Fea Basics

BASIC TRAINING
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Senior Engineer -CAE
Page 1
Training Proposal - FEA Training Courses
▪ Day 1
How to solve Engineering Problems, Introduction – FEA , Equilibrium, Strain-Displacement Relationship, Stress,
Hooke's Law, Degrees of Freedom, Element Type, Element Shape Function, Element and Global Stiffness Matrices,
Loads and Boundary Conditions, Rigid body Motions, Solving the System of Equations, Sample Problem Using Bar
Elements, Characteristics of FE Analysis.
▪ Day 2
Structural stress analysis , static analysis Vs Dynamic analysis, Linear Vs Nonlinear, Table of Consistent Units ,
modeling decisions, Types of loads, Plane stress, Plane strain, Types of symmetry, Types of nonlinearity, Line element,
2D element,3d element, shell element, solid element, Meshing, How to choose elements for particular analysis? Stress
singularities, How to verify the results?
▪ Day 3
Dynamic analysis - modal analysis, Benefits of modal analysis, Free – Free run, How many natural Frequencies
can any object have? Why to evaluate natural Frequency? Theoretical foundations, Frequency, Resonance,
Dynamic Equilibrium, What are the Factors Affecting Natural Frequencies? Prestress analysis, Spin softening,
Stress Stiffening, Large deflection, Difference between Rigid element & weight factor.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
SENIOR ENGINEER -CAE
Page 2
JANUARY 2011
How to solve Engineering Problems
How to solve Engineering

Problems
Analytical Method Numerical Method Experimental Method
- Classical approach - Mathematical approximation - Actual Measurement

-100% accuracy FEM - Proto type Test ( 3 to 5 times )
-Closed from solution Linear, nonlinear, buckling, - Fatigue Test
-Applicable only for simple thermal, dynamics & Fatigue
problems like cantilever beams etc. BEM -Strain Gauge
Acoustic/NVH. -Vibration
FVM -Sensors etc.
CFD
FDM
Thermal & Fluid
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 3
JANUARY 2011
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 4
JANUARY 2011
Introduction FEA Training Courses
▪ Introduction to FEA
▪ FEA Best Practices
▪ Static
▪ Dynamics
▪ Structural Nonlinearities
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 5
JANUARY 2011
Overview of the Finite Element Method
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 6
JANUARY 2011
OVERVIEW OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
▪ Introduction - FEA
▪ Equilibrium
▪ Strain-Displacement Relationship
▪ Stress
▪ Hooke’s Law
▪ Degrees of Freedom
▪ Element Type
▪ Element Shape Function
▪ Element and Global Stiffness Matrices
▪ Loads and Boundary Conditions
▪ Solving the System of Equations
▪ Sample Problem Using Bar Elements
▪ Characteristics of FE Analysis.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 7
JANUARY 2011
Overview What is FEA?
▪ Finite Element Analysis is a way to simulate loading conditions on a design

and determine the design’s response to those conditions.
▪ The design is modeled using discrete building blocks called elements.
— Each element has exact equations that describe how it responds to a certain load.
— The “sum” of the response of all elements in the model gives the total
response of the design.
— The elements have a finite number of unknowns, hence the name finite elements.
▪ Historical Note
• The finite element method of structural analysis was created by academic and industrial
researchers during the 1950s and 1960s.
• The underlying theory is over 100 years old, and was the basis for pen-and-paper
calculations in the evaluation of suspension bridges and steam boilers.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 8
JANUARY 2011
▪ The finite element model, which has a finite number of unknowns, can only approximate the
response of the physical system, which has infinite unknowns.
— So the question arises: How good is the approximation?
— Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to this question.
It depends entirely on what you are simulating and the tools you use for the simulation.
We will, however, attempt to give you guidelines throughout this training course.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 9
JANUARY 2011
▪ Why is FEA needed?

— To reduce the amount of prototype testing.
Computer simulation allows multiple “what-if” scenarios to be tested quickly
and effectively.
— To simulate designs that are not suitable for prototype testing.
Example: Surgical implants, such as an artificial knee.
— The bottom line:
▪ Cost savings.
▪ Time savings… reduce time to market!
▪ Create more reliable, better-quality designs.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 10
JANUARY 2011
Overview Equilibrium
▪ The first and major function of a structure is to carry loads.

▪ A structure is said to be in static equilibrium if, under the action of external forces,
it remains at rest relative to the earth.
▪ Equilibrium means that the force system is balanced.
▪ Finite element theory is based on equilibrium.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 11
JANUARY 2011
Overview Equilibrium
▪ Static equilibrium is expressed using the following matrix equation:
— K = global structural stiffness.

— F = external nodal forces.
— U = nodal displacements.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 12
JANUARY 2011
Overview Strain-Displacement Relationship
▪ In a structural finite element analysis, the displacements (U) throughout the model
are found directly from the governing equation.
▪ However, the analyst may also be interested in other quantities, such as strain and
stress.
▪ Strain can be defined as the change in the length divided by the original length.
▪ Thus, strain (ε) and displacement (U) are directly related, and once the displacement
field is known, the strain can be found, as in this 1D case:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 13
JANUARY 2011
Overview Stress
▪ It is common to review the stress distribution in a structural finite

element analysis.
— Stress is in units of force/area.
— Stress results can be compared to the material yield stress to
determine if the structure will yield.
— The maximum stress and stress range can indicate if the structure is under-
designed, the factor of safety in the structure, if fatigue or crack propagation
will occur, etc.
— The stress field can indicate where the critical locations exist.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 14
JANUARY 2011
Overview Hooke’s Law
▪ Stress and strain have a linear relationship in the elastic range

according to Hooke’s Law (for a 1D case):
▪ The slope of the stress-strain curve is called the elastic modulus, E.

