IEEE STD C57.147-2018

IEEE Guide for Acceptance and
Maintenance of Natural Ester

Insulating Liquid in Transformers
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE IEEE Std C57.147™-2018

3 Park Avenue (Revision of IEEE Std C57.147-2008)
New York, NY 10016-5997
USA
Authorized licensed use limited to: Saint Louis University. Downloaded on August 19,2018 at 13:25:50 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.147™-2018
(Revision of IEEE Std C57.147-2008)

Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Approved 15 February 2018
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: Assistance to equipment manufacturers and service companies to evaluate the suitability
of unused natural ester insulating liquids being received from suppliers is provided in this guide.
Information for transformer operators in evaluating and maintaining natural ester insulating liquids
in serviceable condition is also provided.
Keywords: dielectric coolant, high fire point liquid, IEEE C57.147™, insulating liquid, less-
flammable liquid, natural ester liquid, transformer, vegetable oil
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5
Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Natural Ester Fluids Working Group had the following
membership:
C. Patrick McShane, Chair

C. Clair Claiborne, Vice Chair
James Graham, Secretary
Roberto Asano George Frimpong Vinay Mehrota

Derek Baranowski Rainer Frotscher Nicholas Perjanik
Claude Beauchemin Eduardo Garcia Jimmy Rasco
Julio Caldeira James Gardner Scott Reed
Juan Castellanos David Hanson Gregory Stem
Luis Cheim Jesse Inkpen Craig Stiegemeier
Donald Cherry Gael Kennedy Roger Wicks
Jermaine Clonts Robert Kinner Deanna Woods
Valery Davydov Libin Mao
Stephanie Denzer Susan McNelly
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted
for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Donald Ayers John Harley Ryan Musgrove

Peter Balma Roger Hayes Ali Naderian Jahromi
Thomas Barnes Werner Hoelzl K. R. M. Nair
Barry Beaster Gary Hoffman Michael Newman
Enrique Betancourt Jill Holmes Joe Nims
Wallace Binder Hali Jackson Lorraine Padden
Thomas Bishop Richard Jackson Dwight Parkinson
Thomas Blackburn John John Luke Parthemore
William Bloethe Laszlo Kadar Bansi Patel
W. Boettger Gael Kennedy George Payerle
Paul Boman Sheldon Kennedy Brian Penny
Stephan Brauer Gary King Howard Penrose
Paul Cardinal James Kinney Branimir Petosic
Juan Castellanos Zan Kiparizoski Christopher Petrola
Donald Cherry Axel Kraemer Alvaro Portillo
C. Clair Claiborne Krzysztof Kulasek Kevin Rapp
John Crouse Jim Kulchisky Jimmy Rasco
Willaim Darovny John Lackey Robert Rasor
Dieter Dohnal Benjamin Lanz Jean-Christophe Riboud
Gary Donner Thomas La Rose John Roach
Don Duckett Aleksandr Levin Oleg Roizman
Donald Dunn Thomas Lundquist Zoltan Roman
Jorge Fernandez Daher Richard Marek Thomas Rozek
Joseph Foldi J. Dennis Marlow Daniel Sauer
Bruce Forsyth Omar Mazzoni Bartien Sayogo
Michael Franchek William McDermid Stephen Shull
Fredric Friend Mark McNally Hyeong Sim
George Frimpong Susan McNelly Richard Simonelli
Ramsis Girgis C. Patrick McShane Jeremy Smith
James Graham C. Michael Miller David Stankes
William Griesacker Daleep Mohla Juan Thierry
Randall Groves Charles Morgan James Thompson
Ajit Gwal Daniel Mulkey Roger Verdolin
Attila Gyore Jerry Murphy John Vergis
6
Jane Verner Joe Watson Roger Wicks
Sukhdev Walia Lee Welch Deanna Woods
David Wallach Kenneth White Jennifer Yu
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 15 February 2018, it had the following
membership:
Jean-Philippe Faure, Chair

Vacant Position, Vice Chair
John D. Kulick, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Ted Burse Xiaohui Liu Robby Robson

Guido R. Hiertz Kevin Lu Dorothy Stanley
Christel Hunter Daleep Mohla Mehmet Ulema
Joseph L. Koepfinger* Andrew Myles Phil Wennblom
Thomas Koshy Paul Nikolich Philip Winston
Hung Ling Ronald C. Petersen Howard Wolfman
Dong Liu Annette D. Reilly Jingyi Zhou
*Member Emeritus
7
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.147-2018, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester
Insulating Liquid in Transformers.
This guide was prepared by the Insulating Fluids Subcommittee of the Transformers Committee of the IEEE
Power and Energy Society. The purpose of this guide is to identify standards for acceptance and maintenance
of natural ester insulating liquid in transformers. This guide is the first revision of the initial guide published
in 2008. Overall, the guide was substantially updated to include the current state of the art for natural ester
insulating liquids.
This revision includes updates to follow the current IEEE SA policies, style, and terms appropriate for
a Guide. In this revision, where appropriate, the term “fluid” has been replaced with “liquid” to be more
descriptive of the application and for consistency of terminology within C57 transformer standards. The
normative references have been updated and expanded. Based on available data from testing samples from
operating transformers, the normative and informative information on limits for continued service have been
expanded. The bibliography has been expanded to provide additional background for the user. Two additional
informative annexes were added: Annex C provides discussion on fire safety, environmental and sustainability
factors of natural ester insulating liquids; Annex D discusses considerations when applying natural esters to
load tap changers (LTCs).
Acknowledgments
Table B.1 and Figure B.1 were modified with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R.,
“Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th
Annual International Conference of Doble Clients, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, MA, USA,
2001 [B13].
Figure B.1 was reprinted from IEEE Std C57.106™-2002 [B26].
Figure B.2, Figure B.3, and Figure B.4 were reprinted from McShane, C. P., J. Luksich, and K. J. Rapp,
“Retrofilling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Proceedings of the IEEE IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003 [B35].
Table C.1 was reprinted with permission from CIGRE Technical Brochure 436, Experiences in service with
new insulating liquids, © 2010 [B9].
8
Contents
1. Overview�� 11
1.1 Scope�� 11
1.2 Purpose�� 11
1.3 System design�� 11
1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester liquids with other dielectric liquids�� 12
2. Normative references�� 12
3. Acronyms and abbreviations�� 14
4. Liquid tests and the significance of each test�� 15

4.1 General�� 15
4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923)�� 16
4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)�� 16
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)�� 17
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—impulse conditions (ASTM D3300)�� 17
4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity (ASTM D924)�� 18
4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)�� 18
4.8 Color (ASTM D1500)�� 18
4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)�� 19
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D92)�� 19
4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)�� 19
4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97, ASTM D5949 [B5], and ASTM D5950 [B6])�� 19
4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)�� 20
4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3284, D3612)�� 20
4.15 Oxidation stability�� 21
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533)�� 22
4.17 Visual examination of used liquids (ASTM D1524)�� 22
4.18 Gassing of insulating liquids under electrical stress and ionization (ASTM D2300)�� 22
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275)�� 23
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)�� 23
4.21 Furanic compounds (ASTM D5837)�� 23
5. Liquid compatibility with transformer materials�� 23
6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester liquids for use in filling transformers at the installation site�� 23
6.2 Shipping containers�� 23
6.3 Check tests on receipt�� 24
6.4 Handling of the liquid by the user and placing the liquid in storage�� 24
6.5 Handling and testing of natural ester liquids for installation into apparatus�� 26
7. Evaluation of natural ester liquids received in new equipment and after filling apparatus on-site�� 27
8. Maintenance of natural ester liquids�� 28

