A sliding-consolidation model for flow slides

J. N. HUTCHINSON
Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College, London SW7 2BU, England
Received July 16, 1985
Accepted January 10, 1986
A model is proposed for the behaviour of flow slides in loose, cohesionless materials in which the debris spreads out as a
uniform sheet. Excess pore-fluid pressures are assumed to be generated, for example by undrained loading arising from the
collapse of metastable structure, in the source area of the flow slide. Under the influence of these, the leading element of the
debris moves downslope by basal sliding, consolidating as it does so by single, upward drainage. As a result, the pore pressure
at the base of the element eventually decays to a value that brings the element to rest, hence defining the run-out of the flow
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

slide. The model is applicable, in principle, to subaqueous and subaerial flow slides and to pore fluids consisting of water, gas,
or both of these. The predictions of the model are tested against the observed behaviour and measured properties of the 1966
flow slide at Aberfan, South Wales. The results show that a sliding-consolidation model provides a possible mechanism for
that event.
Key words: Cohesionless material, loose metastable structure, partial liquefaction, excess pore-fluid pressure, basal sliding,
consolidation, flow slide, acceleration, velocity, run-out.

L'on propose un modble de comportement des coulCes dans les matCriaux pulvCrulents meubles dans lesquelles les debris
s'Ctendent en une couche uniforme. I1 est suppost5 qu'un excCdent de pressions interstitielles est gCnCrC dans la zone oh
origine la coulee, comme par exemple, B la suite d'une mise en charge non drainCe rCsultant de l'affaissement de la
structure mCtastable. Sous l'influence de ces pressions, lClCment frontal des debris descend la pente en glissant sur sa base
tout en se consolidant par drainage simple vers le haut. I1 en rtsulte que la pression interstitielle a la base de 1'ClCment
se dissipe Cventuellementjusqu'a une valeur telle que le mouvement de I'Cltment cesse, amenant ainsi l'tpuisement de la coulee.
Le modble est applicable, en principe, aux coulCes sous-marines et terrestres, et aux fluides interstitiels comprenant de l'eau,
du gaz ou des deux. Les prCdictions du modble sont vCrifiCes par comparaison avec le comportement observC et en utilisant
les propriCtCs mesurkes de la coulCe de 1966 2 Aberfan, South Wales. Les resultats dCmontrent que le modkle glissement-
For personal use only.

consolidation foumit un mCcanisme possible our cet Cvbnement.

Mots elks: matCriau pulvtrulent, structure ldche mCtastable, liquefaction partielle, exctdent de pression interstitielle, glisse-
ment a la base, consolidation, coulCes, accClCration, vitesse, tpuisement.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. .I.
23, 115-126 (1986)

Introduction Sliding-consolidation model

Following Koppejan et al. (1948), Terzaghi and Peck (1948),
Seed (1968), Bishop et al. (1969), and Bjerrum (197 l), the term
"flow slide" is used here to describe a slope failure involving the
collapse of metastable structure in a loose, cohesionless mass.
The collapse is triggered by some disturbance, commonly
earthquake shaking, blasting, pile-driving, or a landslide
movement. The resulting undrained loading can generate high
excess pressures in the pore fluid, which lead to a sudden and
considerable temporary loss of shear strength and a correspond-
ingly high mobility in the moving debris, even on very gentle
slopes. The pore fluid is usually water, or air, or some
combination of these.
Flow slides occur in a wide variety of situations, commonly
under wholly or partly subaqueous conditions (e.g., Heim 1908;
Koppejan et al. 1948; Casagrande 1965; Andresen and Bjermm
1967; Bjerrum 1971; Torrey and Weaver 1984). Subaerial flow
slides in waste tips are now becoming more frequent, however,
as the number and size of these increases (e.g., Dorby and
Alvarez 1967; Davies 1968; Bishop 1973; Blight 1977; Camp-
bell and Shaw 1978; Eckersley 1984).
In connection with subaqueous flow slides in fine-grained
cohesionless soils, Terzaghi (1956) suggested that the "spon-
taneous liquefaction" of such materials would result in their
degree of consolidation dropping abruptly, though temporarily,
to a value close to zero. The resulting flow slide would, he
suggested, travel until the "average degree of consolidation"
approached sufficiently close to unity for the moving mass to
"freeze." In the present paper, this idea is developed and
quantified and the predictions of the resultant model are
compared with field behaviour.
For the reasons given subsequently, the subaerial flow slide
(illustratedschematically in Fig. 1a) rather than the subaqueous
flow slide is used as a basis for the proposed model. The
treatment applies, in principle, to both types and to cases in
which the pore fluid is water, a gas, or a combination of these.
For simplicity, the analysis is made in terms of pore-water
pressures.
A mass of loose, cohesionless debris, saturated in its lower
part and having a relatively steep front face, is considered (Fig.
la). This rests upon and is fronted by a gentler slope AD, with
an inclination less than A, the angle of ultimate stability against
landsliding (Skempton and Hutchinson 1969) for the debris. As
a result, excess pore-water pressures are required to permit
movement of the debris down this slope by translational sliding.
These excess pore-water pressures are assumed to be generated,
between A and B, by an undrained loading, resulting from, for
example, the collapse of metastable structure in the saturated
zone of the loose, contractant debris' following a landslide
movement (as in Fig. 1a) or one of the other types of disturbance
mentioned earlier. Transformation of the failing mass into a
debris sheet of substantially uniform thickness 6 is assumed to
take place in a transition length 1 (Fig. la). The material
forming the slope BD is assumed not to be involved in the
movement of the flow slide.
The leading element of the debris sheet, at B (Fig. 1b), is now
considered. ~iforms,at time t = 0, on a segment of the slope BD
'~lternativel~,or additionally, undrained loading produced by the
ovemding of the saturated material, as described by Hutchinson and
Bhandari (1971), may be involved.
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 23, 1986

t =O

0
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

= angle o f u l t t m a t e s t a b ~ l i t y

FIG. 1. (a) Schematic section of a subaerial flow slide; (b) assumed initial excess pore-water pressures and their dissipation.
For personal use only.