▪ E is a measure of the stiffness of the structure.
— E of steel = 30 x 10^6 psi
— E of aluminum = 10 x 10^6 psi
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 15
JANUARY 2011
Overview Degrees of Freedom
▪ Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) characterize the response of a field at every

location in a model.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 16
JANUARY 2011
Overview Element Type
▪ The DOFs at a node are a function of the element type connected to the node.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 17
JANUARY 2011
Overview Element Shape Function
▪ FEA solves for DOF values only at nodes.

▪ An element shape function is a mathematical function that allows
values of a DOF from the nodes to be mapped to points within the element.
▪ Thus, an element shape function gives the “shape” of the results
within the element.
▪ Most elements fall within two categories:
1. Linear or lower-order elements:
— Corner or end nodes only.
— Assume a linear variation of DOF values within element.
2. Quadratic or higher-order:
— Corner or end nodes and mid-side nodes.
— Assume a quadratic variation of DOFs within element.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 18
JANUARY 2011
Overview Effect of Element Shape Function
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 19
JANUARY 2011
Overview Element Stiffness Matrices
▪ The stiffness matrix for each element is found from:

— The material properties assigned to that element, i.e. E.
— The geometry and shape of the element.
— The element type and its formulation in the FE code.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 20
JANUARY 2011
Overview Global Stiffness Matrix
▪ Once defined, the element stiffness matrices are assembled into global stiffness matrix.
— The global stiffness matrix describes the stiffness of the entire structure.
— The global stiffness is represented in the governing equation by K.
— The size of the global stiffness matrix is equal to the total number of nodes
times the number of DOFs per node.
▪ The more elements in the model, the more DOFs, the more accurate the global
stiffness definition.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 21
JANUARY 2011
Overview Element and Global Stiffness Matrices
▪ The assembly of the global stiffness matrix is based on how the elements are connected.
— When two adjacent elements share nodes, the element stiffness
coefficients are added.
— Therefore, if two adjacent elements do not share nodes, their stiffness
are not linked, and there is no connectivity.
— A common modeling error occurs when adjacent elements do not share
nodes, which is analogous to modeling a crack between the elements.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 22
JANUARY 2011
Overview Loads and Boundary Conditions
▪ Once the global stiffness matrix is defined, the applied loads must be input.
— After all, the goal of the structural analysis is to determine the response of
the structure to applied loads.
▪ Loads are in many forms:
— Forces and moments at nodes.
— Pressures on surfaces of elements.
— Temperature distributions.
— Centrifugal loads due to angular velocity (spinning).
— Gravity.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 23
JANUARY 2011
▪ Once the global stiffness (K) and loading information (F) has been
determined, the governing equation can now be solved for the
nodal displacements (U).
— The governing equations are in the form of simultaneous equations.
— The solution for U can be obtained by inverting K.
▪ However, K is singular and cannot be inverted until boundary

conditions are applied.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 24
JANUARY 2011
▪ Rigid body motion is defined as the ability of a structure to translate

or rotate without developing any strain.
▪ Rigid body motion occurs when the boundary conditions of a
structure permit the structure to move or rotate freely.
▪ In a static analysis, if rigid body motion is present:
— K is singular.
— Solution of the governing equation cannot be achieved.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 25
JANUARY 2011
▪ Rigid body motion is eliminated by specifying boundary conditions.

▪ Boundary conditions directly specify the behavior at support
nodes in terms of displacements and rotations.
▪ Examples:
— Roller supports: Fix the translation in one direction at a node.
— Pinned or simply-supported supports: Fix translations in two or
more directions at a node.
— Fixed or built-in supports: Fix translations and rotations at a node.
▪ The displacements or rotations can be set to zero, or can have a
non-zero specified value.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 26
JANUARY 2011
Overview Solving the System of Equations
▪ The system of simultaneous equations can be solved by any appropriate numerical

method.
▪ The most basic method is a direct, frontal solver, i.e. Gaussian elimination
(will be demonstrated in sample case shortly).
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 27
JANUARY 2011
Overview Sample Problem Using Bar Elements
▪ To illustrate the steps in an FE analysis, consider the 1D bar element

model:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 28
JANUARY 2011
▪ The element stiffness matrix is a function of the geometry and

material properties:
▪ This stiffness matrix is the same for all three elements.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 29
JANUARY 2011
▪ The global stiffness matrix is found by assembling the three element

stiffness matrix together.
▪ Note that where nodes are shared between elements, the
coefficients are added.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 30
JANUARY 2011
▪ The equations of static equilibrium can now be written:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 31
JANUARY 2011
▪ Apply boundary conditions and load:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 32
JANUARY 2011
▪ Using Gauss elimination, the system of equations can be put into a

form with zeros in the bottom-left part of matrix:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 33
JANUARY 2011
▪ The reaction force at node 1 is found by substituting the now known

values of displacement into the first equation in the original set of equations:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 34
JANUARY 2011
▪ Strains and stresses are found on an element by element basis.

▪ Strains are found from the strain-displacement relationship.
Consider the first element:
▪ The B-matrix is the strain-displacement matrix for the element.