8.1 Field screening�� 28
8.2 Laboratory screening�� 29
8.3 Test limits for in-service natural ester liquids�� 29
8.4 Reconditioning�� 30
8.5 Reclaiming�� 31
8.6 Mixtures of different types of insulating liquids�� 32
9. General environmental procedures�� 32

9
9.2 Leaks�� 32
9.3 Minor spills�� 32
9.4 Spills on soil�� 33
9.5 Spills on water�� 33
Annex A (informative) Bibliography�� 34
Annex B (informative) Additional technical information�� 38
Annex C (informative) Additional information on fire, safety, environmental, and sustainable properties of
natural esters�� 42
Annex D (informative) Discussion regarding natural ester immersed load tap changers (LTCs)�� 44
10
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide recommends tests and evaluation procedures, as well as criteria and methods of maintenance, for
natural ester-based (e.g., vegetable oil) insulating liquids. Methods of reconditioning, field applications, and
diagnostics of natural ester-based insulating liquids are also described.
1.2 Purpose
This guide recommends standard tests and evaluation procedures of natural ester insulating liquids for
application in distribution and power transformers and other liquid-filled electrical equipment. Natural ester
insulating liquids are also being applied in retrofilling existing liquid-filled equipment. This guide provides
recommendations for new and retrofill field applications including: field testing of equipment filled with
natural ester insulating liquids, methods of reconditioning and reclaiming natural ester insulating liquids, and
the analysis results at which reprocessing or replacement of the insulating liquid is necessary.
1.3 System design

The reliable performance of natural ester liquids in an insulation system depends upon certain basic liquid
characteristics that can affect overall apparatus characteristics. Such liquid characteristics are integral to
equipment design for which the manufacturer should have final responsibility. The reliable operation of the
equipment in service, for which the transformer operator should have final responsibility, also depends on
maintaining certain basic liquid characteristics. Adherence to the recommended liquid characteristics can
assist in obtaining the desired equipment characteristics. Other tests or verification of the integrity of the
insulation system may be necessary.
The essential properties of insulating liquids used in transformers should be maintained if the liquid is to
perform its multiple roles as electrical insulation and heat transfer agent. It should have adequate dielectric
strength to withstand the normal range of electric stresses imposed in service. It should have a certain
combination of thermal conductivity, specific heat, and viscosity so that its ability to transfer heat is sufficient
for the particular equipment. It should have a sufficiently high flash point and fire point to meet safety
requirements. The natural ester liquid should not be allowed to become so deteriorated or contaminated that it
adversely affects other materials in the apparatus.
11
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Insulating Liquid in Transformers
1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester liquids with other

dielectric liquids
Mineral Oil Insulating Liquids: Natural ester insulating liquids are typically miscible and compatible with
mineral oil insulating liquids, as well as with halogenated hydrocarbon insulating liquids. Mixing unused
insulating natural esters with mineral oil may or may not significantly impact their typical property values or
impact performance. For the property values that do change, the change may or may not be proportional to the
ratio of the content of the liquids. See B.3 for additional details.
NOTE—If the purpose of using a natural ester liquid is to comply with Article 450.23 of the National Electrical Code®
(NEC®) (NFPA 70®, 2017 Edition), (for example, to use a transformer indoors without a vault), that article requires that
less-flammable transformer liquids have an ASTM D92 fire point of not less than 300 °C and that the installation complies
with all restrictions provided for in the product listing of the liquid (see Article 100 of the 2017 NEC).1 Also, too much
mineral oil contamination in a natural ester may impact meeting the requirements of the National Electrical Safety Code®
(NESC®) (Accredited Standards Committee C2). Contact the natural ester manufacturer to determine the maximum
mineral oil content range to prevent the open cup fire point from dropping below the 300C minimum requirement.
Typically a maximum of 7% mineral oil contamination is acceptable.2
Less and Non-Flammable Insulating Liquids: Although in many cases different types of less-flammable
liquids [e.g., synthetic esters, synthetic hydrocarbons, and high molecular weight hydrocarbons (HMWHs)]
are miscible, such mixtures should generally be avoided in transformers and liquid processing equipment as
practical, unless such mixtures are done purposely for certain applications or to achieve certain properties.
Silicone insulating liquids are typically not miscible with natural ester dielectric liquids, so any cross
contamination should be avoided. Typically natural esters are miscible with non-flammable halogenated
hydrocarbon insulating liquids, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Although natural esters would
not normally be mixed with halogenated hydrocarbons, this could occur after retrofilling older transformers
containing such insulating liquids. Consult with the manufacturer of each insulating liquid for advice if mixing
has occurred in situ inadvertently or purposefully.
2. Normative references

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
Accredited Standards Committee C2, National Electrical Safety Code®(NESC®).3,4
Accredited Standards Committee C2-2017, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).
ASTM D92, Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup Tester.5
ASTM D97, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products.
ASTM D445, Standard Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and
Calculation of Dynamic Viscosity).
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement this
standard.
3
The NESC is available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
4
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are registered trademarks and service marks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
5
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (http://www.astm.org/).
12
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
ASTM D664, Standard Test Method for Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration.
ASTM D923, Standard Practices for Sampling Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D924, Standard Test Method for Dissipation Factor (or Power Factor) and Relative Permittivity
(Dielectric Constant) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D971, Standard Test Method for Interfacial Tension of Oil Against Water by the Ring Method.
ASTM D974, Standard Test Method for Acid and Base Number by Color-Indicator Titration.
ASTM D1169, Standard Test Method for Specific Resistance (Resistivity) of Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D1275, Standard Test Method for Corrosive Sulfur in Electrical Insulating Liquids.
ASTM D1298, Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density, or API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and
Liquid Petroleum Products by Hydrometer Method.
ASTM Dl500, Standard Test Method for ASTM Color of Petroleum Products (ASTM Color Scale).
ASTM D1524, Standard Test Method for Visual Examination of Used Electrical Insulating Liquids in the
Field.
ASTM D1533, Standard Test Method for Water in Insulating Liquids by Coulometric Karl Fischer Titration.
ASTM D1816, Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Liquids Using VDE
Electrodes.
ASTM D2300, Standard Test Method for Gassing of Electrical Insulating Liquids Under Electrical Stress and
Ionization (Modified Pirelli Method).
ASTM D3284, Standard Practice for Combustible Gases in the Gas Space of Electrical Apparatus Using
Portable Meters.
ASTM D3300, Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Oils of Petroleum Origin
Under Impulse Conditions.
ASTM D3455, Standard Test Methods for Compatibility of Construction Material with Electrical Insulating
Oil of Petroleum Origin.
ASTM D3612, Standard Test Method for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Electrical Insulating Oil by Gas
Chromatography.
ASTM D4059, Standard Test Method for Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Insulating Liquids by Gas
Chromatography.
ASTM D5837, Standard Test Method for Furanic Compounds in Electrical Insulating Liquids by High-
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).
ASTM D6871, Standard Specification for Natural (Vegetable Oil) Ester Fluids Used in Electrical Apparatus.
13
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 Part 112 (40 CFR 112), Protection of Environment—Oil Pollution
Prevention.6
IEC 61039 Classification of insulating liquids.7
IEC 61125, Insulating liquids – Test methods for oxidation stability – Test method for evaluating the oxidation
stability of insulating liquids in the delivered state.
IEC 62770, Fluids for electrotechnical applications – Unused natural esters for transformers and similar
electrical equipment.
IEEE Std 637™, IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Mineral Insulating Oil and Criteria for Its Use.8,9
IEEE Std 980™, IEEE Guide for Containment and Control of Oil Spills in Substations.
IEEE Std C57.104™, IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.106™, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Mineral Oil in Electrical
Equipment.
IEEE Std C57.152™, IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators, and Reactors.
IEEE Std C57.155™, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and Synthetic Ester-
Immersed Transformers.
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®(NEC®).10,11
NFPA 70®, 2017 Edition, National Electrical Code® (NEC®).
3. Acronyms and abbreviations
AOCS American Oil Chemists Society