inclined at ao,with an initial downslope velocity vo and some

initial distribution of pore-water pressures in a saturated (or
near-saturated) basal layer of thickness sA. These prqssures are
assumed to vary from uto at the top of the layer sh to ubo at
its base.
If an initial effective normal stress of zero on the base of the
element at B is taken as a limiting condition, the maximum . .
value of ub0will be
[(I - S ) Y + ~ ~ s a t l h c o s ~ a o
Ell (~b~)max=
Similarly, the maximum value of utois given by
121 (uto),,, = (1 - $1yh cos2
The actual initial pore-water pressures,2 ub0and uto,in the layer E , assumed = El U z ub b set a . where ub = basal
sh are unlikely to reach these maximum values, which, pore pressure
depending upon the value of u3'/u11obtaining, may be limited
by the onset of hydraulic fracture. The ratio u ~ ~ / ( u ~ ~ ) ~ ~FIG. ~ 2.
, Forces on an element of the flow slide.
between the actual initial basal pore-water pressure and its resistance to be purely frictional:
maximum value, as defined above, is termed ro.
The degree to which ub0and utorepresent excess pore-water Net driving force (per m width) = m i
= mg sin a - (mg cos a - ub b sec a ) tan +'
pressures depends, of course, on the values of final steady-state
pore-water pressures at these points. Any values can readily be where ub = basal pore-water pressure at time t. Now
treated: here the final pore-water pressures are assumed to be
zero, so that ub0 and uto become the excess pore-water mg = bh [(I - s)y + sysatl
pressures. Hence
The forces acting on an element of the debris sheet are shown [3] x =
in Fig. 2. Assuming that the total interslice forces Eiand Ej are
equal, opposite, and colinear, the equations of motion for this
element may be expressed as follows, assuming the basal
Thus, if at time t = 0, x = 0 andx = vo,
2Someguidance as to the values of these pore-water pressures at their
point of generation within the failing debris heap (upslope of point B) [4] x = xt + vo
might be obtained, following Castro and Poulos (1977), from the rela-
tionship between the precollapse values of void ratio and effective and
xt2
minor principal stress for the material and its corresponding steady- [5] x =- + vot
state line. 2
 HUTCHINSON

where x, i ,and x are respectively the downslope acceleration,

velocity, and travel of the element.
At time t = 0, the factor of safety of the element against basal
sliding, Fb, will generally be considerably less than unity and
the element will accelerate down the slope BD. A major factor
controlling the further progress of the sliding element is E N G L A N D
envisaged as being a process of consolidation bringing about
progressive decay of the basal excess pore-water pressure.
Assuming that Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation theory
applies and that single, upward drainage is taking place, the
time t required for the basal excess pore-water pressure to decay
from ubOto ub is given by
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

where T = time factor for the degree of dissipation of the basal

excess pore-water pressure, 1 - ub/ubO;(;I = average length
0
w
50
-
100

Scale I k m l
150

of drainage path = sh cos a ; c, = coefficient of consolidation of

FIG. 3. Aberfan location plan.
the material forming the layer sh of the debris sheet, for the
appropriate pore fluid and stress level.
A A

u s k g theabove relationships, the acceleration, velocity and

travel of the leading element of the flow slide may be calculated.
The point where the velocity of this element becomes zero, at t f ,
a f , and ubf, determines the run-out of the debris.
Test of the model against field behaviour
General
For personal use only.

The proposed model indicates that the predicted run-out of a

flow slide is, not surprisingly, very sensitive to the thickness of
saturated or near-saturated debris taking part. Bearing this in
mind, a review of case records was made to see which lent
themselves best to back-anaylsis. Initially it was thought that
subaqueous flow slides would prove most suitable, as all the
debris could then generally be assumed to be saturated. On
closer examination, however, it became clear that there are
several inherent difficulties in applying the model to such
failures. In particular, the geometry and mechanics of sub-
aqueous flow slides are generally complex and ill-defined
(Andresen and Bjerrum 1967; Edgers and Karlsrud 1982; Prior
1984). They are often retrogressive and commonly erode their
beds, generating fresh slides in the process (Bjerrum 1971). In
addition, their upper boundaries may be subject to hydro-
dynamic drag forces that, under certain conditions, as discussed
by Morgenstern (1967), can lead to turbulence and mixing,
when the slowing and eventual arrest of the moving debris may
result more from settling than from consolidation. Attention
was turned, therefore, towards subaerial flow slides, which are
generally unaffected by the above-mentioned difficulties and on
which detailed investigations are, of course, much more readily FIG. 4. Oblique aerial photograph of the flow slide at Aberfan in
carried out. Of such slides, that of 1966 at Aberfan, South October 1966.
Wales (Figs. 3 and 4), provided the best-documented field
behaviour against which to test the proposed model.
The jlow slide of 1966 at Aberfan the hillside of Pennant Measures r re dominantly well-jointed
The geotechnical aspects of this are described by Bishop et sandstones of the Upper Coal Measures). In 1963, a first-time
al. (1969) and by Williams (1969). In summary, the 1966 flow rotational slip occurred in tip 7 and its foundation, as a result of
slide developed in a 67 m high tip of loose coal mine waste (tip the increasing height of the tip and the advance of its toe onto
7), consisting chiefly of Carboniferous mudstones with some an area of the hillside where the strength of the mantle of Head
coal and other debris, which was being advanced valleywards was reduced by high groundwater pressures. In the years 1963-
by end-tipping on a hillside of about 12" inclination. The 1966, further rotational movements were induced in this slip by
immediate foundation of the tip (uninvestigated prior to tipping) continued tipping of mine waste at its head, combined with the
consisted of a layer of Late Pleistocene Head deposits, chiefly removal of fines from its toe by seepage erosion, which were
silty clay solifluction debris several metres thick, which mantled deposited as a sheet of slurry on the slopes below the tip toe.
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 23, 1986
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

..-.
!:_x.
..
^>?..?
.
Area o f coal waste tlps
Area o f flow slide
?]]j- .Area o f subsequent "mud- run"
'
,++"Contours a t 25m vertlcal ~ n t e r v a l
on n a t u r a l ground
L= Build~ngs standlng a f t e r d ~ s o s t e r

FIG.5. Plan of Aberfan showing extent of the 1966 flow slide and the subsequent "mud-run."