▪ Stresses are found from Hooke’s Law:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 35
JANUARY 2011
Overview Characteristics of FE Analysis
▪ The following characteristics of finite element results are presented:

1. Equilibrium is satisfied at the nodes.
2. Hooke’s Law is satisfied within the elements.
3. Displacements are continuous throughout structure.
4. Stresses and strains are not necessarily continuous across element
boundaries.
5. Displacements and stresses are typically underestimated.
▪ Characteristics 4 and 5 are significantly impacted by mesh quality.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 36
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 37
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Overview
▪ Stress Analysis is a general term used to describe analyses where

the result quantities include stresses and strains. It is also known as structural
analysis.
▪ Types of stress analyses:

▪ Static
▪ Transient dynamic
▪ Modal
▪ Spectrum
▪ Harmonic
▪ Explicit dynamics
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 38
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics How Would a Structure Fail?
▪ What is the purpose for stress analysis?

▪ To predict whether the structure will fail under certain loading.
▪ How would a structure fail?
▪ Stress failure
Ductile –Elastic Failure
• Maximum normal stress theory of failure
• Maximum shear stress theory of failure
• Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
All three theories compare the structure with the specimen in the standard
tensile test.
Brittle Material Failure
• Maximum normal stress theory of failure or Max Principle stress theory or
Rankine Theory
• Mohr’s circle Theory.
▪ Buckling
▪ Fatigue
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 39
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics How would a structure fail?
▪ When a structure is loaded, if stress exceeds the yield strength or ultimate strength
of the material, failure will occur.
▪ If the stiffness of a structure is too low, the deflection of the structure when
loaded is large, which will affect the precision of motion of the mechanical
system, and problems in vibration and noise will occur.
▪ For structures, the ability to sustain tension and compression is much higher
than the ability to sustain bending, for example, breaking egg shells, dome
structures.
▪ In mechanical design, we should try to avoid structures under bending, and we

should be very sensitive to the regions under bending because they will be the
source of failure.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 40
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics
▪ Strength and stiffness

▪ 5 types of load:
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
• Bending
• Torsion
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 41
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics General Analysis Steps
▪ Every analysis involves four main steps:

— Preliminary decisions
▪ Which analysis type?
▪ What to model?
▪ Which element type?
— Preprocessing
• Define material.
• Create or import the model geometry.
• Mesh the geometry.
— Solution
• Apply loads
• Solve.
— Post processing
• Review results.
• Check the validity of the solution.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 42
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Geometry Summary
▪ Preprocessing
— Geometry
— Meshing
▪ Solution
— Loading
— Solve
▪ Post processing
— Review results
— Check validity of solution
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 43
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Geometry
▪ A typical solid model is defined by volumes, areas, lines, and keypoints.

— Volumes are bounded by areas. They represent solid objects.
— Areas are bounded by lines. They represent faces of solid objects, or
planar or shell objects.
— Lines are bounded by keypoints. They represent edges of objects.
— Keypoints are locations in 3D space. They represent vertices of objects.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 44
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Geometry
▪ There is a hierarchy among solid model entities.

— Keypoints are the “foundation” entities.
— Lines are “built” from the keypoints, areas from lines
and volumes from areas.
▪ This hierarchy holds true regardless of how the solid
model is created in any CAE Tool.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 45
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Meshing
▪ Meshing is the process used to “fill” the solid model with nodes and
elements, i.e., to create the FEA model.
— Remember, you need nodes and elements for the finite element solution,
not just the solid model. The solid model does NOT participate in the
finite element solution.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 46
JANUARY 2011
▪ There are three steps to meshing:

— Define element attributes
— Specify mesh controls
— Generate the mesh
▪ Element attributes are characteristics of the finite element model that you must
establish prior to meshing.
They include:
— Element types
— Real constants
— Material properties
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 47
JANUARY 2011
▪ Element type:
The element type is an important choice that determines the following
element characteristics:
• Degree of freedom (DOF) set. A thermal element type, for example, has one
dof: TEMP, whereas a structural element type may have up to six dof: UX,
UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ.
• Element shape -- brick, tetrahedron, quadrilateral, triangle, etc.
• Dimensionality -- 2D (X-Y plane only), or 3D.
• Assumed displacement shape -- linear vs. quadratic.
.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 48
JANUARY 2011
▪ Real constants:
— Real constants are used for geometric properties that cannot be
completely defined by the element’s geometry. For example:
• A beam element is defined by a line joining two nodes. This defines only the
length of the beam. To specify the beam’s cross-sectional properties, such as
the area and moment of inertia, you need to use real constants.
• A shell element is defined by a quadrilateral or triangular area. This defines
only the surface area of the shell. To specify the shell thickness, you need to
use real constants.
• Most 3D solid elements do not require a real constant since the element
geometry is fully defined by its nodes.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 49
JANUARY 2011
▪ A note on units:
— You do not need to tell to CAE SOFTWARE the system of units you are using.
Simply decide what units you will use, then make sure all of your input is
consistent.
• For example, if the model geometry is in inches, make sure that all other input
data — material properties, real constants, loads, etc. — are in terms of
inches.
— CAE SOFTWARE does NOT do units conversion! It simply accepts all numbers
you input without questioning their validity.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 50
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Table of Consistent Units
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 51
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics material properties
▪ Material properties:
— Every analysis requires some material property input: Young’s modulus
for structural elements, thermal conductivity for thermal elements, etc.
▪ There are two ways to define material properties:

• Material library
• Individual properties
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 52
JANUARY 2011
Types of Materials:
▪ Linear material
▪ Multi Linear material ( stress vs strain curve data)
▪ Bilinear material
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 53
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Loading
▪ There are five categories of loads:

