Human Teory

MODULE 2 • Introduction to Linguistics
SCHOOLS OF LINGUISTICS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

TOWARD LANGUAGE TEACHING
Introduction
This section will focus on discussing school of linguistics

together with the implications toward language teaching in general
and specifically in English language teaching. The discussion will
give a description about two important schools in linguistics,
namely: Structural Linguistics and Functional Linguistics.
The discussion on the two school of linguistics will give a clear

picture to language teachers that their knowledge about linguistics
will widen their vision and become added value in language
teaching.
General Instructional Objectives
Upon completing reading this module, you are expected to be able

to explain the followings:
a. definition of structural linguistics;
b. principles of structural linguistics;
c. weaknesses of structural linguistics;
d. implication of structural linguistics toward English language
teaching;
e. definition of functional linguistics;
f. principles of functional linguistics;
g. weaknesses of functional linguistics;
h. implication of functional linguistics in English language
teaching.
Schools of linguistics and their implication towards the teaching of language 1

UNIT
1
Structural Linguistics
Upon completing reading this unit you are expected to be able

to:
a. mention 3 principles of structural linguistics;

b. define language according to structural linguistics;
c. identify method used in linguistics;
d. mention 3 areas of structural linguistics study;
e. mention principles of learning stated by Structuralists;
f. mention the relationship between structural linguistics and
behavioral psychology school;
g. mention 3 activities of language learning based structural
approach;
h. give 2 examples of learning activities based on structural
approach;
i. mention the principles of material selection based on structural
approach;
j. mention one of the weaknesses of structural linguistics.

The View of Structural Linguistics toward the

Nature of Language
Structural linguistics was pioneered and founded by Ferdinand de

Saussure (1857-1913) in 1930s. He was the pioneer of modern
linguistics who had successfully changed the orientation of historical
studies in Europe into descriptive study in a certain period of time.
The school of structural linguistics was supported by Leonard

Bloomfield from America. Structural linguistics developed in America
is different from the one developed in Europe. Thus, structural
linguistics in its historical development produced two types, namely:
structural linguistics developed based on the tradition of Saussure and
structural linguistics developed in America as a result of the influence
of Bloomfield.
According Structuralists, language is defined as sound system which

is arbitrary and is used to refer to objects, things, concepts, events, etc.
and is used for communication among human beings. From the
definition, we can summarize some views of Structuralists toward the
nature of human language (see Roger T. Bell, 198:92).
1) Language is speech. This principle states that the main tool of

human language is speech and writing is second important.
2) Language is a sound system which is arranged in such a way that

among the sound elements are found interrelationship. The
Structuralists will try to form rules arranged in a sound system
without considering the language meaning in such language
system. Meaning according to Structuralists is very difficult to

observe. Therefore, sound is the first element of a language and

meaning is the second.
3) Language consists of various different levels. There is

interrelationship among those levels. They cover level of sound,
level of word, phrase, clause, and level of sentence. The element of
meaning is merely determined solely by the relation among those
levels not by context of communication.
4) Language as an arbitrary system. This means that there is no direct

relation between word and its reference (object, concept, or event).
The relation is formed based on convention among the society of
the language speakers.
5) Language is a means of communication. Structuralists’ major

attention is on how language elements are used based on the
linguistic rules already (usage). They do not formulate rules
dealing with the obligatory in using the linguistic elements,
whether they deal with words, sentences in a certain action of
communication (use).
6) Language analysis deals only with language sound. The analysis is

based on one sound one character, for example words, chair and
share. Those words consist of two consonants in the beginning
namely: ch and sh which are symbolized as /c/ and /s/. In fact this
principle cannot thoroughly be implemented. The /c/ above can be
symbolized /tj/ by other linguists.
7) The language analysis tends to be inductive and empirical. Roger T.