On October 21, 1966, another such rotational movement

occurred in tip 7. The slip had sunk at its head by approximately
3 m when first observed at about 7:30 a.m. By about 8:30 a.m. a
total sinking of over 6 m had o ~ c u r r e dAt
. ~ approximately 9: 10
a.m., slow movements of the slip were observed to recom-
mence: several minutes after this, observers4on the crest of tip 7
saw the hard crust of the sheet of slurry below the toe of the tip
For personal use only.

"breaking up like ice." A few seconds later the lower part of the
tip was seen to move out and travel very quickly in several
"black waves" into a bank of mist downslope, which enveloped
the village of Aberfan. Different observers describe these as wet
and as dry. It seems likely that the saturated lower part of the tip
liquefied and flowed out, taking with it some of the saturated
slurry lying downslope. The upper, relatively dry, part of the tip
then slipped down, some being carried forward in the flow slide,
floating on the liquefied material, while the remainder came to
rest in the cavity formed in the face of the tip. Because of the
presence of the mist, probably no more than the first 100 m or so
of the travel of the flow slide was witnessed by those on the crest
of tip 7. A second flow, described as a mound of debris (about
7 m high) being pushed downslope at slow walking pace by a
black river of water, was observed some minutes later. This was
doubtless the "mud-run" shown in Fig. 5 and referred to below.
The resultant spread of debris is shown in Figs. 4 and 5. After
travelling downslope (from point X) for about 275 m, the debris
sheet divided into a north and a south lobe. The N. lobe was the
smaller and came to rest after a further travel of approximately
125m, when its toe reached the low embankment of the old
Glamorgan canal. The larger S. lobe reached this embankment
after a further travel of about 150 m and had sufficient power to
override both this and the embankment of the dismantled
railway, which were contiguous at that place, and to continue
into the village of Aberfan for an additional 175 m, causing 144
deaths. The ratios of flow slide run-out to width were approxi-
mately 5.7 for the N. lobe and 6.0 for the S. lobe.
3 ~ist somewhat surprising that such gross movements occurred prior
to liquefaction. A possible explanation is that the chief disturbance of
the saturated material in the base of the tip did not occur until it was
thrust out from the toe of the rotational slip onto the natural hillside
(near point T in Fig. 7).
4Seethe daily &anscriptof the Aberfan Tribunal proceedings, held
in the Lyon Playfair Library, Imperial College.
Key (+Oil1 1 Change In surface level I m l . 1958-1965
- 0 12 " " ' " . 1965-1966 (post-disaster1
FIG.6. Plan of the Aberfan flow slide showing estimated amounts
of erosion and deposition.
A complicating feature of the incident was the development
of the major "mud-run," mentioned above and shown in Figs. 4
and 5. This was formed some minutes after the flow slide by
groundwater issuing as a spring from the foot of the slide scar in
tip 7. The groundwater was released from the joints in the
Pennant Measures through the stripping away, by the slide of tip
7, of the relatively impervious Head mantle. The mud-run
carried a considerable volume of debris downslope, depositing
some in levees on its flanks (Fig. 4) and the rest in the lower part
of its track and in its tongue, which extended further into the
village than the flow slide itself (Fig. 5). As a result, the
relatively uniform debris sheet emplaced by the flow slide was
appreciably modified, in places, by the subsequent erosion and
deposition of the mud-run.'
Calculations of the volumes of debris deposited in, or eroded
from, the various parts of the tip slide and of the combined flow
slide and mud-run were made photogrammetrically by Bishop
et al. (1969, Appendix 6). From these the average changes in
surface level during various periods can be worked out. The
magnitudes of these changes in the period from June 1965 to
their analysis of the 1966Aberfan failure, Jeyapalan et al. (1983)
confuse the mud-run, which occurred in a relatively narrow channel,
with the flow slide, which occurred as a thin sheet.