— DOF constraints Specified DOF values, such as
displacements in a stress analysis or
temperatures in a thermal analysis.
— Concentrated loads Point loads, such as forces or heat flow
rates.
— Surface loads distributed over a surface, such as
pressures or convections.
— Body loads Volumetric or field loads, such as
temperatures (causing thermal expansion)
or internal heat generation.
— Inertia loads due to structural mass or inertia, such as
gravity and rotational velocity.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 54
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics Reviewing Results
▪ It is always a good idea to do a “sanity check” and make sure that the
solution is acceptable.
▪ What you need to check depends on the type of problem you are
solving, but here are some typical questions to ask:
— Do the reaction forces balance the applied loads?
— Where is the maximum stress located?
▪ If it is at a singularity, such as a point load or a re-entrant corner, the value is
generally meaningless.
— Are the stress values beyond the elastic limit?
▪ If so, the load magnitudes may be wrong, or you may need to do a nonlinear
analysis.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 55
JANUARY 2011
▪
Modeling Decisions
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 56
JANUARY 2011
Modeling Decisions Overview
▪ Before starting an analysis in CAE software, you need to make a few decisions, such
as the analysis type needed and the type of model you want to build.
▪ In this chapter, we will discuss some of the decision making process.
▪ The purpose is to give you an idea of the amount of planning generally needed
before “jumping in” to do the analysis.
▪ Topics covered:
— Which analysis type?
— What to model?
— Which element type?
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 57
JANUARY 2011
Modeling Decisions Which Analysis Type?
▪ The analysis type usually belongs to one of the following disciplines:

— Structural Motion of solid bodies, pressure on solid bodies, or contact of solid
bodies.
— Thermal Applied heat, high temperatures, or changes in
temperature.
— Fluid Motion of gases/fluids, or contained gases/fluids.
— Coupled-Field Combinations of any of the above.
▪ We will focus on structural analyses in this discussion.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 58
JANUARY 2011
▪ Once you choose a structural analysis, the next questions are:

— Static or dynamic analysis?
— Linear or nonlinear analysis?
▪ To answer these, remember that whenever a body is subjected to some excitation
(loading), it responds with three types of forces:
— Static forces (due to stiffness)
— Inertia forces (due to mass)
— Damping forces
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 59
JANUARY 2011
▪ Static vs. dynamic analysis:

— A static analysis assumes that only stiffness forces are significant.
— A dynamic analysis takes into account all 3 types of forces.
— For example, consider the analysis of a diving board. If the diver is
standing still, a static analysis might be sufficient. But if the diver is
jumping up and down, you will need to do a dynamic analysis.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 60
JANUARY 2011
▪ Inertia and damping forces are usually significant if the applied loads vary rapidly with
time.
▪ Therefore you can use time-dependency of loads as a way to choose between static
and dynamic analysis.
— If the loading is constant over a relatively long period of time, choose a
static analysis.
— Otherwise, choose a dynamic analysis.
▪ In general, if the excitation frequency is less than 1/3 of the structure’s lowest natural
frequency, a static analysis may be acceptable.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 61
JANUARY 2011
▪ Linear vs. nonlinear analysis:

— A linear analysis assumes that the loading causes negligible changes to
the stiffness of the structure.
Typical characteristics are:
• Small deflections.
• Strains and stresses within the elastic limit.
• No abrupt changes in stiffness such as two bodies coming into and out of
contact.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 62
JANUARY 2011
Nonlinear phenomena
▪ A nonlinear analysis is needed if the loading causes significant changes in the

structure’s stiffness.
Nonlinear analysis
Problems
Geometric Material Changing Status
— Large deflection — Contact between two bodies

— Plasticity
— Large strains — thermostat
— hyperelasticity
— stress stiffening — creep
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 63
JANUARY 2011
Modeling Decisions What To Model?
▪ Many modeling decisions must be made before building an analysis model:

— How much detail should be included?
— Does symmetry apply?
— Will the model contain stress singularities?
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 64
JANUARY 2011
▪ Details:
— Small details that are unimportant to the analysis should not be included in the
analysis model. You can suppress such features before sending a model to
any CAE tool from a CAD system.
— For some structures, however, "small" details such as fillets or holes can be
locations of maximum stress and might be quite important, depending on your
analysis objectives.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 65
JANUARY 2011
▪ Symmetry:
— Many structures are symmetric in some form and allow only a
representative portion or cross-section to be modeled.
— The main advantages of using a symmetric model are:
• It is generally easier to create the model.
• It allows you to make a finer, more detailed model and thereby obtain better
results than would have been possible with the full model.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 66
JANUARY 2011
▪ To take advantage of symmetry, all of the following must be symmetric:

— Geometry.
— Material properties.
— Loading conditions.
▪ There are different types of symmetry:
— Axisymmetry.
— Planar or reflective.
— Repetitive or translational.
— Rotational or cyclic.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 67
JANUARY 2011
▪ Axisymmetry:
— Symmetry about a central axis, such as in light bulbs, straight pipes,
cones, circular plates, and domes.
— Plane of symmetry is the cross-section anywhere around the structure.
Thus you are using a single 2D “slice” to represent 360° — a real savings
in model size!
— Loading is also assumed to be axisymmetric in most cases.
However, if it is not,
and if the analysis is linear,
the loads can be separated into harmonic
components for independent solutions
that can be superposed.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 68
JANUARY 2011
▪ Planar or reflective symmetry:

— One half of the structure is a mirror image of the other half. The mirror is
the plane of symmetry.
— Loading may be symmetric or anti-symmetric about the plane of
symmetry.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 69
JANUARY 2011
▪ Planar or reflective symmetry:

— One half of the structure is a mirror image of the other half. The mirror is
the plane of symmetry.
— Loading may be symmetric or anti-symmetric about the plane of symmetry.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 70
JANUARY 2011
▪ Rotational or cyclic symmetry:

— Rotational symmetry is not enforceable simply by using constraints as before.
— We need to use coupled sets to enforce rotational symmetry in these situations.
— Later we will learn how to use coupled sets to enforce rotational symmetry.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 71
JANUARY 2011
▪ In some cases, only a few minor details will disrupt a structure's

symmetry. You may be able to ignore such details (or treat them as being symmetric)
in order to gain the benefits of using a smaller model. How much accuracy is lost as
the result of such a compromise might be difficult to estimate.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 72
JANUARY 2011
▪ Stress singularities:
— A stress singularity is a location in a finite element model where the stress
value is unbounded (infinite).
— Examples:
• A point load, such as an applied force or moment
• An isolated constraint point, where the reaction force behaves like a point load
• A sharp re-entrant corner (with zero fillet radius)
— As the mesh density is refined at a stress singularity, the stress value increases
and never converges.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 73
JANUARY 2011
▪ Real structures do not contain stress singularities. They are a fiction

created by the simplifying assumptions of the model.
▪ So how do you deal with stress singularities?
— If they are located far away from the region of interest, you can simply
ignore them by deactivating the affected zone while reviewing results.
— If they are located in the region of interest, you will need to take
corrective action, such as:
• Adding a fillet at re-entrant corners and redoing the analysis.
• Replacing a point force with an equivalent pressure load.
• “Spreading out” displacement constraints over a set of nodes.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 74
JANUARY 2011
▪ This is an important decision you usually need to make before

beginning the analysis.
▪ Typical issues are:
— Which element category? Solid, shell, beam, etc.
— Which element shape function order? Linear or quadratic.
— How dense should mesh be? Usually determined by the objectives of the
analysis.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 75
JANUARY 2011
Modeling Decisions Which Element Type?
▪ Line elements:
— Beam elements are used to model bolts, tubular members, C-sections,
angle irons, or any long, slender members where only membrane and
bending stresses are needed.
— Spar elements are used to model springs, bolts, preloaded bolts, and
truss members.
— Spring elements are used to model springs, bolts, or long slender parts,
or to replace complex parts by equivalent stiffnesses.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 76
JANUARY 2011
▪ Shell elements:
— Used to model thin panels or curved surfaces.
— The definition of “thin” depends on the application, but as a general
guideline, the major dimensions of the shell structure (panel) should be at
least 10 times its thickness.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 77
JANUARY 2011
▪ 2D solid elements:
— Used to model a cross-section of solid objects.
— Must be modeled in the global Cartesian X-Y plane.
— All loads are in the X-Y plane, and the response (displacements) are also
in the X-Y plane.
— Element behavior may be one of the following:
• Plane stress
• Plane strain
• Axisymmetric
• Axisymmetric harmonic
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 78
JANUARY 2011
▪ Plane stress assumes zero stress in the Z direction.

— Valid for components in which the Z dimension is smaller than the X and
Y dimensions.
— Z-strain is non-zero.
— Optional thickness (Z direction) allowed.
— Used for structures such as flat plates subjected to in-plane loading, or
thin disks under pressure or centrifugal loading.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 79
JANUARY 2011
▪ Plane strain assumes zero strain in the Z direction.

— Valid for components in which the Z dimension is much larger than the X
and Y dimensions.
— Z-stress is non-zero.
— Used for long, constant-cross-section structures such as structural
beams.
— Generalized plane strain formulation (constant strain in Z direction) is
available with 180-series elements.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 80
JANUARY 2011
▪ Axisymmetry assumes that the 3D model and its

loading can be generated by revolving a 2D
section 360° about the Y axis.
— Axis of symmetry must coincide with the global Y
axis.
— Negative X coordinates are not permitted.
— Y direction is axial, X direction is radial, and Z
direction is circumferential (hoop) direction.
— Hoop displacement is zero; hoop strains and
stresses are usually very significant.
— Used for pressure vessels, straight pipes, shafts,
etc.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 81
JANUARY 2011
▪ Axisymmetric harmonic is a special case of axisymmetry where the

loads can be non-axisymmetric.
— The non-axisymmetric loading decomposed into Fourier series
components, applied and solved separately, and then combined later.
No approximation is introduced by this simplification!
— Used for non-axisymmetric loads such as torque on a shaft.
— The harmonic elements are commonly used in Modal analyses to
calculate the response at different “nodal” diameters
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 82
JANUARY 2011
Meshing
▪ To minimize the number of DOFs, have fine mesh at important areas.

▪ In FE packages, mesh density can be controlled by mesh seeds.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 83
JANUARY 2011
Meshing Mapped Meshing
▪ There are two main meshing methods:

free and mapped.
— Free mesh:
• Has no element shape restrictions.
• The mesh does not follow any pattern.
• Suitable for complex shaped areas and
volumes.
— Mapped mesh:
• Restricts element shapes to quadrilaterals
for areas and hexahedra (bricks) for volumes.
• Typically has a regular pattern with
obvious rows of elements.
• Suitable only for “regular” areas and
volumes such as rectangles and bricks.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 84
JANUARY 2011
Meshing - Element distortion
Element distortion
▪ Use of distorted elements in irregular and complex geometry is common but there are some
limits to the distortion.
▪ The distortions are measured against the basic shape of the element
▪ Square ⇒ Quadrilateral elements
▪ Isosceles triangle ⇒ Triangle elements
▪ Cube ⇒ Hexahedron elements
▪ Isosceles tetrahedron ⇒ Tetrahedron elements
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 85
JANUARY 2011
▪ Aspect ratio distortion
Rule of thumb:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 86
JANUARY 2011
▪ Angular distortion
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 87
JANUARY 2011
▪ Curvature distortion
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 88
JANUARY 2011
Volumetric distortion
▪ Area outside distorted element maps into an internal area – negative volume
integration
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 89
JANUARY 2011
▪ Volumetric distortion (Cont’d)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 90
JANUARY 2011
Mid-node position distortion