Bell (1981:93) states that he started from text. The text is analyzed

into paragraph, paragraph to sentences, and soon. This analysis is

called analysis of immediate constituent.
The View of Structural Linguistics toward the

Nature of Language Learning
Generally Roger T. Bell (1981) and Jack C. Richards & Theodore S.

Rodgers (1986) state that Structuralists have several views dealing
with the nature of language learning.
Language learning (including foreign language) is habitual. To form

the habit, learners must be given repeated exercises based on
grammatical rules being learned.
1) Language learning process is based on stimulus-response theory

which is developed by behaviorists. This is intended to produce
habit in using the target language with minimum errors.
2) Repeated exercises are emphasized on the appropriateness of

applying grammatical rules. Therefore, mastery of grammar rules is
required condition in mastering the target language.
3) Furthermore, in practicing the language skills there is tight

procedure that should be followed. Listening is the first language
skill which should be practiced. Then comes speaking, reading, and
writing.
In relation to the form of exercises, drills method and pattern practice

are suggested by Structuralists as quoted by Jack Richards and
Theodore S. Rogers (1986:54-56)

i) Repetition. Learners repeat speech sound at the time they hear it.
The repetition is done without paying attention to the form of the
speech sound.
ii) Inflection. A single word in a speech sound is changeable to a

different form when repeated.
iii) Replacement. This is an exercise which requires the learners to

change a word in a speech sound with another one.
iv) Restatement. A learner will restate a speech sound in different

way toward another student based on the teacher’s instruction.
v) Completion. Learners must fill in the blanks so that the sentence

becomes a complete one.
vi) Transformation. a sentence is transformed from e.g., a statement

into a negative form.
vii) Transposition. A change in position of a word in a sentence

because another word is added.
viii) Expansion. This happens when a word is added into a sentence

and the word itself should be in the right place. As a result the
original sentence is expanded.
ix) Contraction. A word is used to show phrase or clause being

changed.

x) Integration. It is to combine two speech sounds which are united

into one speech sound.
xi) Rejoinder. A learner will give an answer based on the previous

question asked to him.
xii) Restoration. Learners are given words in scramble to be arranged

in to a sentence.
Teaching Materials Designed based on

Structuralists’ View
Teaching materials developed based on structural linguistics generally

have characteristics in relation to this school of linguistics. Drills and
pattern practices are used as teaching technique in the class.
Teaching materials are selected and graded based on the components

of linguistic form starting from phonology, morphology, and syntax.
From language skills, listening is given in the beginning, then
speaking, reading, and writing with emphasis more on the mastery of
the linguistic rules.
One of the English teaching materials composed based on structural

approach can be seen in Buku Teks Bahasa Inggris untuk SMA (1975)
by Prof. JB. Alter, MA.

Some Notes on the Weaknesses of Structural

Linguistics
Roger T. Bell (1981) states some critics about structural linguistics as

can be seen in the following.
1) Language analysis done by Structuralists is not enough both from the

method used and linguistic data taken. The method used relies only on
language which can be observed. As a result, Structuralists will
analyze the linguistic data that relates to more on the language sound.
While language meaning, because it is unobservable, is neglected.
2) The nature of language learning that relies on method of stimulus-

response is not enough to explain the nature of language learning.
3) Structuralists view language system as a closed system in the sense

that language being investigated is separable from its speakers or
society. Therefore, linguistic rules are usage only formulated based on
linguistic forms, language structure). Language sound is not
considered. In other words, they do not formulate rules based on how
the linguistic system functions as a means of communication (use).
4) The principles of language learning proposed by Structuralists are

adopted thoroughly in the classroom without considering whether or
not the materials are appropriate for students, students’ motivation.

Exercise 1
To strengthen your understanding about the previous material, work
out the following exercise!
1) How does structural linguistics view language?