(m) I Tip 7
2 Transition
.g l e n g t h , I = 40 rn
+loo - 9
5
0 100
N a t u r a l scale i m l
1
+250 -
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13
(b)
+I50
+I00 -
-
0 100
- 200
H o r ~ z o n t a l scale i m 1
V e r t ~ c a l exaggeration x 2
FIG.7. Longitudinal section of the Aberfan flow slide (S. lobe) on A-A (Fig. 5): (a) actual section, at natural scale; ( b )idealized section, with a
X2 vertical exaggeration.
October 1966, caused predominantly by the disastrous flow
For personal use only.
slide from tip 7, are shown in Fig. 6.
As the N. lobe of the flow slide was hardly affected by the
mud-run, the average thickness, h, of the leading element
during its travel can be determined with a reasonable degree of
confidence as 1.2 m. The overall run-out of 430 m (measured
from point X, in Figs. 5 and 7, along the slope of the ground)
seems to have been limited very little, if at all, by the presence of
the old canal bank. In the case of the considerably modified S.
lobe of the flow slide, the determination of a representative
value of h is more difficult. The best indication is probably
provided by the thickness of the area just upslope of the canal
and railway banks (Fig. 6), where the erosive and depositional
effects of the mud-run roughly cancel out. Downslope of the
railway bank, the flow slide debris was impeded by buildings,
and also, the degree of deposition by the mud-run increases. On
balance, an h value of 2.0 m has been taken for the S. lobe of
the flow slide. Some support for the above h values is provided
by the records of boreholes through the flow slide debris, but
many of these are in areas modified by the mud-run. The
maximum run-out of the S. lobe of the flow slide was
approximately 600m from point X (Fig. 5). This would
certainly have been greater had the slope been unimpeded, and a
possible maximum extent of 750m, if there had been no
obstructions, has been estimated.
Estimates of the average speed of the flow slide, based on the
account of eye-witnesses, were summarized as "probably
between 10 and 20 miles per hour" (ca. 4.5-9.0 m/s) by Bishop
et al. (1969) and as "at least 15 miles per hour" (ca. 6.7 m/s) by
Williams (1969). From the transcript^,^ it is evident that there
were two groups of eye-witnesses: those on the crest of tip 7 and
those in the Moy Road area (Fig. 5). The former, who could see,
as noted earlier, only about the first 100 m of the travel of the
flow slide, all spoke of very high speeds but provided nothing
quantitative. The latter group, who had a visibility in the mist of
37-46 m, furnished some information concerning the estimated
speed of the flow slide as it overrode the canal and railway
HUTCHINSON 119
2
Max e x t e n t of flow slide
x 5 $00 rn
200
300
-?-- Aberfan
Estimated max
extent i f no
obstruct~ons
300
Constant slope of 11'
embankment. Mr. E. G. Rees observed that the wave of muck
came over the bank "about as fast as a car goes in the town,"
probably between about 9 and 13.4 m/s. Estimates of the height
to which the debris rose above the embankment vary between
4.6-6.1 m (G. Groves) and 7.6-9.1 m (H. Rees). Taking the
height of the upslope face of the embankment as about 1 m and
using the relationship x2 = 2gh, velocities of the S. lobe of the
flow slide, as it reached the embankment, of 11.2 m/s (an
average of Mr. Groves' estimates) to 13.5 m/s (an average of
Mr. H. Rees' figures) are obtained. These estimates agree well
with those of Mr. E. G. Rees, above, for the S. lobe of the flow
slide. No estimate of the speed of the N. lobe of the flow slide
appears to be available.
A longitudinal profile through the S. lobe of the flow slide
(section A-A in Fig. 5) is shown in Fig. 7 at natural (Fig. 7a)
and exaggerated (Fig. 7b) vertical scales. The profile through
the N. lobe is broadly similar. The average slope there is 12.2"
for the first 251 m of travel (downslope, from point X), 11.OO
for the next 104 m, and 8.7" for the final 45 m.
Properties of the materials involved
The relevant data from Bishop et al. (1969) are summarized.
Additional data are provided on the values of y,+', and c,.
The average bulk unit weight, y,of the eastern part of tip 7
remaining after the failure was shown by Bishop et al. (1969) to
be about 17.3 kN/m3. The corresponding average dry unit
weight, y,, was about 15.6kN/m3. These low values are a
reflection partly of the loose state of packing and partly of the
presence of an appreciable proportion of coal and carbonaceous
shale in the debris: the specific gravity of particles in colliery
waste tips in the United Kingdom generally is reported to range
between about 1.4 and 2.7 (Taylor 1984).
A better indication of the state of packing in tip 7 is provided
by the ratio of the average value of y, of 15.6kN/m3 to the
Standard Proctor Maximum y, of 19.0 kN/m3, which was 82%
(Hutchinson 1967). The variation of y and y, in tip 7 with
depth, together with standard penetration test (SPT) "N"
 120 CAN. GEOTECH. 1. VOL. 23, 1986

N value Yn i k ~ / m ~ ) and 7, are given in Fig. 9. Attention has already been drawn
(Bishop 1973; Hutchinson 1967) to the wide grading of this
I Q
o uncorrected
+ corrected for
I1 O)
---2''- A
I

90
Proctor Maximum
material, contrasting strongly with the rather uniformly graded
material in the fine sand range with which flow slides had
* (after P e c k e
previously been associated by many engineers. It has also been
a1.1974 1
5
noted (Hutchinson 1967) that the uniformity coefficient for the
Aberfan material is about 18, well outside the value of 5
previously proposed by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) as the upper
limit for natural soils prone to liquefaction. The D50grain size
for material from tip 7 passing a 12 in. (30.5 mm) sieve is
approximately 9- 10 mm.
Triaxial compression tests on samples from the remaining
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

part of tip 7 gave average +peak' values of 39.5" in drained tests

and 41.5" in undrained tests with pore-pressure measurement
(Bishop et al. 1969). A notable feature of the Aberfan waste
\ material is the strong degree of continuing particle degradation
from U ~ O O S -b, __ with strain (Bishop et al. 1969; Bishop 1973). Thus on the slip
surface beneath tip 7, on which over 21 m of shear displacement
' 7 during the years 1963-1966 had produced a band of cohesive
d material 25-305 rnm thick consisting of tip waste in a matrix of
from
clay and silt-sized particles, the back-analysed value of drained
residual shear strength was 26", with c,' = 0. A +,' value as low
as 17.5" was measured in the laboratory on a smear of fine
material from this slip surface. In the present context, the
relevant shear parameters are those applying in the flow slide
1 after
debris during its travel. Brief examination of sections of this
fatlure) debris, in the debris sheets of both the Aberfan and ~ b e r c ~ n o n ~
flow slides, revealed no signs of a degraded shear band within
For personal use only.

Natural ground level the material and +,,I is therefore taken to be the appropriate
shear parameter, rather than +,I.
FIG. 8. Values of N (from SPT) and y, measured shortly after the On the basis of the data outlined above, the average effective
Aberfan disaster in the remaining part of tip 7 (borehole T7/ I), derived normal stresses acting on the slip surfaces of the 1966 flow
from Bishop et al. (1969).
slides from tip 7 at Aberfan would have ranged between about
15 and 35 kPa. The results of consolidated-drained &axial tests
100
1 CLAY
,
SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES on 610 mm high X 305 mm diameter samples of closely related
material from tip 2 (Binnie and Partners 1974) indicate a
Tip 7 upper and lower grading lhmits
p 80- [ a f t e r Hutchinson 1967 1 value of around 40" when extrapolated down to these very low
TIP 2 grading of 99 mm and 305 mm dfa stress levels, which agrees closely with the values for
a
, 60 -
t r ~ a x ~ as lo r n ~ l e s tested
(ofler Bjnnie and Poitners 19741
quoted above for the tip 7 material. The stress-strain curves for
0
& these tests on 305 mm diameter samples from tip 2 (Fig. 10)
? LO- show only a marginal drop in stress ratio past the peak. The
a
value of +,' is considered to be approximately that associated
20 - with a ( a l ' - u3')/u3' value, at large strain, of 3 .O, i.e., about
36". Whether such static shear strength parameters obtain at the
high diplacement rates (10m/s and more) believed to have
Particle slze lmm l occurred during the 1966 flow slide is not known. However,
FIG.9. Relationship of grading curves for the material tested from neither Hungr and Morgenstern (1984) nor Sassa (1984), for
tip 2 at Aberfan with those for the material in tip 7. granular materials tested at shearing rates of up to 1 m/s in ring
shear apparatuses, found'any appreciable effect of shear rate on
the residual friction angle.
value^,^ is shown in Fig. 8. In situ y and y~ values in the Concerning c, values, the best data currently available are
northern lobe of the flow slide, measured well after consolida- provided by the consolidation stages of triaxial tests on the
tion was completed, were 19.1 and 17.5 kN/m3, respectively. 305 mm diameter samples of tip 2 material mentioned above
In passing, it is noted that these N values, in material containing (Binnie and Partners 1974). These are summarized in Fig. 11
numerous coarse particles of platey shale, are likely to be and indicate that c, values in the range of about 1000-
greater than values in sands of corresponding relative density. 8000 m2/year are likely to be appropriate for the conditions in
Typical gradings of the Aberfan waste material, from tips 2 the Aberfan flow slide^.^ With such high magnitudes of c,, it is