▪ Shifting of nodes beyond limits can result in singular stress field (see crack tip elements)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 91
JANUARY 2011
MESH COMPATIBILITY
▪ Requirement of Hamilton’s principle – admissible displacement
▪ The displacement field is continuous along all the edges between elements
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 92
JANUARY 2011
MESH COMPATIBILITY
Different order of elements
▪ Crack like behaviour – incorrect results
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 93
JANUARY 2011
MESH COMPATIBILITY
Different order of elements

▪ Solution:
▪ Use same type of elements throughout
▪ Use transition elements
▪ Use MPC equations
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 94
JANUARY 2011
MESH COMPATIBILITY
Straddling elements
▪ Avoid straddling of elements in mesh
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 95
JANUARY 2011
Stress Analysis Basics How to validate & check accuracy of FEA results?
FEA ACCURACY
Computational Accuracy Correlation with Actual Testing
- Strain Energy norm, Residuals - Strain gauging – Stress comparison

- Reaction Forces and Moments - Natural Frequency comparison
- Convergence Test - Dynamic response comparison
- Average and Unaveraged stress difference - Temp. and pressure distribution comparison
▪ Visual check – Discontinuous or abrupt change in stress pattern across the elements indicate
need for local mesh refinement in the region.
▪ 10 – 15% difference in FEA & Experimental results is considered as good correlation.
▪ Probable reasons for more than 15% deviation – wrong boundary conditions, Material properties,
presence of residual stress, localized effects like welding, bolt, torque, experimental errors etc.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 96
JANUARY 2011
▪ Reviewing results of a stress analysis generally involves:

— Deformed shape
— Stresses
— Reaction forces
▪ Deformed Shape
— Gives a quick indication of whether the loads were applied in the correct
direction.
— To check whether the Displacements are continuous throughout structure
— You can also animate the deformation.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 97
JANUARY 2011
▪ Stresses:
— The following stresses are typically available for a 3D solid model:
• Component stresses — σX, σY, σZ, σXY,σYZ, σXZ (global Cartesian
directions by default)
• Principal stresses — σ1, σ2, σ3, σEQV (von Mises), σINT (stress intensity)
— Best viewed as contour plots, which allow you to quickly locate
“hot spots” or trouble regions.
• Nodal solution: Stresses are averaged at the nodes, showing smooth,
continuous contours.
• Element solution: No averaging, resulting in discontinuous contours.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 98
JANUARY 2011
▪ Is the mesh adequate?

— This is always debatable, but you can gain confidence in the mesh by
using error estimation data.
— Other ways to check mesh adequacy:
• Plot the element solution (unaveraged stresses) and look for elements with
high stress gradients. These regions are candidates for mesh refinement.
• If there is a significant difference between the nodal (averaged) and element

(unaveraged) stress contours, the mesh may be too coarse.
• Re-mesh with twice as many elements, re-solve, and compare the results.
(But this may not always be practical).
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 99
JANUARY 2011
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 100
JANUARY 2011
Mechanical Vibration
▪ Any motion which repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration.
▪ Machines with repetitive power sources, such as engine, motor, turbine,
compressor, often have vibration problems.
▪ Vibration will cause uncomfortable feeling or noise. Serious vibration
problems may cause malfunctions or failure.
▪ Three major components in a vibration system: mass, spring, and damper.
▪ Spring is to temporarily store energy during vibration, to provide restoring forces,
and also to measure force. The damper is to consume the energy.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 101
JANUARY 2011
Dynamic Analysis Basics - Dynamic Equilibrium
(t)
Dynamic Effects
▪ Inertia force
▪ Damping force
▪ Elastic Force
▪ External force
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 102
JANUARY 2011
Dynamic Analysis Basics - Harmonic Response Analysis Equilibrium
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 103
JANUARY 2011
Dynamic Analysis Basics - Modal Analysis Equilibrium
Dynamic Effects
▪ In free vibration Damping & external force are ignored
▪ Nonlinearities are ignored (such as contacts, geometrical nonlinear & nonlinear material)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 104
JANUARY 2011
Dynamic Analysis Basics - Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue Analysis
▪ Methods of solving eigenvalue Equations
▪ Lanczos method
▪ Subspace iteration
▪ QR method
▪ Inverse iteration
▪ The bisection method (sturm sequences)
▪ Given’s method and house holder’s method
▪ Jagobi’s method
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 105
JANUARY 2011
Dynamic Analysis Basics Overview
▪ Overview
— Modal Analysis ( Free vibration )
— Theoretical Foundations
— Prestress
— Rotating Parts
— Large Deflection
— Spin softening
— Main Steps for modal Analysis
— Material Properties
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 106
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Overview
▪ Modal analysis is used to determine a structure’s vibratory

characteristics:
— Natural frequencies and mode shapes.
▪ It is the most fundamental of all dynamic analysis types and is generally
the starting point for other, more detailed dynamic analyses.
▪ In this chapter, we will:
— Present the theoretical foundations of modal analysis.
— Describe the basic modal analysis procedures.
— Introduce advanced concepts for analysis of rotating parts
prestressing
spin softening
large deflection
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 107
JANUARY 2011
Benefits of modal analysis