2) Mention one of the characteristics of structural linguistics!
3) Does structural linguistics center its attention to language
meaning?
4) What school of psychology does structural linguistics refer to
dealing with the nature of language learning?
5) Mention the relationship between the two schools!
6) Mention one of the principles of language learning according
to structural linguistics!
7) Which of the language learning steps according to structural
linguistics have you tried to implement to your students?
8) Did the steps according to structural linguistics help
encourage students’ linguistic creativity? Give your reasons!
Summary
From the explanation above it can be concluded that language,
according to the school of structural linguistics, is defined as a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols. This arbitrary is often related to
symbols (words) and its objects referred by the symbols (words).
The symbolization between the symbol and its reference is based on
convention among the speakers or society of the language.
In relation to language learning, structural linguistics states that

language learning should be directed to the mastery of language
structure. It is because only language structure can be observed by

our senses. Furthermore, Structuralists suggest that language can be

mastered through a succession of stimuli, then providing
reinforcement. Teaching materials are much more emphasized on the
mastery of language structure than on the mastery of the target
language as a means of communication.
Formative Test 1
Direction: choose one of the most correct answers A, B, C or D!

1) The following are principles of structural linguistics in relation to
the nature of language, except …
A. language is speech
B. language is a system of sound
C. language is a system of meaning
D. language is analyzed based on a reference of one sound
one character
2) In analyses, structural linguistics use method of …

A. deductive-empiricism
B. inductive-empiricism
C. deductive and inductive
D. survey
3) The following are language levels covered in structural

linguistics, except …
A. sound level
B. word level
C. sentence level
D. meaning level and symbolization

(4) The nature of language learning according structural linguistics is

language can be mastered by a learner through …
A. repeated exercises (drills) to form habit
B. interaction between thoughts and outside stimulus
C. internalization process
D. language teacher
5) The following are techniques of presentation often used by

Structuralists, except …
A. transformation
B. completion
C. transposes
D. contextualization
6) One of the weaknesses of structural linguistics in its analyses is …

A. language sound
B. language meaning
C. meaning elements
D. structure
7) The following are presentation of teaching material in language

learning influenced by structural linguistics, except …
A. presentation
B. explanation
C. exercises
D. generalization
8) The followings are elements that characterize the similarity

between structural linguistics and psychology of behaviorism,
except …

A. both using empirical method of analysis

B. data studied must be observable
C. both ignore unobservable data
D. both try to search for the exact truth
9) Selection of teaching materials based on structural linguistics

tends to be …
A. cyclical
B. repeating
C. linear and put emphasis on language form
D. functional
10) Structuralists view language as …

A. an arbitrary system
B. meaning system
C. arbitrary sound and meaning systems
D. A and C
Match your answers with key answers of formative test 2 at the end part of this module.
Then, calculate your mastery level using the following formula.
Number of correct answers
Level of mastery = x 100%
8
The meaning of level of mastery you have reached:
90% - 100% = very good
80% - 89% = good
70% - 79% = fair
< 70% = less fair

If you can reach level of mastery 80% or more, you can proceed to the next modules.
However, if your level of mastery is less that 80%, you have to repeat Unit 1, especially
parts you have not mastered.
UNIT 2
Transformational Generative
Linguistics

to mention:
a. two principles of transformational generative linguistics in

its relation to the nature of language;
b. principles of language description according to
transformational generative linguistics;
c. principles of language learning according to
d. interrelationship between transformational generative
linguistics and cognitivism school ;
e. one language learning activity according to
f. one of the ways to present teaching material according to
g. one of the weaknesses of transformational generative
linguistics.
The School of transformational generative

linguistics
This school emerged as a result of dissatisfaction of linguists toward

structural linguistics. One of the linguists who propose this new
school is Noam Chomsky. The following is the view of
transformational generative linguistics as stated by Roger T Bell
(1981):