BEES Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
cSt centistokes (units of measurement for kinematic viscosity)
DGA dissolved gas analysis
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
HMWH high molecular weight hydrocarbon
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
6
CFR publications are available from the U.S. Government Publishing Office (http://www.ecfr.gov/).
7
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch) and the American National
Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
8
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
9
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
10
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association (http://www.nfpa.org/). Copies are also available from the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
11
National Electrical Code, NEC, and NFPA 70 are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association.
14
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
LTC load tap changer

NCP National Contingency Plan
NEC National Electrical Code
NESC National Electrical Safety Code
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
SDS safety data sheet
SIC specific inductive capacity
SPCC Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure
VDE Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker
4. Liquid tests and the significance of each test

4.1 General
The ASTM tests included within the scope of Committee D27 pertain to electrical insulating liquids and gases.
Initially focused on insulating liquids of petroleum origin, its scope has expanded to include alternative liquids
and gases for many years. While many of the more recent revisions now include natural esters and other
alternative insulating liquids, some remain specific to mineral oil.
The following information reviews the most commonly applied property tests of ASTM and provides guidance
on how each test method can be applied to natural ester insulating liquids. Due to the inherent differences of
chemical, electrical, and physical properties between natural ester and mineral oil insulating liquids, some
of the ASTM methods that have not been updated for natural esters require some clarification. For example,
some typical values and value limits for unused and used natural ester insulating liquid can be significantly
different from those established for mineral oil. For unused liquid acceptance value limits, see ASTM D6871
for natural ester and see ASTM D3487 [B4] for mineral oil. Some methods may require slight modifications in
test protocol as discussed below.
The list of tests is offered for classification purposes in Table 1 below. Discussion of the significance of each
test and how they apply to natural ester insulating liquids follows Table 1. See Clause 2 for ASTM standards
referenced.
Table 1—Insulating liquid tests suitable for natural ester-based dielectric liquids
Significance ASTM or IEC
Test
(subclause) method number
4.2 Practices for sampling D923
4.3 Acid number (neutralization) D664, D974
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage D1816
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—impulse conditions D3300
4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity D924
4.7 Interfacial tension D971
4.8 Color a
D1500
4.9 Kinematic viscosity D445
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method D92
4.11 Relative density (specific gravity) D1298
4.12 Pour point D97, D5949 [B5], D5950 [B6]
4.13 Volume resistivity D1169
Table continues
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Table 1—Insulating liquid tests suitable for natural ester-based dielectric liquids (continued)
Significance ASTM or IEC
Test
(subclause) method number
4.14 Gas analysis D3284, D3612
4.15 Oxidation stability IEC 61125, Method Cb
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Methodc D1533
4.17 Visual examination of used liquids D1524
4.18 Gassing under electrical stress and ionization D2300
4.19 Corrosive sulfur test D1275
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) D4059
4.21 Furanic compounds D5837
a
NE insulating liquids tinted with dye by manufacturer should not impact test beyond the 1.0 limit.
b
As modified in IEC 62770, Annex A (reducing test duration from 164 h to 48 h).
c
Alternate reagents as listed in ASTM D1533 for natural esters as modified in IEC 62770, Annex A (reducing test duration
from 164 h to 48 h).
4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923)

Accurate sampling, whether of the complete contents or only part thereof, is extremely important from the
standpoint of evaluation of the quality of the product sampled. Careless sampling procedures or contamination
in the sampling equipment may result in a sample that is not truly representative, leading to erroneous
conclusions concerning quality. The appropriate procedures and precautions outlined in ASTM D923 should
be followed.
4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)

The acid (neutralization) number for unused and service-aged insulating liquids is, in general, a measure of
the amount of acidic constituents in the liquid. The formation of acidic components is commonly associated
with oxidation of mineral oil. The acidic components formed from mineral oil are considered undesirable as
they can contribute to solid insulation aging and sludge formation. The acid number has been used as a general
guide for determining when mineral oil should be replaced or reclaimed.
In natural ester liquids, acidic components arise from diverse processes and may not be associated with adverse
effects. The source of these components, as well as their magnitude, should be considered when determining
what action should be taken. The acidic components are produced mainly from hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and
oxidation of natural ester.
Hydrolysis of natural ester bonds releases fatty acids. The free fatty acids introduced by this process are long
chain organic acids. Most of these acids are 18 carbons in length, C18, while a few are 16 carbon sequences,
C16. The strength of organic acids is inversely related to the chain length. Short chain acids such as acetic acid,
C2, are strong and, in sufficient amount, can be detrimental to the condition of other materials in contact with
the insulating liquid. Long chain acids such as stearic acid, C18, are weak and have not been associated with
any detrimental effects. The presence of dissolved water in the liquid facilitates the hydrolysis reaction. It is
common for the acid number to significantly increase during the first months of the transformer operation,
attributable to the hydrolysis reaction with the initial moisture from the insulating paper.
Pyrolysis of the ester bonds also yields fatty acids. The heat that causes the release of the fatty acids also
causes some of them to break down further. Consequently, increases in acid number from this process directly
correspond to increases in dissolved hydrocarbon and carbon oxide gases. As with hydrolysis, the fatty acids
introduced by this process are long chain organic acids and are not considered to be detrimental.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Oxidation of the ester liquids results in the production of shorter chain acids. The most easily oxidized sites in
natural ester liquids produce acids with chain lengths in the range of C7 to C11. Acids with even shorter chain
lengths may also be produced. The acidic components produced by oxidation are the components of greatest
concern.
As with any insulating liquid, acidic constituents can also arise from contamination or reactions of materials
other than the liquid itself. Significant changes in acid number that are not attributable to hydrolysis, pyrolysis,
or oxidation should be investigated for these causes.
ASTM D664 is the preferred method when testing dielectric liquids that have become discolored, because it
uses a potentiometric endpoint rather than a colorimetric endpoint as used in ASTM D974.
4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)

The dielectric breakdown voltage of an insulating liquid is of importance as a measure of its ability to withstand
electrical stress. It is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes under prescribed test
conditions. ASTM D1816 prescribes the use of spherically capped electrodes of the Verband Deutscher
Elektrotechniker (VDE) type. It serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminating agents (e.g.,
water, dirt, and conducting particles in the liquid), one or more of which may be present when low dielectric
breakdown values are found by test.
Care should be taken when filling the test cell with natural ester liquids to guard against trapping air bubbles
that can lead to misleading, low breakdown voltages.
Due to their higher viscosity, a longer sample rest time (equal to or greater than 15 min at room temperature) is
recommended for natural ester liquids than for mineral oils to allow air bubbles to escape.
NOTE—ASTM dielectric breakdown voltage test D877 is in the process of being eliminated in the ASTM insulating
liquid standards and has been eliminated in other IEEE standards and guides.
4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—impulse conditions (ASTM D3300)