6 ~ o t huncorrected N values and values corrected for overburden
pressure, following Peck et al. (1974), are shown. The SPT equip-
ment consisted of a "Pilcon" free-fall trip of total mass 144 Ib (65 kg)
with a 30 in. (760mm) fall in accordance with BS 1377 (British
Standards Institution 1975).Square drill rods of cross section 14 X 14 in.
(31.8 x 31.8 mm) were used (T. R. M. Wakeling, personal com-
munication).
'A flow slide similar to that in 1966 at Aberfan, which occurred in
1939, about 10 krn further down the Taff Valley (Bishop et al. 1969).
'An average c, of 612 m2lyear from the consolidation stages of
triaxial tests on 100 rnrn diameter samples of coarse-grained coal mine
discard from West Wales, for an average effective confining pressure
of 120 kPa, is reported by Taylor et al. (1978). The respective ranges
of values were from 433 to 1128 m2Iyear and from 30 to 242 kPa.
 Assumed d l s t r ~ b u t l o n of ~ n l t l a l
excess p o r e - w a t e r p r e s s u r e : I
o-Oa-~-~-e 36'
6L - 3 4 O
- 32O
- 30"

U9 ( X ) 99mrn d ~ xa 205 rnrn h ~ g h-‘undisturbed'

6L (01 305rnrn d1a.x 610 rnrn hlgh -'recompacted
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

I I I I I
T ~ m ef a c t o r , T
0 5 10 15 20
A x l a l s t r a ~ n (YO) FIG. 12. Approximate variation of basal excess pore-water pressure,
ub, with time factor, T, for initial trapezoidal distributions of
excess pore-water pressure and single upward drainage (after Terzaghi
and Frohlich 1936).

maximum travel downslope from point X was 600m and the

FIG. 10. Stress-strain and volume change curves for consolidated-
drained triaxial compression tests on material from tip 2 at Aberfan
For personal use only.
possible maximum extent, if there had been no obstructions, is
estimated at 750m. From a consideration of the evidence on
velocities, presented earlier, and allowing approximately for the
shape of the relevant early part of the velocity/travel curves, the
average velocity for the 430 m travel between point X and the
canal bank, x ~ is ~estimated
~ , to have lain between 8 and 11
m/s.

(after Binnie and Partners 1974). The main geometrical and geotechnical factors required in
order to test the proposed model against the behaviour of the S.
lobe flow slide are discussed next. The chief uncertainty
-
Key to samples concerns the proportion s of the average thickness i that is
-
305 mm dla. x 610 mm hlgh: max mat1 slze = 51 mm saturated or near-saturated. Bishop et al. (1969) suggest that the
Cv W mm dia. x 205mm high: 8% ,' : 51 mm thickness of the relatively dry debris in the flow slide was greater
(rn21~eori- q 0 .,
than that of the underlying, saturated material (i.e. s < 0.5).
t, . ,. ,,
3,
" =13mm
\ Q ,, ., ,,
\
\
:'und~sturbed"
I The d tests were carried out by
Later estimates of the proportion of the slipped mass of tip 7 that
\
\ Soil Mechs Ltd.; all the remainder
was saturated indicate that the value of s may have lain between
\\
were done a t lmper~ol College 1 0.1 and 0.2. This value rises above 0.3 if an allowance is made
for the volume of largely saturated slurry that already lay on the
mountainside immediately below the toe of the tip. A value of s
= 0.1 has been taken in the back-analyses and the effect of s
values of up to 0.3 is explored.
The initial value of the excess pore-water pressure at the base
of the flow slide element and its distribution through the layer
s i are also uncertain. For s = 0.1, the ratio of (u,~),,, to
( u ~ ~ ) , ,given
~ , by [2] and [ l ] respectively, is 0.89 and this value
is assumed to obtain, at the time t = 0, throughout the calcula-
tions. These are performed for a value of ro = ~ ~ ~ / ( of ~ ~ o ) m
\
1.00 and for arbitrary lower values of ro, down to 0.6. The
in -approx equlvolent stress level in Aberfan flow sllde
,
,
'
,
initial velocity, at the point X (Figs. 5 and 7), is assumed to be
l.Om/s. The influence of values of vo up to 3.0m/s is also
examined.
Single upward drainage in the flow slide has been assumed for
FIG. 11. Values of c, derived from the consolidation stage of the following reasons:
triaxial tests on material from tip 2 at Aberfan. -The fairly dry material forming the upper part of the flow slide
was relatively free draining. Bishop et al. (1969) quote a
possible that the constraints associated with the porous elements permeability for a representative sample of tip 7 of 6.6 x
used in the laboratory tests may have resulted in even these m/s.
values being underestimates. -The slopes over which the debris travelled were generally
subject to artesian groundwater pressures with respect to natural
Sliding-consolidation back-analyses and discussion ground level.
In view of the relatively small significance of the N. lobe of -The upper parts of these slopes were covered with a layer of
the flow slide of 1966, and the lack of information on its saturated or near-saturated debris, composed partly of fines
velocity, the back-analyses have been concentrated on the event removed from the toe of tip 7 by seepage erosion during the
that formed the S. lobe. In this, as discussed, the observed period from about 1963 to October 1966.
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 23, 1986

(a>
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

40 l

i
E
::
4
pq
-a n d 11
For personal use only.