1. The Way transformational generative linguistics views the

nature of language.
1) Language is a system that relates meaning

and substance. Substance is a medium that is used to convey
language either in a form of graphic (written language or sound
(verbal language).
2) Language is mental phenomenon in the

sense that language is inseparable from thinking activity of
human beings. Therefore, there is closed relation between
language and thought. Chomsky (1965) states that linguistic
competence is a specific ability of human cognition.
3) Linguistic competence is innate that

everyone has since he was born. Transformationalists state that
all normal children have ability to acquire their first language in
a relatively short time as well as the ability to master all rules
(syntax) of the target language.
4) Language is universal. By universal, it

means that all normal children in the world acquire their mother
tongue. By universal, it also means that all languages have the
same characteristics, e.g. languages have two subsystems:
meaning and sound.
5) Language with its meaning and sound can

be developed from limited structure to unlimited structure
through the human language ability. Therefore, Chomsky as

quoted by Jack Richards, at. al. (1985:120) formulates a model

of language that covers the following elements:
(a) Base components that generates base

syntactic structure known as deep structure.
(b) Transformation component that is able to

change base structure into unlimited sentences known
as surface structure.
(c) Phonological component that describes

sound elements either base sentence or generated
sentence through transformation process can be seen its
speech element.
(d) Semantic component relates to sentence

meaning.
Transformationalists view toward language description
Transformationalists develop model of linguistic analysis based on

the following principles:
1) Language analysis is based on inductive and
introspection methods. Analysis is started from
hypothesis before further analyzing the language based
on the linguist’ introspection and intuition.
2) Language description is started from

sentence level. Sentence analysis is based two
processes:

(i) Phrase Structure Rule. A sentence is analyzed based

on each phrase structure that forms the sentence.
This rule in transformational generative includes two
elements, namely: a set of rules to analyze phrase
structure and element of lexicon or words.
(ii) Transformational rules. Elements of a sentence can

be changed using these rules.
2. The way transformational generative linguistics views

language learning
The view can be seen in the following:
1) Human beings have ability of innate

capacity. This capacity enables a speaker of a language to
produce a sentence he has never heard before. There is a
language device in the brain that according to Chomsky is called
Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The device, according to
McNeil as quoted by Brown (1987:20) enables a speaker to: (i)
differentiate language sound from other types of sounds, (ii)
arrange linguistic elements to different groups, (iii) judge that a
certain language system is acceptable but the other is not, (iv)
continuously develop language system based linguistic data
received by a certain speaker.
2) According to Transformationalists, language

learning is significant if the process can involve the learner’s
thinking process, problem solving activities, link of language
materials to the learners experiences and thoughts are
considered as significant language learning activities.

3) By combining both the principles of

learning from cognitivism of psychology and learners’ innate
capacity in language learning process the learners’ roles will be
very significant.
3. Language Learning according to Transformationalists
It is very difficult to find language material which is arranged based

on this approach though this school can give another alternative of
learning a language. According to Roger T. Bell (1981), one of
teaching materials influenced by transformational generative is
teaching material developed by Rutherford (1962). In the teaching
material, he tries to implement the principles of language learning as
formulated by Transformationalists and cognitivists.
4. Some notes about the drawbacks of transformational

generative linguistics
There are some critics addressed to Transformationalists, such as:
1) Analysis towards a certain language

proposed by Transformationalists very much relies on abstract
mathematical logic rules.
2) Rules in structural phrase rules remain to

rely on formulation developed by Structuralists. Furthermore,
formalism element still dominates this new school of linguistics.
Exercise 2

After reading the previous materials, work out the following

exercise!
1) Who, for the first time, introduced

transformational generative linguistics?
2) Mention one of the principles of the school!
3) What is the difference between

transformational generative linguistics and structural linguistics
in terms of study method?
4) Does Transformationalists start the language

study from the element of phonology?
5) What is the view of this school toward the

nature of language learning?
Summary
One of the views that differentiates transformational from
structural linguistics is that language has meaning and sound
elements. Meaning is realized within meaning interpretation. On the
other hand, sound element can be placed in phonological component.
Furthermore, language has four different components. The first
component is base component that consists of a set of base syntactic
rules. The second one is transformational component. After that is
phonological component. And the last one is semantic component.