Insulating liquids used in transformers are subjected to transient voltage stresses while being subjected to
steady-state voltage stresses associated with continuous operation of the apparatus at commercial power
frequencies. The ability of the insulating liquid to withstand transient voltage stresses has become increasingly
important to the designers of transformers.
Transient voltages may be either negative or positive in polarity. Although polarity of the voltage wave has
little or no effect on the breakdown strength of a liquid in uniform (essentially symmetrical) fields, polarity
does have a marked effect on the breakdown voltage of a liquid in non-uniform (asymmetrical) electric fields.
Transient voltages can also vary over a wide range in both the time to reach crest value and the time to decay
to half-crest or to zero magnitude. The standard impulse test, ASTM D3300, specifies a 1.2 × 50 μs negative
polarity wave. The standard wave shape for switching surge tests on transformers is 100 μs to crest and equal
to or greater than 1000 μs to zero.
The purchaser of an impulse generator may want to specify the necessary features to make switching surge
tests possible. Consideration may be given to other electrode configurations such as VDE electrodes, which
are similar to those used in ASTM D1816, because it may be desirable to obtain the ratio between power
frequency and impulse breakdown under similar conditions.
Care should be taken when filling the test cell with natural ester liquid to guard against trapping air bubbles
that may result in misleading, low breakdown voltages.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Due to their higher viscosity, a longer sample rest time (equal to or greater than 15 min at room temperature) is
recommended prior to impulse testing natural ester liquid than for mineral oils to allow air bubbles to escape.
4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity

(ASTM D924)
This method describes the determination of dissipation factor and relative permittivity of unused electrical
insulating liquids, as well as liquids in service or subsequent to service in transformers. Dissipation factor
(power factor) is a measure of the dielectric losses in an electrical insulating liquid in an alternating electric
field and of the energy dissipated as heat. A low dissipation factor indicates low dielectric losses. Losses due
to dissipation factor should not be confused with transformer load and excitation losses, which are indicative
of the transformer’s energy efficiency. The losses associated with dissipation factor are several orders of
magnitude lower than the load and excitation losses.
Unused natural ester liquids have inherently higher dissipation factors than mineral oils. Field data indicates
a higher rate of increase in the dissipation factors under normal operating conditions relative to mineral oils.
However, additional analysis is required prior to setting limits for continued service.
Relative permittivity, often referred to as dielectric constant and occasionally as specific inductive capacity
(SIC), is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using the material to be measured as the dielectric to the
capacitance of a capacitor with vacuum as the dielectric, both having identical electrodes.
The relative permittivity of materials in contact with each other can affect the local voltage stress distribution.
Unused natural esters have inherently higher relative permittivity than unused mineral oils, which is closer to
that of cellulose insulation, leading to an improvement in electrical stress distribution.
4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)

This method covers the measurement, under non-equilibrium conditions, of the interfacial tension of insulating
liquids against water.
The interfacial tension between electrical insulating liquids and water is an indirect measure of the surfactant
content of the insulating liquid that migrates under charge attraction into the water at the interface. The
surfactants are polar or ionic soluble-contamination or liquid-deterioration products that decrease the
interfacial tension value. Water molecules are strongly attracted to one another and require a certain force
to break their interfacial tension. Surfactant species are attracted by the polar charges on water molecules.
As surfactants in the oil are attracted across the oil-water interface, they obstruct some of the water-to-water
attractions that weaken the tensile forces of the water interface. The amount and type of surfactants determines
the amount of weakening of these forces. This weakening is measured as a decrease in the interfacial tension
value. Interfacial tension is measured in millinewtons per meter (mN/m).
ASTM has not published an acceptance value limit for interfacial tension of unused natural ester liquids.
Natural ester liquids have inherently lower interfacial tension than unused mineral oils. Until ASTM has
published a limit for interfacial tension of unused natural ester liquids, this guide cannot include such a limit
value. Additional field data is required before limits for field-aged liquid can be established for this guide.
However, further investigation should be done when there is more than a 40% decrease in the interfacial
tension value from initial transformer samples taken prior to energization.
4.8 Color (ASTM D1500)

A low color number of mineral insulating oil is desirable to permit inspection of assembled apparatus in a tank.
Unused natural ester liquids may initially be slightly darker in color (typically a slight amber appearance)
than highly refined unused mineral oil. While an increase in color number during service is an indicator of oil
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
deterioration or contamination in mineral oil, this may not be the case for natural ester liquids. Other tests (such
as dissipation factor and neutralization number) are better measures of liquid deterioration or contamination.
Note that natural ester liquid manufacturers may add clear colorants for identification purposes. Such tints
should not impact the ASTM color and visual examinations beyond the 1.0 limit.
4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)

The viscosity of dielectric coolants within the range of normal operating temperatures is important because it
can impact both the cooling and performance of some other transformer components such as load tap changers
(LTCs), which are immersed with the same insulating liquid.
Viscosity is the measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic
viscosity of a liquid to its density. Dynamic viscosity is the ratio between the applied shear stress and rate of
shear of a material. The viscosity of mineral insulating oil and natural ester liquids is usually measured by the
time of flow of a given quantity of liquid under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure.
The viscosity at the operating temperatures of electrical insulating liquids influences their heat transfer
properties in natural and forced (pumped) convective flow and, consequently, the temperature rise of operating
transformers containing them. Natural esters typically have higher viscosity than mineral oils. An increase in
viscosity over time can indicate excessive polymerization of natural esters from oxidation, typically due to
abnormal exposure to air and heat.
4.10 Flash point and fire point—Cleveland Open Cup Method (ASTM D92)
The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which the vapor pressure is sufficient to form
a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. The fire point is the lowest temperature at which a
liquid is heated in an open container, and attains sufficient combustible vapors to ignite and sustain a fire for
5 s. Low values of either flash or fire points are an indication of contamination with lower flash and fire point
materials, such as conventional mineral oil.
This method should only be used to measure and describe the properties of liquids in response to heat and flame
under controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire risk
of liquids under actual fire conditions. Results of this test can be used as an element of a fire risk assessment
that takes into account other factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard of a particular end use.
Natural esters have significantly higher flash and fire points than that of conventional mineral oil. ASTM D6871
requires a minimum 275 °C flash point and 300 °C fire point per method D92 for unused natural ester insulating
liquid as received. See Annex C for more information.
4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)

The relative density (specific gravity) of an insulating liquid is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of
liquid and water at 15 °C (60 °F). Relative density is not significant in determining the quality of a liquid; it
may be pertinent in determining suitability for use in specific applications. In certain cold climates, ice may
form in equipment exposed to subzero (<0 °C) temperatures and may float on liquids that have densities higher
than 0.91. Although density measurements are too insensitive to be useful for detecting many contamination
issues, when results are significantly different from the typical value listed by the manufacturer the cause
should be investigated.
4.12 Pour point (ASTM D97, ASTM D5949 [B5], and ASTM D5950 [B6])
The lowest temperature at which an insulating liquid flows under the prescribed conditions is known as the
pour point.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
The pour point of an insulating liquid is important because it indicates the temperature below which liquid
circulation might be difficult, if not impossible. Even above the pour point temperature, liquid circulation can
be limited by viscosity. Natural ester liquids have higher viscosities than conventional mineral oil and lower
viscosities than HMWH and silicone dielectric liquids at normal operating temperatures. For transformers
using natural esters with operational (particularly mechanical) internal accessories, a higher minimum
temperature may be required before operation than required for mineral oil. In addition, it is possible for
natural esters to cease to flow if left standing for long periods at low temperatures, even above their pour point
temperatures established by testing.
The pour point has little significance as far as contamination or deterioration is concerned; but it can be useful
for liquid type identification and for determining the type of equipment in which it can be used. The pour point
and viscosity, along with the range of possible ambient temperatures, should be factored in selection of the
processing equipment (e.g., pumps) for reconditioning or reclamation.
4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)