-and
' 430

Aberfan,
S.lobe

I , 1 1 I I I I
o1 500 1000 1500 x (rn)
rn 1s) (rnls)

FIG. 13. plots of velocity, T, against travel, x, for various values of 4' and the initial basal pore-pressure ratio ro = ubO/(ubO)max.Plots 0f2430,
the average velocity from point X (Fig. 7) to the canal bank, are also given: (a) for c, = 2000m2/year; ( b ) for c, = 10000 m2lyear.
 10+ro values
(m/s)
30
-
* 430
20

10
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13

Aberfan , S. lobe

zoo
1 1 1 1 1 1 t lo
100 500 1000 x ( m ) MOO
range of'lab. cV values
15" I I t ! I I I I I

1
(b) lo3
1 1 1 1
i
I
cv

I
loL

' ' ' ' 'rb values

(rn/yeor)

(m/s) //100/
I
For personal use only.

1 Aberfon. '
1 5 . lobe \ I

FIG. 14. Plots of +' against reach, x, for various values of

ro: (a) for c,
= 2000 m2Iyear; (b) for c, = 10000 m2Iyear.

-Heavy rain fell shortly before the disaster (70 mm on October
18- 19 (Bleasdale 1969)).
For the conditions outlined above, the approximate variation
of the local degree of dissipation at the impervious base with
time factor, T, can be obtained from the equations given in
Section 23 of Terzaghi and Frohlich (1936). This is shown for
uto/ubovalues of 0.95 and 0.83 (corresponding to s values of
0.05 and 0.15, respectively) in Fig. 12. In the calculations, the
average of these two curves, corresponding to an s value of
0.1, has been used.
The material parameters used are as follows: y in the
upper layer, (1 - s) h thick = 17.3 kN/m3; y, in the basal
layer, sh thick = 18.6 kN/m3; for the basal slip surface
+,,I
(with c' = 0) = 36"; c, for the basal layer, sh thick = 1000 -
10 000 m2lyear.
An average slope profile with a constant inclination a of 1l ois
used for most of the back-analyses of the S. lobe. The influence
of the actual, slightly concave slope profile (Fig. 7) is also
investigated.
Using [3]-[5] and the above data, the variation of flow slide
FIG. 15. Summary plots showing (a) values of +', c,, and ro that
yield the estimated maximum reach, x, of 750 m (values yielding the
observed maximum reach of 600 m are also shown); (b) corresponding
values of .ib30.
From the results, plots of +'
against travel are made for the
various values of c, and ro, as well as for the corresponding
values of z430.Representative examples of these plots are given
in Figs. 14a and 14b, again for c, values of 2000 and
10 000 m2/year, respectively.
Finally, the summary plots of Figs. 15a and 15b are
prepared. Figure 15a shows the relationships between +', c,,
and ro that yield the estimated maximum reach of 750m.
Similar curves fitting the observed maximum reach of 600 m are
also shown, with broken lines. In Fig. 15b, the corresponding
values of F430are shown, for the 750 m reach only. It is then a
simple matter to determine the unique value of c, that will
satisfy both the probable +,,I value (in Fig. 15a) and the
estimated field value (in Fig. 15b), at the same value of
ro. For the average values arrived at earlier, of = 36" and +,,I