▪ Allows the design to avoid resonant vibrations or to vibrate at a specified frequency (speakers,
for example).
▪ Gives engineers an idea of how the design will respond to different types of
dynamic loads.
▪ Helps in calculating solution controls (time steps, etc.) for other dynamic analyses.
Recommendation: Because a structure’s vibration characteristics determine

how it responds to any type of dynamic load, always perform a modal analysis
first before trying any other dynamic analysis.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 108
JANUARY 2011
MODAL ANALYSIS
Free – Free run With Boundary Condition

— Very important meshing check for assembly
— Natural frequency calculations with applying
of components.
any restraints / constraints.
— Natural frequency calculations without applying
— 1st Mode onward show deformable modes with
any restraints / constraints.
positive value of natural frequency.
— Any single object allowed to vibrate freely,
should show first 6 modes as rigid ( Natural
Frequency = 0) & 7th onward show deformable
modes with positive value of natural frequency.
— Suppose there are 100 parts in the assembly,

99 are connected to each other & 1 left out
due to mistake. Free – Free run of the assembly
will show 12 rigid modes & by observing mode
shapes one can easily detect which component is
un-connected?
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 109
JANUARY 2011
How many natural Frequencies can any object have?

▪ All real life objects have infinite natural Frequencies but FEA can compute natural
frequencies equal to DOFS of the FE model only.
▪ Lowest natural Frequency is known as fundamental Frequency.
▪ Fundamental frequency of human body is in the range of 4 to 6 Hz.
Why to evaluate natural Frequency?

▪ It is a basic design property like stress or displacement. For specific components like
automotive chassis one of the important design approval criteria is fundamental frequency or
specific mode shape.
▪ Resonance (external frequency = Natural frequency) ultimately design will Failure.
▪ NVH applications – To reduce noise, one of the parameter is altering natural frequency by
adding ribs/stiffeners etc.
▪ Free – Free run – For checking assembly mesh
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 110
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Theoretical Foundations
▪ Amplitude & Frequency :

Frequency : Number of cycles per second. (Hz)
▪ Scientific Definition : Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time.
▪ Engineering Definition : Deals with the relationship between forces and oscillatory motion of
mechanical systems
Undamped natural
Frequency
Period of vibration
Angular Frequency
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 111
JANUARY 2011
▪ Resonance: When a forcing frequency is equal to a natural frequency.

▪ A vibration of large amplitude
▪ Occurs when an object is forced near its natural frequency
The Tacoma Narrows

Bridge Disaster at November 7, 1940
Amplitude of oscillation reached 14 feet!
“Characteristic Geometry” of Vibration

• Mode Shapes
• Resonance
• Natural Frequencies
…Caused Wind-Induced Vibration (?)

ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 112
JANUARY 2011
Factors Affecting Natural Frequencies

▪ Mass or Inertia (stores kinetic energy)
▪ Stiffness or Rigidity (stores potential energy)
Mass Frequency
Stiffness Frequency
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 113
JANUARY 2011
▪ Governing equation for free, undamped vibrations:
▪ For a linear structure, displacements are harmonic:
▪ Substituting yields the eigenvalue equation:
▪ For non-trivial solutions, determinant must disappear:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 114
JANUARY 2011
▪ For matrices of order n, there are n roots (i.e., eigenvalue):
▪ When eigenvalue are substituted back into eigenvalue equation, n

eigenvectors can be calculated:
▪ In modal analysis, the eigenvalue represent the squares of the

natural circular frequencies (ω) and the eigenvectors represent the
corresponding mode shapes.
▪ Since there is no forcing function, calculated displacements and
stresses are relative, not absolute.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 115
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Rotating Parts
▪ When a structure is loaded, its stiffness may change significantly

(e.g., rotating turbine blade, tensioned guitar string). This effect can be
accounted for by performing Prestress modal analysis.
▪ When the preloads result in large deflections, the neutral position of
the structure (and mass distribution) will change. One can
approximate this effect by performing a Large Deflection Prestress
modal analysis.
▪ When a rotating part vibrates in the plane of rotation, the motion of
the mass tends to destabilize (soften) the structure. This effect can
be accounted for with Spin Softening.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 116
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Prestress
▪ Prestress effects are accounted for in CAE tool by running an initial

static analysis followed by a modal analysis.
— The stress stiffening matrix is computed from the static analysis and
combined with the default stiffness matrix:
— The stress stiffening matrix is also used during eigenvalue buckling

analyses to compute load factors.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 117
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Large Deflection
▪ If the static analysis accounts for large deflections, then the

displacements computed are used to update the neutral position of
the mesh prior to running the modal analysis.
▪ All system matrices used in the

modal analysis are modified when
a large deflection Prestress static
analysis is performed.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 118
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Spin Softening
▪ When a structure is spinning, the

orientation of the rotary inertia vector
does not change when axial vibrations
occur.
▪ However, when a spinning structure
vibrates in the radial or circumferential
directions, the rotary inertia vector
tends to destabilize the structure.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 119
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Spin Softening
▪ The stiffness matrix is effectively “softened” only in the plane of

rotation:
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 120
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis Main Steps
Four main steps in a modal analysis:

▪ Build the model
▪ Choose modal analysis type and options
▪ Apply boundary conditions and solve
▪ Review results
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 121
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis - Material
▪ Remember density!
▪ Linear elements and materials only. Nonlinearities are ignored.
▪ True linear behaviors – Multipoint's constraints are allowed ( RBE2 & RBE3)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 122
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis – Difference between RBE2 & RBE3 elements
CRITERIA RBE2 RBE3

Concept forms a directional rigid zone by distributes the load (force/moment)
linking a set of nodes to a master node on a master to the slave nodes
in the two/ three dimensional (using constrained equation).
space (using constrained equations).
Number of constrained =A*B. =1.