The volume resistivity (specific resistance) of a liquid is a direct-current measurement at opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of its electrical insulating capability. The resistivity in ohms/centimeter (Ω/cm) of a liquid
is the ratio of the direct potential gradient in volts/centimeter (V/cm) paralleling the current flow within the
sample to the current density in amperes/square centimeter (A/cm2), at a given instant of time and under
prescribed conditions. A lower resistivity normally indicates the presence of conductive contaminants, but the
test has not been widely applied to service-aged liquids. Unused natural esters have inherently lower volume
resistivity than mineral oils.
4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3284, D3612)

The principal causes of excessive gas formation within a transformer are abnormal thermal and electrical
stresses. As gases are formed, dissolved gas analysis (DGA) can be used to identify the gases and determine
their amounts. These gas-in-oil data are used to characterize the type of fault, the progress of the fault, and
the condition of the transformer. The gases found in gas blankets or Buchholz relays can also be sampled and
analyzed.
While the gases produced in natural ester liquid and cellulose insulated systems are the same as those produced
in mineral oil/cellulose systems, the circumstances and quantities in which they are produced are sometimes
different. There are three principal differences caused by the chemical structure of these liquids, as follows:
— Ethane is produced from the oxidation of linolenic acid, a significant component in some natural ester
liquids. For example, soybean and rapeseed based ester liquids have sufficient linolenic acid content
to routinely produce measurable amounts of ethane. After the initial operation of a transformer under
normal conditions, the ethane levels can rise to a few hundred ppm. This generation is considered
“stray gassing” and not a fault condition. Ethane generation tends to level off after a few weeks to a few
months, depending on the operating temperatures. Also, exposure to sunlight or fluorescent light can
increase the amount of ethane in the insulating liquid. UV exposure should be avoided, particularly for
containers of samples prior to testing. Watch for increases in the other hydrocarbon gases to follow the
onset or development of fault conditions.
— Carbon oxides can be produced from the pyrolysis of natural ester liquid in amounts and proportions
that can mask or confuse the carbon oxide production from the pyrolysis of cellulose.
— A different hydrocarbon gas profile is produced from pyrolysis. The same hydrocarbon gases are
produced from heating but the proportions are different than those produced from mineral oil. Watch
for concurrent increases in the carbon oxide gases.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
The testing methods for natural ester liquids are the same methods used for mineral oil. The key ASTM tests
related to gases generated in liquid-immersed transformers are as follows:
— Test method for analysis of gases dissolved in electrical insulating oil by gas chromatography
(ASTM D3612): All dissolved gas test methods of ASTM D3612 are suitable. The “head space” DGA
technique (ASTM D3612, Method C) results in less column maintenance compared to direct injection
(ASTM D3612, Method B) when testing DGA in natural ester liquids.
— Practice for combustible gases in the gas space of electrical apparatus using portable meters (ASTM
D3284): Testing and field experience indicates that under the same magnitude of electrical overstress,
natural esters typically produce somewhat less volume of the gases compared to mineral oil. However,
for the same thermal overstress, some natural esters produce significantly more volume of the gases
than others depending on the type of base ester. There are differences in gas solubility coefficients
between the various natural esters and mineral oils and their respective values should be used for data
interpretation.There are differences between mineral oil and natural ester gassing tendency per ASTM
D2300 (see 4.18).
Refer to IEEE Std C57.155, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and Synthetic
Ester-Immersed Transformers for more details.
4.15 Oxidation stability

For natural esters, ASTM D6871 does not yet recommend oxidation stability testing methods or limits.
Appendix X2 Section X 2.3.4 of ASTM D6871 states that “oxidation stability requirements and appropriate
test methods for natural ester insulating liquids have not been established”. ASTM D6871 deems appropriate
all other test methods listed in Table 1 for testing in natural esters.
Natural esters are not as resistant to oxidation as mineral oils. For this reason, their application in free-breathing
transformers and other equipment (e.g., bladderless conservator design) is not recommended. All practical
measures should be taken to avoid continuous, long-term exposure to unlimited air exchange, particularly at
operating temperatures.
Oxidation essentially occurs only at the surface of the liquid exposed to air, so thin film exposure is of greater
concern than liquid in the transformer tank. It is recommended to minimize the time and temperature that
surfaces with thin films of natural esters are exposed to air, including untanked core and coils, radiators,
heat exchangers, hoses, fittings, etc. For example, the creep dielectric strength of the surface of cellulose
impregnated with natural ester may be reduced if its surface is exposed to oxygen for sufficient time to cause
polymerization. Different types of natural esters formulations can have different recommended air exposure
time limits depending on the type of base oils and the type and amount of oxidation inhibitors.12
Exposure to air should also be limited to prevent moisture contamination. If exposure to ambient air over long
periods is of concern, refer to the insulating liquid manufacturer’s recommendations on air exposure limits,
detection and maintenance of antioxidants methods, moisture removal, and exposure prevention guidance for
each particular liquid brand.
Natural esters oxidize differently than mineral oils. Oxidation causes polymerization of the liquids, forming
larger molecules that remain in solution, the rate of which is highly temperature-dependent. Conversely,
mineral oil oxidation forms reactive short-chain acids and carbonaceous sludge, which can precipitate out of
the oil. However, if the surface of the bulk liquid is exposed to continual exchange of air in the head space over
several years the viscosity of natural esters can measurably increase, resulting in lowered cooling capability
of the liquid. This may necessitate some type of corrective action. Such polymerization of natural esters in the
transformer tank should not impact the dielectric strength of the insulation system.
12
Contact the manufacturer of the specific liquid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
NOTE—ASTM D2112 [B2] and ASTM D2440 [B3] test methods were developed for the evaluation of the oxidation
stability of mineral oil insulating liquids. The methods note that there is no established relationship between test results and
field performance. ASTM D2112 [B2] is a control test of oxidation stability of new, inhibited mineral insulating oils for
determining the induction period of oxidation inhibitors under prescribed accelerated aging conditions. Per ASTM D2440
[B3], the test can be used as a control test for evaluating oxidation inhibitors and to check the consistency of oxidation
stability of production mineral oils. Neither was deemed suitable for natural ester insulating liquid testing. IEC 61125
Method C has been modified and included in IEC 62770 as a method for measuring the oxidation stability of natural ester
liquids.
4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533)

Water may be present in an insulating liquid in several forms. The presence of free water can be detected by
visual examination in the form of separated droplets or as a cloud (turbidity) dispersed throughout the liquid.
This type of water invariably results in decreased dielectric strength. Water in solution cannot be detected
visually and is normally determined by either physical or chemical means. The dielectric strength of the liquid
decreases as the dissolved water increases, more significantly as the level approaches the saturation point. The
method of ASTM D1533, Standard Test Method for Water in Insulating Liquids by Coulometric Karl Fischer
Titration, is suitable for the determination of water in insulating liquids and, depending upon the conditions
of sample handling and the method of analysis, can be used to estimate the total water content of liquids. The
unit measure of the water is in milligrams/kilogram (mg/kg). This test is significant in that it can indicate the
presence of water even if the presence of water may not be evident from electrical tests.
Some reagents that are suitable for mineral oils may not be suitable for natural ester liquids. As stated in ASTM
D1533, Annex A1 “Alternative Solvent Systems,” alternate reagents may be needed for certain natural ester
formulations. Consult the manufacturer for recommendations. Reagents for aldehydes and ketones should be
used if the additives are unknown. When alternate reagents are needed, using the Test Method D1533 reagents
recommended for mineral oil may yield elevated and erratic water content results.
It is important to note that absolute dissolved water limit values set for mineral oil are not applicable for natural
esters. The absolute amount of dissolved water needed to get to a particular percent of saturation varies by
liquid type. Natural esters have significantly higher water saturation values (approximately 15 to 20 times at
room temperature) than mineral oil at a given temperature. However, the impact of water content on dielectric
strength as a function of percent of saturation is essentially the same for both natural ester and mineral oil. See
Annex B for an example graph of water saturation versus temperature for both natural ester and mineral oil.
4.17 Visual examination of used liquids (ASTM D1524)