Transformational generative linguistics views the nature of

language learning as human being has innate capacity to acquire and
develop language. Therefore, in developing language ability human
being does not very much depend on external factor as what was
asserted by Structuralists. The whole process of development of the
language ability much depends on the innate capacity.
In language analysis, Transformationalists start from sentence level

from deep structure to surface structure.
Formative Test 2
Direction: Choose one of the most appropriate answer A, B, C or D!
1) Transformational generative linguistics views language as …

A. sound system complete with its rules
B. combination of sound and meaning
C. social system
D. arbitrary symbol system
2) The following are components that exist in a certain language

according to Transformationalists, except …
A. mean component
B. base component
C. phonological component
D. meaning component
3) Base sentence can be developed into unlimited sentences

through ...
A. semantic rule
B. transformational rule

C. base component
D. phonological component
4) Deep structure is visible in the phrase structure as described in the

following …
A. S NP + VP
B. S S+P+O
C. S S+O+P
D. S S+V+O
5) Language meaning according to Transformationalists can be

generated from …
A. surface structure
B. semantic component
C. phonological component
D. transformational component
6) The way pronounce sentences can be seen from …

A. semantic component
B. phonological component
C. transformational component
D. base component
7) One of the weaknesses of transformational generative linguistics

is language description done is …
A. closed
B. mathematical and logic
C. intuitive
D. speculative

8) One of the transformation rules that can change short sentence

into a longer sentence is called …
A. transformation
B. addition
C. permutation
D. deletion
9) According to transformational generative, all normal human

beings have the ability to acquire and develop language which is
called as …
A. performance
B. innate capacity
C. aptitude
D. communicative competence
10) Language description in transformational generative is done

using method of …
A. deductive-empiric
B. inductive-empiric
C. inductive-introspective
D. inductive-intuitive and introspective


8
90% - 100% = very good
80% - 89% = good
70% - 79% = fair
< 70% = less fair

UNIT
3
The School of Functional Linguistics

to mention:
a. one of the principles of functional linguistics;

b. the view of functional linguistics toward the nature of
language;
c. principles of functional linguistics in describing language;
d. two categories of language functions according to Halliday;
e. the difference between the principles of functional and
structural linguistics in describing language;
f. the difference between the view of functional and structural
linguistics toward the nature of language;
g. the implication of functional linguistics toward language
teaching;

The School of Functional Linguistics
Functionalism developed under the idea of Vilen Mathesius (1882-

1945) in his writing On Potentiality of the Phenomena of Language.
The idea states that the structure of phonology and semantics of a
language is determined by the function of that language in the
society where the language is spoken.(in Kristen M, 1991:158).
Furthermore, Halliday developed the approach in a wider context.
The view of functionalists in general can be seen in the following.
1) The functionalists view toward the nature of language
(1) Language is viewed as a tool of interaction or social relationship.

Language according to Bronislaw Malinowski as quoted by
Kristen M. (1991) states that language depends on the society for
at least two main reasons, namely: (i) language develops in line
with the need of society that speak the language, (ii) The
language use is determined by context, speech, and situation
which are interrelated that make the understanding of speech or
word is inseparable.
(2) As a social system, according to Halliday, language is very much

influenced by situational aspects of language that involves the
following elements.
- context, what is happening in social interaction activity, topics

within the interaction.
- the role relationship among the involved people within in the
interaction; and