equations where, A=dof used in “Ldof” field(s),
B=no. of slave nodes.
DoF of the slave nodes used all (transational and Only transational used.
in constrained equation rotational) used.
Terms in any constrained DoF of master node and 1 Dof of master node and all
equation slave node slave nodes.
Additional Stiffening introduced in the direction not introduced.
of tie-up.
Load distribution cannot be defined by user. Can be defined (using
“Wtfact” field)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 123
JANUARY 2011
▪ Applicability: the usage of either of the commands has its own limitations,
more importantly, in terms of stiffening effects and constrained equations.
While, using RBE2 may lead to a more determinant set of equations, it may result in
directional model stiffening; something which can be avoided by using RBE3 (with a
possible compromise on the accuracy of resulting solution). The use of RBE2 is
generally avoided due to the stiffening effects.
▪ RBE2 – Rigid element
▪ RBE3 – Weight Factor element (interpolation Element)
▪ Depends on the applications choose the Rigid element or Weight Factor element.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 124
JANUARY 2011
Moment about
Global Z axis
All DOF locked
RBE3 – Weight Factor element

RBE2 – Rigid element (interpolation Element)
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 125
JANUARY 2011
Mode 1
RBE2 RBE3
Frequency = 2112 Hz Frequency = 1535 Hz
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 126
JANUARY 2011
Mode 2
RBE2 RBE3
Frequency = 2188 Hz Frequency = 1862 Hz
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 127
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis – Apply BC’s & solve
▪ Displacement constraints (continued):

▪ Be careful with symmetry
▪ Symmetry BC’s will only produce symmetrically
shaped modes, so some modes can be missed.
Symmetry BC Anti-Symmetry BC
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 128
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis – Apply BC’s & solve
▪ Displacement constraints (continued):

For the plate-with-hole model, the lowest non-zero mode for the full and the
quarter-symmetry case is shown below. The 53-Hz mode was missed by the
anti-symmetry case because ROTX is non-zero along the symmetry boundaries.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 129
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis
▪ Three mode shapes of a cantilever beam

obtained from finite element analysis:
two bending modes and a twisting mode.
▪ The natural frequency is a good index for the

stiffness of a structure. The mode shapes
Often indicates the DOF that has
lower stiffness.
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 130
JANUARY 2011
Modal Analysis – Natural Frequency constants of Beams
ASHOKKUMAR.K
Page 131
JANUARY 2011
Thank You
Page 132

Fea Basics

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Fea Basics

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

BASIC TRAINING

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

How to solve Engineering

Analytical Method Numerical Method Experimental Method

- Classical approach - Mathematical approximation - Actual Measurement

FVM -Sensors etc.

▪ Finite Element Analysis is a way to simulate loading conditions on a design

▪ Why is FEA needed?

▪ The first and major function of a structure is to carry loads.

▪ Static equilibrium is expressed using the following matrix equation:

— K = global structural stiffness.

▪ It is common to review the stress distribution in a structural finite

▪ Stress and strain have a linear relationship in the elastic range

▪ The slope of the stress-strain curve is called the elastic modulus, E.

▪ Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) characterize the response of a field at every

▪ FEA solves for DOF values only at nodes.

▪ The stiffness matrix for each element is found from:

▪ However, K is singular and cannot be inverted until boundary

▪ Rigid body motion is defined as the ability of a structure to translate

▪ Rigid body motion is eliminated by specifying boundary conditions.

▪ The system of simultaneous equations can be solved by any appropriate numerical

▪ To illustrate the steps in an FE analysis, consider the 1D bar element

▪ The element stiffness matrix is a function of the geometry and

▪ This stiffness matrix is the same for all three elements.

▪ The global stiffness matrix is found by assembling the three element

▪ The equations of static equilibrium can now be written:

▪ Apply boundary conditions and load:

▪ Using Gauss elimination, the system of equations can be put into a

▪ The reaction force at node 1 is found by substituting the now known

▪ Strains and stresses are found on an element by element basis.

▪ The B-matrix is the strain-displacement matrix for the element.

▪ The following characteristics of finite element results are presented:

▪ Stress Analysis is a general term used to describe analyses where

▪ Types of stress analyses:

▪ What is the purpose for stress analysis?

▪ In mechanical design, we should try to avoid structures under bending, and we

▪ Strength and stiffness

▪ Every analysis involves four main steps:

▪ A typical solid model is defined by volumes, areas, lines, and keypoints.

▪ There is a hierarchy among solid model entities.

▪ There are three steps to meshing:

▪ There are two ways to define material properties:

▪ There are five categories of loads:

▪ The analysis type usually belongs to one of the following disciplines:

▪ We will focus on structural analyses in this discussion.

▪ Once you choose a structural analysis, the next questions are:

▪ Static vs. dynamic analysis:

▪ Linear vs. nonlinear analysis:

▪ A nonlinear analysis is needed if the loading causes significant changes in the

Geometric Material Changing Status

— Large deflection — Contact between two bodies

▪ Many modeling decisions must be made before building an analysis model:

▪ To take advantage of symmetry, all of the following must be symmetric:

▪ Planar or reflective symmetry:

▪ Planar or reflective symmetry:

▪ Rotational or cyclic symmetry:

▪ In some cases, only a few minor details will disrupt a structure's

▪ Real structures do not contain stress singularities. They are a fiction

▪ This is an important decision you usually need to make before

▪ Plane stress assumes zero stress in the Z direction.

▪ Plane strain assumes zero strain in the Z direction.

▪ Axisymmetry assumes that the 3D model and its

▪ Axisymmetric harmonic is a special case of axisymmetry where the