This ASTM Standard Test Method for Visual Examination of Used Electrical Insulating Liquids in the Field,
gauges the color and turbidity (cloudiness), which can indicate the presence of free water or sediment (e.g.,
metal particles, insoluble materials, carbon, fibers, dirt). If insoluble contaminants are present, valuable
information can be obtained by filtering the liquid and identifying the residue. Excessive contaminants can
significantly lower the dielectric strength of dielectric coolants.
4.18 Gassing of insulating liquids under electrical stress and ionization

(ASTM D2300)
For certain applications, when an insulating liquid is stressed at high-voltage gradients, it may be desirable to
be able to determine the rate of gas evolution or gas absorption under specified test conditions. At the present
time, correlation of ASTM D2300 test results with equipment performance is limited, regardless of the liquid
type. Natural esters have inherently lower gassing tendency than mineral oils, well below the lower range of
mineral oils and generally fairly negative (gas absorbing). The typical range for natural esters is −50 μL/min
to −90 μL/min.
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4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275)

This visual test indicates the presence of corrosive sulfur in the liquid. Corrosive sulfur is undesirable as it can
lead to premature coil failures. Natural esters naturally do not contain corrosive sulfur.
4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)

Unused natural ester liquids should not contain PCBs. Typical government regulations may require that
electrical apparatus and electrical insulating liquids containing PCBs be handled and disposed of through
the use of specific procedures. The procedure to be used for a particular apparatus or quantity of insulating
liquid is determined by the PCB content of the liquid. The results of this analytical technique can be useful in
selecting the appropriate handling and disposal procedures (refer to 40 CFR 761.1 [B11]).
4.21 Furanic compounds (ASTM D5837)

This method determines the furanic compounds generated as a result of the degradation of the cellulose
insulation materials, such as paper, pressboard, and cotton, used in the solid insulation systems of electrical
equipment. Furanic compounds that are soluble to an appreciable degree typically migrate into the insulating
liquid. The presence of high concentrations of furanic compounds in samples of the insulating liquid is
significant in that this can be an indication of cellulose degradation from aging or incipient fault conditions.
Testing for furanic compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used to
complement DGA as performed in accordance with the test method in ASTM D3612.
5. Liquid compatibility with transformer materials

Each transformer design and insulating liquid should be shown to be compatible under standard service
conditions to the satisfaction of the transformer manufacturer. Verification of compatibility shall occur to help
assure that no excessive interaction or reaction occurs between materials in contact with the dielectric coolant.
Standard test method ASTM D3455, “Standard Test Methods for Compatibility of Construction Material
with Electrical Insulating Oil of Petroleum Origin” can be used with the exception of Section 8.2.5, “Aged
properties for the reference oil specimen.” The reference values should be modified for natural esters. See
Table 4 and B.2 for suggested values for the natural ester liquid specimens.
6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester liquids for use in filling

transformers at the installation site
6.1 General
Instructions for field preparation, liquid filling, and start-up by manufacturers of natural ester liquid-immersed
equipment may vary because of differences in the design of units and individual preferences. Certain
installations may require more rigorous quality control than others. The user and the manufacturer should
agree on minimum requirements. All handling equipment (e.g., hoses, pipes, tanks) should be kept clean and
should be dedicated to natural ester liquid service. Equipment with residual ester liquid should be sealed from
continuous air exchange and contaminants.
6.2 Shipping containers

Natural ester liquids are currently shipped in containers including, but not limited to: drums, totes, truck
trailers, and rail tank cars. All containers should be clean, dry, and airtight. A nitrogen gas blanket, or other dry
inert gas blanket, is recommended.
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6.3 Check tests on receipt