- the context modus, the way language is organized to convey

meaning or message as well as medium used , either verbal or
written form of language.
(3) As a medium of communication, language has major functions

in the following: firstly, language is a medium of idea reflection
or speakers’ experience about the real world. Secondly, it
functions as a means to build and implement the social ties
among the language speakers. Thirdly, language functions as a
means of a certain situational description through verbal and
written forms of a language. The first function according to
Halliday is called ideational functional, the second as
interpersonal function and the last one is called textual function.
Besides the major functions, there are language functions of which

characteristics are more specific and micro, such as giving
commands known as regulatory function (Halliday in Penalosa,
1981:62-3).
Based on the above explanation, language meaning is very much

influenced by the context situational of language society and
meaning conveyed.
2) The functionalists view toward the human language description
In analyzing language, functionalists focus more on how language

functions in a certain situation. Therefore, language study relates to
context. Approach adopted in analyzing functions of language is
elective in the sense that utilizing all information from various fields
of study, such as semantics, sociolinguistics, philosophy through
theory of speech acts. Language meaning is a major under the

functionalists view while language form is considered media to

convey meaning. Halliday (1985) develops a model of language
study that combines study on language meaning and language form
known as functional grammar. Furthermore, Halliday explains in the
following: functions of ideational, interpersonal, and textual are
functional components of a semantic system of a language.
Therefore, ideational meaning is reflection of speakers over their

surrounding world. Function of ideational clause, for example,
describes what is called as process, that is, event and other activities.
On the other side, interpersonal meaning shows form of action:

describing what is being done by the speaker and listener or reader.
Function of interpersonal clause refers to roles in interaction, e.g.
statement, question, command, bidding, etc. And the last, textual
meaning relates to context.
3) The functionalists view toward the human language description
Functionalists view that learning will take place if it takes place in

context. By context, it means the experience or the knowledge of the
learners as well as the learners’ environment. Based on this theory,
learning a language gives emphasis on the aspect of meaningful
message or information for the learners.
Besides meaningful principle, there is another principle referred by

functionalists that is communicative activity principle.
Contextualization and communicative activity seem to be the base in
the nature of language learning referred by functionalists besides
meaningful learning principle stated by cognitivism.

4) Teaching materials according to functionalists
Teaching materials chosen will be based on functional syllabus.

Language function selection criteria will be based on the learners’
need. In constructing teaching materials based on school of
functional, there are some syllabi developed, such as (i) functional
syllabus model, (ii) syllabus model based on arrangement of
language functions in a certain context and situation.
Teaching materials constructed are generally language skill oriented.

The major focus of language teaching is language functions and the
later focus is introduction to language structure.
Learning activities that become main characteristic of functional

approach are simulation, role play.
5) Some notes on the weaknesses of school of functional linguistics
There are some weaknesses in functional approach. They are in the

following.
School of functional linguistics pays more attention to the study of

language functions than language structure.
Language teaching puts function as the major point to master by the

learners.
Presentation of teaching materials demands a situation where the

language being taught is also spoken outside the classroom. This will
be a great problem the target language is spoken in limited
conditions.

Summary
From the nature of language learning, functional linguistic gives
emphasis on meaningfulness. By meaningfulness, it means that how
we put language being learned used as a means of communication.
Therefore, learners need to know language functions.
Teaching materials arranged using functional approach will focus

on language functions arrangements. The language functions are the
major priority. Language structure becomes the later priority.
Therefore, this approach will use functional syllabus in developing
or constructing teaching materials.
Formative Test 3
Direction: Choose one of the most appropriate answer A, B, C or D!
1) Functional linguistics views language as …

A. arbitrary sound system
B. means of communication among society
C. combination between meaning and sound with emphasis
on sound
D. part of human behaviour
2) One of the language functions to rule and command known as …

A. regulatory
B. interpersonal
C. personal
D. heuristic

3) In general according to Halliday language functions are divided in

to functions which is …
A. micro
B. macro
C. micro and macro
D. arrangement
4) The following are functions of macro language, except …

A. textual function
B. regulatory function
C. ideational function
D. interpersonal function
5) One of sentence analyses which is based on functional linguistics

divides sentence into …
A. theme
B. rheme
C. theme and rheme
D. subject, predicate, and object
6) Teaching material according to functional approach can be

constructed in a form of … syllabus
A. structural
B. functional
C. structural and functional
D. notional
7) Language according to functional linguistics is …

A. language sound with all the rules
B. means of communication in a certain language society

C. a system which relates between symbol and its object

beyond language
D. non arbitrary vocal symbol system
8) In describing language, functional linguistics gives emphasis on ...