velocity with travel is computed for the S. lobe for c, values of
1 000, 2 000, 5 000, and 10000 m2/year, ro values of 1.OO
down to 0.60, and 4' values ranging between 20" and 40".
Corresponding values of 2430,the average velocity of the flow
slide down to the canal bank, are also determined. Representa-
tive results, for c, = 2 000 and 10 000 m2/year, are also shown
in Figs. 13a and 13b, respectively. In each case the cross-
hatched rectangle indicates the best assessment of the reach and
average velocity down to the canal bank obtaining in the field.
i430 = 9.5 m/s, the required value of c, turns out to be
2000m2/year, well within the range of laboratory rneasure-
ments, at an ro value of approximately 0.78.
In Fig. 16, the effects of varying the initial velocity, vo, from
1.0 to 3.0 m/s on a constant 11" slope are explored for 4' = 36",
c, = 2000 m2/year, and ro = 0.78. The change in vo froin 1.0 to
2.0 m/s is roughly equivalent to keeping vo constant at 1.0 m/s
and reducing c, by around 10%. In Fig. 17, the relationships of
acceleration to travel and velocity to travel, for 4' = 36", c, =
 124 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 23, 1986
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13
FIG. 16. The effects on velocity and travel of varying the values of
initial velocity, vo, from 1.O to 3.0 m/s for a = 1lo, +' = 36", c, =
2000m~/~ear, and ro= 0.78.
2000 m2/year, and ro = 0.780 and 0.785, are compared for a
slope of constant a = 1l o and a slope in which a varies from
11.8" to 0.7" (as in Fig. 7a). This indicates that the flattening
slope begins to have a pronounced effect once the travel exceeds
about 600 m.
The curves of acceleration against travel in Fig. 17 are of
interest. The coincidence of the points of zero acceleration (and
thus Fb = 1.0) and maximum velocity is clearly shown.
For personal use only.
Furthermore, the plot suggests that such flow slides may be
expected to pass readily over the natural ground slope, in the
upper part of their travel, while in the lower part, the developing
traction will tend to cause erosion of this. Evidence from South
Wales bearing on this point is currently being collected and will
be presented elsewhere.
From Fig. 15, other solutions fitting the available field
-
- _ _ _ _ _ - - -- - -
f o r a = 11.0'
0.5 L 1 in Fig. 7a
ro values
[ ks-hown
FIG. 17. Comparison, for 4' = 36", c, = 2000 m2/year, and r o = 0.780 and 0.785, of acceleration/travel and velocity/travel curves for a
constant slope, aiof 11' and a slope varying from 11.Soto 0.7" (as i n ~ i7a).
ro= 0.785.
evidence may be readily obtained. For example, if the relevant
4' were 30", a fit would be provided with c, = 2250 m2/year
and ro = 0.73; with 4' as low at 25", the values would become
2700 m2/year and approximately 0.66, respectively. More
dramatic changes naturally ensue if s is varied. With s = 0.2
rather than 0.1, the value of c, required, for 4' = 36", would
increase from 2000 to about 8000 m2lyear; with s = 0.3, c,
would need to be about 18 000 m2/year.
In this connection, a possible further development of the
present simple sliding-consolidation model is being considered.
In this, upward drainage is still dominant, but is considered to be
accompanied by a degree of partially impeded downward
drainage. This implies a progressive upward shift of the slip
surface from the base of the debris, the laying down of a thin
layer of debris on the ground surface as the flow slide advances,
and the consequent thinning of the debris sheet with distance
travelled. It is evident that with some degree of double drainage,
even without thinning, the necessary c, values would be
reduced appreciably.
Davies (1982) supports the view that the reach of debris flows
(in his case, sturzstroms) of similar shape will depend mainly on
the volumes of their deposits. While this is evident for a given
thickness, bulking factor, and breadth-to-thickness ratio of a
continuous debris deposit, it should be borne in mind that debris
flows may become detached from their supply source, in which
case this simple relationship breaks down. From Fig. 6 it can be
seen that there is some tendency for both the N. and S. lobes of
the flow slide at Aberfan in 1966 to be of the detached type. The
proposed model applies equally well to continuous or detached,
single event flow slides.
Conclusions
1. For flow slides involving debris sheets of substantially
uniform thickness h, emplaced in a single event, a sliding-
River
Taff ~
d Estimated
max-extent
without
above)
\ \
~ . The variation of Fb with travel is also shown fo; the case of a = 1lo,
 consolidation model is developed. This postulates the existence
of a zone of excess pore-fluid pressures at the commencement of
the flow slide in at least the basal part (of thickness sh) of the
debris sheet. Under the influence of the basal excess pore fluid
pressures, the debris sheet accelerates downslope-by basal
sliding, in a plug-flow mode (i.e. with constant velocity
distribution with depth). During this process, the basal excess
pore-fluid pressure is successively decreased by consolidation,
through single, upward drainage in the simplest case, until the
leading element is brought to rest. The position where this
occurs defines the run-out of the flow slide. The model applies in
principle to any pore fluid and to subaerial or subaqueous flow
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13
slides of this nature: in the latter case, the situation may be
complicated by other factors, such as hydrodynamic drag on the
upper surface of the debris.
2. It is concluded that the S. lobe of the subaerial flow slide
of 1966 at Aberfan, South Wales, provides the best-documented
field case against which to check the model. Computations are
made with h = 2.0 m and s = 0.1 for a range of + ' , c,, and
ro values (ro is the ratio of the actual initial basal pore-water
pressure to its maximum theoretical value, corresponding to
zero normal effective stress on the basal slip surface). The
average ground slope is taken as 11"; the effect of a concave
slope of inclination varying from 11.8" to 0.7" is also e ~ p l o r e d . ~ A. W. Bishop and Dr. A. E. Skinner for constructive comments
The initial velocity, vo, is taken generally as 1.0 m/s.
The results of the computations fit the observed run-out, of
600-750 m, and the average velocity during the first 430 m of
For personal use only.
travel (fromjust below tip 7 to the canal bank), of 8-1 1 m/s, for
a range of values, exemplified below:
The value of 6' is assumed to approximate $,,' = 36", but may
be slightly lower than this. The required c, values all lie in the
lower part of the range of values, of about 1000-8000 rn2Iyear,
measured in the consolidation stage of large-diameter triaxial
tests. Higher required c, values would result if a more exact
relation between time factor and the degree of dissipation of the
basal pore-water pressure were to be used and, as noted earlier,
if values of s > 0.1 are taken. A development of the present
sliding-consolidation model, in which a small degree of
downward drainage is also introduced, would lead, on the other
hand, to smaller required c, values, partly through the inherent
reduction in drainage paths and partly through the thinning of
the saturated basal layer that would then take place.
3. It follows from the relationships between the acceleration,
velocity, and travel of the flow slide that the points of zero
acceleration, where also Fb = 1.00, and those of maximum
velocity are coincident. The variation of acceleration with travel
suggest further that debris sheets involved in such flow slides are
likely to pass readily over the ground surface in the early stages
of their travel but to erode this in the later stages, as the basal
traction builds up.
4. Despite fairly full data for the 1966 Aberfan flow slide,
many assumptions had still to be made to enable the proposed
'~odification of the consolidation process by the slight angular
distortion of the element, inherent in this case, is regarded as of