The inspection of natural ester liquids should follow similar procedures as those now being used for mineral
oil. Liquid received in truck trailers and rail tank cars should be tested prior to unloading.
Upon receipt, natural ester liquids meeting or exceeding the limits presented in Table 2 are considered to be
acceptable. Values shown in Table 2 are generic to natural ester liquids as a class. Specific typical values for
each different brand of liquid should be obtained from the liquid manufacturer.
Table 2—Acceptable values for receipt of shipments of unused natural ester liquids
Results
Test and ASTM method
Minimum Maximum
Flash point, ASTM D92, °C 275 —
Fire point, ASTM D92, °C 300 —
Kinematic viscosity, ASTM D445, mm /s (cSt)
2
0 °C — 500
40 °C — 50
100 °C — 15
Pour point, ASTM D97, D5949, D5950; °C — −10
Color, ASTM D1500 — L1.0
Relative density ASTM D1298, at 25 °C — 0.96
Corrosive Sulfur, ASTM D1275 — non-corrosive
Neutralization number, ASTM D974, mg KOH/g — 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533, mg/kg at 20 °C — 200c
Dielectric breakdown, ASTM D1816
kV (1 mm gap) 20 —
kV (2 mm gap) 35 —
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924, %
25 °C — 0.20
100 °C — 4.0
Impulse voltage (kV), ASTM D3300, 25 °C,
25.4 mm gap 130 —
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to as-received natural ester liquids as a class. Due to differences in
their chemistry, certain values are significantly different than the standard limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4
for details.
b
Specific typical values for each brand of liquid should be obtained from the liquid manufacturer. If test results,
while in compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is recommended
that the liquid manufacturer be contacted.
c
This water content value is based on sampling prior to the mandatory processing of bulk insulating liquid
shipments prior to filling transformers. The processing should include small particle filtering, degasification,
and moisture extraction.
6.4 Handling of the liquid by the user and placing the liquid in storage
6.4.1 General
Because the location and style of a storage tank depends on the user’s physical plant arrangement, transfer
from the delivering bulk container directly to the transformer or other equipment is not always possible. It may
be necessary to transfer the natural ester liquid to the storage tanks. Purchase of the liquid in drums or totes can
be more practical for certain projects.
Using indoor or underground tanks is ideal. Indoor or underground tanks can reduce the amount of heating
required to maintain proper pumping and filtering temperatures. For cold climate regions, outdoor tanks
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
should be heated and well insulated to minimize the effect of temperatures near or below the pour point of the
natural ester liquid.
If heating of the liquid is required, care should be taken in heater selection. To prevent liquid scorching, the
watt density should not exceed 1.9 W/cm2 (12 W/in2) and the localized heater surface temperature should not
exceed 100 °C. Indications that scorching has occurred include one or more of the following: high dissipation
factor value, darkened appearance of the liquid, burnt smell, and coke-like deposits on the heater surface.
A heater placed directly in the tank can be used if heating the liquid to a satisfactory pumping temperature is
required. This approach is usually the most economical because heat need only be applied when liquid is to
be pumped from the tank. A circulation pump and electric heater can be piped to the storage tank to maintain
warm temperatures.
Standard storage tanks, such as those used for insulating liquids, are satisfactory. All tanks should conform
to local codes and standards. New tanks should be specified with openings that are properly threaded and
should have at least one manhole. The inside of the tanks should be sandblasted and painted with a coating that
is compatible with the natural ester liquid, such as an alkyd paint. Generally, any coating that is compatible
with conventional mineral oil should be satisfactory for natural ester liquid use. Nitrogen blanketing is highly
recommended. To help keep the liquid quality from degrading, free-breathing tanks should be avoided and
should not be used in high ambient temperature (>30 °C) or high humidity locations (unless desiccants are
available and maintained).
Existing storage tanks that have been used for mineral oil can be used for natural ester liquids if the following
conditions are met:
— Transfer pumps and lines are of adequate capacity to pump the more viscous liquid. If the tank and
transfer system are situated so that the liquid may have to be moved while it is cold, use of electric- or
steam-line tracing and tank-heating apparatus may be necessary.
— The tank is thoroughly cleaned and inspected for rusting conditions or leakage.
— The tank should be thoroughly drained and flushed with 60 °C to 80 °C natural ester liquid before
being filled to help avoid contamination.
WARNING
It is important that pumps and lines are properly grounded during liquid transfer to prevent the build-up of a
static electric charge.
6.4.2 Venting
Equipping a tank with a proper pressure/vacuum vent valve and a desiccant-type vent dryer lowers the dew
point of the air in the tank to help prevent water condensation. Each vent dryer should have a color indicator
to show when maintenance is required. Changes should be planned in advance of the anticipated indicator
change.
Dehumidification of the air in the storage tank can also be used.
A tank vent filter between the desiccant canister and the tank is also recommended. Filtering incoming air to
the tank may prevent introduction of airborne particulate material into the liquid during storage.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
6.4.3 Pumps
So that pump suppliers can specify the correct pump size, they should be made aware of the liquid viscosity
and the required pumping rate, suction lift, and discharge head. The following factors should be considered:
— Capacity. Because the viscosity of natural ester liquids is generally higher than conventional mineral
oil, care should be used in selecting a pump with the horsepower and capacity required. First, determine
the maximum flow rate required and then select a pump and motor that can handle this flow rate at the
lowest temperature (highest liquid viscosity) that could be encountered.
— Type. The most commonly recommended pump for natural ester liquids is the positive displacement
gear pump. A standard iron pump with either mechanical seal or stuffing box is also satisfactory.
For capacities up to 4.8 L/s (75.8 gpm), direct-driven pumps have proven to be satisfactory. For higher
pumping rates, a reduction-gear or belt-driven pump may be required.
Other pumps that have been used successfully are the air-operated diaphragm pump, progressive cavity pump,
and flexible impeller pump.
WARNING
Insulating liquids, including natural ester liquids, passing through filter papers or ungrounded or unbonded
hoses can acquire an electrostatic charge that could be transferred to the transformer windings as the
transformer is filled. Under some conditions, the electrostatic voltage on the winding may be hazardous to
personnel or equipment. To avoid this possibility, all externally accessible transformer bushing terminals, as
well as the tank and liquid filtering equipment including hoses, should be properly grounded during filling.
6.5 Handling and testing of natural ester liquids for installation into apparatus
The preferred method of filling transformers is under vacuum conditions. Additional vacuum processing of the
natural ester liquid is recommended to sufficiently degas the liquid, prior to filling the transformer tank, to help
avoid excessive foaming.
Where instructions given by the transformer manufacturer differ from recommendations made in this guide,
the manufacturer’s instructions should be given preference.
CAUTION
Do not exceed the transformer tank vacuum limits (see nameplate or contact the transformer manufacturer
for information) or tank damage may result.
Commercial dehydration and degassing units are available that can process insulating liquids to acceptable
levels of dissolved water and dissolved air.
The degassing of natural ester liquid should be carried out at temperatures somewhat different than those
required for mineral oil. The processing temperature should be obtained from the insulating liquid
manufacturer. Proper processing temperature helps ensure sufficient degasification and dehydration of the
natural ester liquid prior to introduction into the transformer.
After the natural ester liquid is processed through the degasifier and particulate filter, it should be introduced
directly into the transformer under vacuum. If in doubt as to the filling procedure to be followed, seek guidance
26
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
from the transformer manufacturer. If guidance from the transformer manufacturer cannot be obtained, a
storage tank that can maintain a vacuum equal to or greater than the vacuum maintained during transformer
filling should be utilized. If the recommended vacuum cannot be achieved, the natural ester liquid may exhibit
excessive foaming in the transformer tank during the vacuum filling operation, depending on the amount of
dissolved gases in the natural ester liquid.
In instances where the transformer is required to be filled on-site without the use of vacuum impregnation,
consult the liquid’s manufacturer for instructions concerning fill rate and characteristics of the liquid after
filling.
NOTE 1—Natural ester liquids are miscible and compatible with typical mineral oil insulating liquids. If the purpose
of using a natural ester liquid is to comply with Article 450.23 of the 2017 NEC the requirements should be followed,
including that less-flammable transformer liquids have an ASTM D92 fire point of not less than 300 °C and that the
installation complies with all restrictions provided for in the product listing of the liquid. The 2017 NESC (Accredited
Standards Committee C2-2017) also recognizes less-flammable insulating liquids as a means to minimize fire hazard,
for both outdoor installations (in Rule 152A), and for indoor installations (in Rule 152B). A high fire point, >300 °C, is
the requirement of IEC 61039 to be classified as a K Class insulating liquid. For such installations, avoid contamination
of natural ester liquid with mineral oil to prevent lowering the flash and fire points, and for possible environmental
regulations purposes. Dedicated equipment is the preferred means to help prevent excessive contamination. Otherwise, it
is recommended to flush the equipment with an appropriate volume of at least 5% natural ester liquid.
NOTE 2—Some natural ester power transformer manufacturers, when using vapor phasing processing, might require
initially filling the transformer with mineral oil. In such cases, it is strongly recommended that the unit be retrofilled with
the natural ester prior to running the factory tests.
NOTE 3—Medium and large power transformer tanks may be filled with a natural ester in the plant for testing, then
drained and filled with dry gas prior to shipping. Dry nitrogen is technically preferred to help avoid the potential for thin
film oxidation to occur between the time of the drainage at the factory and the field filling. However, that option may not
be available due to local safety regulations (to help prevent possible asphyxiation). If dry air fill is required, contact the
natural ester manufacturer for guidance.
7. Evaluation of natural ester liquids received in new equipment and after

filling apparatus on-site
In sampling liquid that is contained in apparatus, use care to obtain a representative sample. The sampling
methods described in ASTM D923 should be followed. Natural ester liquids exhibiting the characteristics
presented in Table 3 are considered acceptable.
After the filling is completed and the standing time is also completed, tests on the natural ester liquid should be
made before energization of the transformer (see Table 3).
Table 3—Test limits for unused natural ester liquid received in

new equipment, prior to energization
Value for voltage class
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kV
Dielectric strength, ASTM D1816,
kV, minimum
1 mm gap 25 30 35
2 mm gap 45 55 60
Dissipation factor, ASTM D924,
%, maximum, 25 °C 0.5 0.5 0.5
Color, ASTM D1500, ASTM units,
maximum L1.0 L1.0 L1.0
Table continues
27
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Table 3—Test limits for unused natural ester liquid received in