A. relation between language elements
B. language meaning as a basis of categorization of
grammatical relations
C. language sound as the most important element
D. interword relation as symbol with object beyond
language
9) Language learning activity influenced by functional approach is in

a form of …
A. role play
B. drills
C. transformation
D. lecturing
10) The following are principles of functional linguistics which are

different form structural linguistics, except …
E. functionalists view language as a means of society
interaction
F. functionalists state that language is influenced very much
by factor of language speakers’ situation
G. functionalists assume language as a closed system
separated from speakers society
H. none is acceptable


8
90% - 100% = very good
80% - 89% = good
70% - 79% = fair
< 70% = less fair

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MODULE 2 • Introduction to Linguistics

SCHOOLS OF LINGUISTICS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

This section will focus on discussing school of linguistics

The discussion on the two school of linguistics will give a clear

General Instructional Objectives

Upon completing reading this module, you are expected to be able

Schools of linguistics and their implication towards the teaching of language 1

Upon completing reading this unit you are expected to be able

a. mention 3 principles of structural linguistics;

Schools of linguistics and their implication towards the teaching of language 2

The View of Structural Linguistics toward the

Structural linguistics was pioneered and founded by Ferdinand de

The school of structural linguistics was supported by Leonard

According Structuralists, language is defined as sound system which

1) Language is speech. This principle states that the main tool of

2) Language is a sound system which is arranged in such a way that

Schools of linguistics and their implication towards the teaching of language 3

observe. Therefore, sound is the first element of a language and

3) Language consists of various different levels. There is

4) Language as an arbitrary system. This means that there is no direct

5) Language is a means of communication. Structuralists’ major

6) Language analysis deals only with language sound. The analysis is

7) The language analysis tends to be inductive and empirical. Roger T.

Schools of linguistics and their implication towards the teaching of language 4

into paragraph, paragraph to sentences, and soon. This analysis is

The View of Structural Linguistics toward the

Generally Roger T. Bell (1981) and Jack C. Richards & Theodore S.

Language learning (including foreign language) is habitual. To form

1) Language learning process is based on stimulus-response theory

2) Repeated exercises are emphasized on the appropriateness of

3) Furthermore, in practicing the language skills there is tight

In relation to the form of exercises, drills method and pattern practice

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ii) Inflection. A single word in a speech sound is changeable to a

iii) Replacement. This is an exercise which requires the learners to

iv) Restatement. A learner will restate a speech sound in different

v) Completion. Learners must fill in the blanks so that the sentence

vi) Transformation. a sentence is transformed from e.g., a statement

vii) Transposition. A change in position of a word in a sentence

viii) Expansion. This happens when a word is added into a sentence

ix) Contraction. A word is used to show phrase or clause being

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x) Integration. It is to combine two speech sounds which are united

xi) Rejoinder. A learner will give an answer based on the previous

xii) Restoration. Learners are given words in scramble to be arranged

Teaching Materials Designed based on

Teaching materials developed based on structural linguistics generally

Teaching materials are selected and graded based on the components

One of the English teaching materials composed based on structural

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Some Notes on the Weaknesses of Structural

Roger T. Bell (1981) states some critics about structural linguistics as

1) Language analysis done by Structuralists is not enough both from the

2) The nature of language learning that relies on method of stimulus-

3) Structuralists view language system as a closed system in the sense

4) The principles of language learning proposed by Structuralists are

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1) How does structural linguistics view language?

In relation to language learning, structural linguistics states that

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our senses. Furthermore, Structuralists suggest that language can be

Direction: choose one of the most correct answers A, B, C or D!

2) In analyses, structural linguistics use method of …