negligible importance in the present context. Deviations from a
constant distribution of velocity with depth during travel of the debris
(even down a slope of constant inclination) could, however, have a
significant effect.
sliding-consolidation model to be checked against it. Thus, it
cannot be concluded that the model reflects the true mechanism
of that event: only that it provides a possible explanation of the
known facts in terms of effective-stress soil mechanics.
5. In general, a two- or three-phase effective-stress model of
the type presented, which, as demonstrated, can be checked
quantitatively against field behaviour, is believed to offer a
better means of studying flow slides, and other rapid debris
flows, than viscous models, in which the principle of effective
stress is generally abandoned and an empirical fit sought to the,
usually unmeasured, viscosity of a hypothetical, single-phase
material.
Acknowledgements
A preliminary version of the model treated here was first
presented in a lecture to the Engineering Group of the
Geological Society of London in February 1973. The author is
indebted to the Imperial College, London, the Science and
Engineering Council (U.K.), and the Civil Engineering Depart-
ment of the University of Alberta, Edmonton, for making
possible a term's study leave in Canada in 1982 during which
further progress on this paper was made. He is grateful to
several colleagues for their assistance, particularly to Professor
and to Professor N. R. Morgenstern and Professor R. E. Gibson
for their encouragement and helpful suggestions. Finally, the
author wishes to thank Mr. A. G. Blay and Dr. S. K. Sarma for
advice on the computing.
ANDRESEN, A., and BJERRUM, L. 1967. Slides in subaqueous slopes in
loose sand and silt. In Marine geotechnique. Edited by A. F.
Richards. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, pp. 221-239.
(Reprinted in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication NO. 8 1,
1968.)
BINNIE AND PARTNERS. 1974. Department of Energy. Report on
research at Aberfan. Binnie and Partners, London, England.
BISHOP, A. W. 1973. The stability of tips and spoil heaps. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, 6 , pp. 335-376.
BISHOP,A. W., HUTCHINSON, J. N., PENMAN, A. D. M., EV EVANS,
H. E. 1969. Geotechnical investigations into the causes and
circumstances of the disaster of 21st October 1966. A selection of
technical reports submitted to the Aberfan Tribunal, pp. 1-80.
Welsh Office, H.M.S .O., London, England.
BJERRUM, L. 1971. Subaqueous slope failures in Norwegian fjords.
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication No. 88, pp. 1-8.
BLEASDALE, A. 1969. Meteorological conditions relating to the
Aberfan Inquiry. A selection of technical reports submitted to the
Aberfan Tribunal, pp. 207-218. Welsh Office, H.M.S.O., London,
England.
BLIGHT, G. 1977. Slopes in industrial waste. Proceedings, 9th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engin-
eering, Tokyo, Vol. 2, pp. 600-604.
BRITISHSTANDARDS INSTITUTION. 1975. BS 1377. Methods of test for
soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standards Institution,
London, England.
CAMPBELL, D. B., and SHAW, W. H. 1978. Performance of a waste
rock dump on moderate to steeply sloping foundations. Proceedings,
1st International Symposium on Stability in Coal Mining, Van-
couver, pp. 395-405.
CASAGRANDE, A. 1965. Role of the "Calculated Risk" in earthwork
and foundation engineering. ASCE Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundations Division, 91(SM4), pp. 1-40.
CASTRO, G., and Pou~os,S. J. 1977. Factors affecting liquefaction
and cyclic mobility. ASCE Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, 103(GT6), pp. 501-5 16.
DAVIES, T. R. H. 1982. Spreading of rock avalanche debris by mechan-
 126 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 23, 1986
ical fluidization. Rock Mechanics, 15, pp. 9-24.
DAVIES,W. E. 1968. Coal waste bank stability. Mining Congress
Journal, 54(7), pp. 19-24.
DORBY,R., and ALVAREZ,L. 1967. Seismic failures in Chilean
tailings dams. ASCE Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, 93(SM6), pp. 237-260.
ECKERSLEY,J. D. 1984. Flowslides in stockpiled coal. Fourth
Australia- New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, Perth, Vol.
2, pp. 607-61 1.
EDGERS,L., and KARLSRUD,K. 1982. Soil flows generated by
submarine slides-case studes and consequences. Proceedings of
the 3rd International Conference on the Behaviour of Off-shore
Structures, Cambridge, MA, Vol. 2, pp. 425-437.
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 06/29/13
HEIM,A. 1908. ~ b e rezente
r und fossile subaquatische Rutschungen
und deren lithologische Bedeutung. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,
Geologie und Palaontologie, 2, pp. 136- 157.
HUNGR, O., and MORGENSTERN, N. R. 1984. High velocity shear tests
on sand. GCotechnique, 34(3), pp. 415-421.
HUTCHINSON, J. N. 1967. Contribution to discussion on Session 3.
Proceedings of the Geotechnical Conference, Oslo, Vol. 2, pp.
214-215.
HUTCHINSON, J. N., and BHANDARI, R. K. 1971. Undrained loading, a
fundamental mechanism of mudflows and other mass movements.
GCotechnique, 21(4), pp. 353-358.
JEYAPALAN, J. K., DUNCAN,J. M., and SEED, H. B. 1983.
Investigation of flow failures of tailings dams. ASCE Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 109(2), pp. 172- 189.
KOPPEJAN, A. W., VAN WAMELEN, B. M., and WEINBERG, L. J. H.
1948. Coastal flow slides in the Dutch province of Zeeland.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Soil Mechanics
For personal use only.
and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, Vol. 5, pp. 89-96.
MORGENSTERN, N. R. 1967. Submarine slumping and the initiation of
turbidity currents. I n Marine geotechnique. Edited by A. F.
Richards, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, pp. 189-220.
PECK, R. B., HANSEN,W. E., and THORNBURN, T. H. 1974.
Foundation engineering. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York;
Chapman & Hall Limited, London.
PRIOR,D. B. 1984. Subaqueous landslides. Proceedings, 4th Inter-
national Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, Vol. 1, pp. 179-196.
SASSA,K. 1984. The mechanism starting liquefied landslides and
debris flows. Proceedings, 4th International Symposium on Land-
slides, Toronto, Vol. 2, pp. 349-354.
SEED, H. B. 1968. Landslides during earthquakes due to soil
liquefaction. ASCE Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, 94(SM5), pp. 1053-1 122.
SKEMPTON, A. W., and HUTCHINSON, J. N. 1969. Stability of natural
slopes and embankment foundations. Proceedings, 7th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico.
State-of-the-Art Volume, pp. 291-340.
TAYLOR,R. K. 1984. Composition and engineering properties of
British colliery discards. Mining Department, National Coal Board,
London, England.
TAYLOR,R. K., KENNEDY,G. W., and MACMILLAN, G. L. 1978.
Susceptibility of coarse-grained coal-mine discard to liquefaction.
The 3rd International Congress of Engineering Geology, Madrid.
Special Session 3, pp. 91-100.
TERZAGHI, K. 1956. Varieties of submarine slope failures. Proceed-
ings of the 8th Texas Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. (Reprinted in Teknisk Ukeblad, No. 43-44, 1957;
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication No. 25, 1957, pp.
1-16; Harvard Soil Mechanics Series No. 52, 1957.)
TERZAGHI,K., and FROHLICH,0 . K. 1936. Theorie der Setzung
von Tonschicten. Franz Deuticke, Leipzig und Wien. Translated
into French by M. Adler (1939): ThCorie du tassement des couches
argileuses. Dunod, Paris.
TERZAGHI, K., and PECK,R. B. 1948. Soil mechanics in engineering
practice. John Wiley, New York.
TORREY,V. H., and WEAVER, F. J. 1984. Flow failures in Mississippi
riverbanks. Proceedings, 4th International Symposium on Land-
slides, Toronto, Vol. 2, pp. 355-360.
WILLIAMS,G. M. T. 1969. Inquiry into the Aberfan disaster. A
selection of technical reports submitted to the Aberfan Tribunal, pp.
91- 116. Welsh Office, H.M.S.O., London, England.