the drip lines by opening the far ends of a portion of
the tubes at a time and allowing the higher velocity water to rush out the sediment. Because algae
growth and biological activity in the tube or tape are especially high during warmer months,
chlorine usually is applied at 2-week intervals during these months.
5.5 CHEMIGATION
Manage irrigation and fertilization together to optimize efficiency. Chemigation through drip
systems efficiently delivers chemicals in the root zone of the receiving plants. Because of the
precision of application, chemigation can be safer and use less material.

5.6 FERTILIZATION
Soil microorganisms convert nitrogen (N) fertilizers to nitrate. Nitrate is water soluble, available
to plants, and subject to leaching loss.Fertilizer can be injected through the drip system. Fertilizer
usually is introduced into the irrigation system in front of the filter station so the filters can
remove any precipitates that occur in the solution Fertilizers containing sulfate, phosphate,
calcium, or anhydrous or aqua ammonium can lead to solid chemical precipitation inside the drip
lines, which can block emitters.
5.7 PLACEMENT OF TAPE

The drip tape must be close enough to the surface to germinate the seed if necessary, or a
portable sprinkler system should be available. For example, a tape tube 4 to 5 inches deep has
successfully germinated onion seeds in silt loam soil. Tape at 12 inches failed to uniformly
germinate onions.

5.8 TIMING AND RATES

The total irrigation water requirements for crops grown with a drip system is greatly reduced
compared to a surface flood system because water can be applied much more efficiently with
drip irrigation. For example, with furrow irrigation, typically at least 4 acre-feet/acre/year of
water is applied to onion fields in the Treasure Valley of eastern Oregon and southwestern
Idaho. Depending on the year, summer rainfall, and the soil, 14 to 32 acre-inches/acre of water
has been needed to raise onions under drip irrigation in the Treasure Valley.

5.9 STANDARD MAINTENANCE

Add chlorine or other chemicals to the drip line periodically to kill bacteria and algae. Acid
might also be needed to dissolve calcium carbonates. Filters must be managed and changed
as needed. Even with filtration, however, drip tape must be flushed regularly. The frequency
of flushing depends on the amount and kinds of sedimentation in the tape.
 CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION
6.1 ADVANTAGES

6.1.1 Reduced water use

Because drip irrigation brings the water to the plant root zone and does not wet the entire field,
drip irrigation typically requires half to a quarter of the volume of water required by comparable
overhead-irrigation systems.

6.1.2 Joint management of irrigation and Fertilization

Drip irrigation can improve the efficiency of both water and fertilizer. Precise
Application of nutrients is possible using drip irrigation. Hence, fertilizer costs and soluble
nutrient losses may be reduced with drip irrigation. Nutrient applications may also be better
timed to meet plant needs.

6.1.3 Reduced pest problems

Weed and disease problems may be reduced because drip irrigation does not wet the row middles
or the foliage of the crops as does overhead irrigation.

6.1.4 Simplicity
Polyvinyl chloride (pvc) and polyethylene parts are widely available in several diameters and are
easy to assemble. Many customized, easy-to-install connectors, end caps, and couplers are
available in different diameters. Cutting and gluing allows for timely repairs.

6.1.5 Low pumping needs

Drip systems require low operating pressure (20-25 psi at field entrance, 10-12 psi at the drip
tape) compared to overhead systems (50-80 psi). Many existing small pumps and wells may be
used to adequately irrigate small acreage using drip systems.

6.1.6 Automation
Drip-irrigation application may be simply managed and programmed with an AC - or battery-
powered controller, thereby reducing labor cost.

6.1.7 Adaptation
Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven topography
or soil texture, thereby eliminating the underutilized or non-cropped corners and maximizing the
use of available land.

6.1.8 Production advantages

Combined with raised beds, polyethylene mulch, and transplants, drip irrigation enhances
earliness and crop uniformity. Using polyethylene mulch also increases the
Cleanliness of harvested products and reduces the risk of contamination with soil-born
pathogens. Reflective mulches further help reduce the incidence of viral diseases by affecting
insect vectors, such as thrips, whiteflies or aphids.

6.2 DISADVANTAGES

6.2.1 Drip irrigation requires an economic Investment

Drip-irrigation systems typically cost $500 - $1,200 or more per acre (Table 1). Part of the cost
is a capital investment useful for several years, and another part is due to the annual cost of
disposable parts. Growers new to drip irrigation should start with a relatively simple system on a
small acreage before moving to a larger system.

6.2.2 Drip irrigation requires maintenance and high-quality water

Once emitters are clogged or the tape is damaged, the tape must be replaced. Water
dripping from an emitter and the subsequent wetting pattern are hard to see, which makes
it difficult to know if the system is working properly. Proper management of drip irrigation
requires a learning period.

6.2.3 Water-application pattern must match planting pattern

If emitter spacing (too far apart) does not match the planting pattern, root development may be
restricted and/or plants may die.

6.2.4 Safety
Drip tubing may be lifted by wind or may be displaced by animals unless the drip tape is
covered with mulch, fastened with wire anchor pins,or lightly covered with soil.

6.2.5 Leak repair

Drip lines can be easily cut or damaged by other farming operations, such as tilling,
transplanting, or manual weeding with a hoe. Damage to drip tape caused by insects, rodents
or birds may create large leaks that also require repair.

6.2.6 Drip-tape disposal causes extra cleanup costs after harvest

Planning is needed for drip-tape disposal, recycling or reuse.
 CHAPTER 7
APPLICATIONS OF DRIP IRRIGATION

 Drip irrigation is used by farms, commercial greenhouses and residential gardeners.

Fig 7.1 Drip irrigation for crops production

 For cultivation in roof gardens

Fig 7.2 Drip irrigation in roof gardens

 In shopping malls and embankments

Fig 7.3 Drip irrigation in embankments

 In steep slopes

Fig 7.4 Drip irrigation in steep slopes

 CONCLUSIONS
Drip irrigation is a latest sub-surface method of irrigating water with higher water demands in
arid region. It may not be applicable to all farms.Yet, when properly designed, installed and
managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by reducing evaporation and deep
drainage when compared to other types of irrigation such as flood or overhead sprinklers since
water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots.In addition, drip can eliminate many
diseases that are spread through water contact with the foliage.It also results reduced energy
costs.
 REFERENCES
1. Eric Simonne, Robert Hochmuth, Jacque Breman, William Lamont, Danielle Treadwell
and Aparna Gazula ( June 2008), Drip Irrigation System for Small Conventional Vegetable
Farms and Organic Vegetable Farms, Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Co-operative
Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, HS 1144.
2.Shock.C.C (August 2006, June 2001), Drip Irrigation: An Introduction, Malheur Experiment
Station, Oregon State University, EM 8782.
3.Modi.P.N (2008), Irrigation Water Resources and Water Power Engineering, Standard Book
House, Rajsons Publications Pvt.Ltd,1705-A, Nai Sarak, New Delhi-110 006.
4. www.studymafia.org
5. www.google.com
6. www.wikipedia.com