new equipment, prior to energization (continued)
Value for voltage class
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kV
Visual examination, ASTM D1524 Bright and clear Bright and clear Bright and clear
Neutralization number (acidity),
ASTM D974, mg KOH/g, maximum 0.06 0.06 0.06
Water content, ASTM D1533,
mg/kg, maximum 300 150 100
Fire point, ASTM D92, °C 300 300 300
Kinematic viscosity, ASTM D445,
mm2/s (cSt) at 40 °C, maximum 50 50 50
Total dissolved gas, ASTM D3612, %, 0.5% or per
maximum manufacturer’s
— — requirementsb
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester liquid as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry, certain values
are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for details. Specific typical values for each brand of
liquid should be obtained from each liquid manufacturer. If test results, while in compliance with this table, are significantly
different from published typical values, it is recommended that the liquid manufacturer be contacted.
b
This value should be obtained from a sample collected 24 h to 48 h after the transformer is filled, and applies only to
transformers with diaphragm conservator systems. The maximum of 0.5% (5000 ppm) is used for total dissolved gases,
which is the sum of the individual gases including atmospheric gases.
Most transformer manufacturers have found it advisable to allow natural ester liquid-immersed transformers
to wait longer than normally allowed for mineral oil after filling and breaking vacuum before energizing or
high-voltage testing. A conservative option is to wait until the transformer has cooled to room temperature. The
additional wait time is recommended because natural esters generally take significantly longer to impregnate
cellulose insulation than mineral oil under the same conditions. Transformers with heavy thicknesses
of pressboard insulation require standing times that are adequate to allow the required impregnation. The
impregnation rate of natural ester liquid is a function of liquid temperature and the thickness of the cellulose
material to be saturated. Contact transformer, insulating paper/pressboard manufacturers, and insulating
liquid manufacturers for guidance concerning impregnation rates. Recommended minimum standing times
vary depending on the type of pressboard, thickness, initial liquid temperature, ambient temperature, voltage
class, etc. If such guidance is unavailable, for distribution transformers consider a minimum of an 8 h wait
time, with 24 h being preferred. For power transformers, consider a minimum wait time of at least 24 h or
more, depending on the variables mentioned above.
Liquid circulating pumps, if any, should be operated for at least several hours of the standing time. Most
transformer manufacturers have specific written procedures for this standing time and pump operation, and
they should be consulted for their recommendations.
8. Maintenance of natural ester liquids

8.1 Field screening
Field screening of natural ester liquids should follow the procedures now being used for mineral oil.
Experience in this matter indicates that visual condition and dielectric breakdown voltage are the most
applicable screening methods. A sample should be drawn in a clean clear glass or high-density polyethylene
jar and allowed to reach room temperature prior to testing. The sample jar should be sealed as soon as practical
to avoid moisture contamination from the air. Aluminum or tin-plated steel cans can also be used as containers
for the samples. The liquid should then be checked for clarity, color, odor, and viscosity (relative to an
unused sample). Dielectric breakdown voltage should then be measured. Portable dielectric test sets have
28
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
been available for some time and have proven quite satisfactory in determining whether additional laboratory
screening is necessary.
8.2 Laboratory screening

Natural ester liquids that have unsatisfactory appearance and dielectric values should be further evaluated.
The following tests are adequate for classifying in-service natural ester liquids:
— Visual condition (ASTM D1524)

— Color (ASTM D1500)
— Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)
— Water content (ASTM D1533)
— AC loss characteristic (dissipation factor) (ASTM D924)
— Fire point (ASTM D92)
— Viscosity (ASTM D445)
NOTE 1—For DGA see IEEE Std C57.155, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and
Synthetic Ester-Immersed Transformers.
The following ASTM tests are usually not required for classifying service-aged liquids. However, they can be
useful, in more completely characterizing the condition of insulating liquids.
— Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)

— Relative density (ASTM D1298)
— Pour point (ASTM D97)
— Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)
— Neutralization number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)
NOTE 2—The American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS) Official Method, Cd 18-90, p-Anisidine Value, developed for
edible oils, may also prove to be a useful indicator of the condition of aged natural ester liquids used in transformers.
The method determines the amount of aldehydes (principally 2-alkenals and 2,4-dienals) in natural esters. The aldehydes
are formed as byproducts during oxidation of the vegetable oil base. Additional field data collection and evaluation are
suggested to determine recommended values for transformer application.
8.3 Test limits for in-service natural ester liquids

Acceptable limits for in-service natural ester liquids are shown in Table 4. These should be used as a guide in
the absence of the manufacturer’s recommendations.
29
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Table 4—Suggested limits for continued use of in-service natural ester liquids
(grouped by voltage class) (see also IEEE Std C57.152™)
IEEE value for voltage class
≤ 69 kV > 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kVb
Dielectric strength , ASTM D1816, kV, minimum
c
1 mm gap 23 28 30
2 mm gap 40 47 50
Dissipation factor (power factor), ASTM D924,
%, maximum (see footnote c) (see footnote c) (see footnote c)
25 °C
100 °C
Water content: ASTM D1533, mg/kg, maximum 450 350 200
Optionald Fire point, ASTM D92, °C, minimum 300 300 300
Kinematic viscosity increase from initial value ≥10% ≥10% ≥0%
a
The test limits shown in this table apply to natural ester insulating liquids as a class. Due to differences in their chemistry,
certain values are significantly different than the limits for mineral oil. See Clause 4 for details. Specific typical values for
each brand of insulating liquid should be obtained from each insulating liquid manufacturer. If test results, while in
compliance with this table, are significantly different from published typical values, it is recommended that the insulating
liquid manufacturer be contacted.
b
Provisional for ≥ 230 kV.
c
At the time this guide was written, there was insufficient field data analysis available to provide reliable recommended limit
values for dissipation factor. Users are encouraged to forward data to the IEEE Transformer Committee Insulating Fluids
Subcommittee for possible future use. See B.2 for non-normative guidance for threshold values indicating possible
abnormalities or normal aging limit reached.
d
Most outdoor transformer installations do not require the NEC “Less-Flammable” designation. After retrofilling with
unused natural esters a reduction in the fire point of the ester liquid due to residual mineral oil. For transformers requiring
a less-flammable rating, or otherwise known to require its insulating liquid to meet a minimum 300 °C fire point, any sample
testing with a fire point below 300 °C indicates excessive residual mineral oil and should be investigated. For more
information, please refer to Figure B.4 and C.1.
8.4 Reconditioning
8.4.1 General
For the purposes of this guide, reconditioning is defined as “the removal of water and solid materials by
mechanical means,” while reclaiming is defined as “the removal of acidic and colloidal contaminants and
oxidized matter by chemical and adsorbent means.”
The mechanical means that are used for removing water and solids from liquids include several types of filters,
centrifuges, and vacuum dehydrators. In general, water removal filters and vacuum dehydrators should be
placed before the final particulate removal filters.
8.4.2 Water removal
8.4.2.1 General
If, during the transport or storage of the liquid, water is introduced into the liquid above a limit that would not
permit the liquid to be introduced into a transformer, additional treatment is required.
8.4.2.2 Free water removal
If the water is in the form of free water, filter elements utilizing blotter paper have been used effectively. Filter
cartridges packed with moisture absorbing media are recommended to help achieve desired dryness. Proper
care and storage of the water absorbing filters is essential to help ensure they do not absorb moisture before
use. The manufacturer’s temperature rating of the elements should not be exceeded.
30
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Most types of filters now being used on mineral oil can be used for natural ester liquids.
The cartridge-type filter is well suited for this service. It is available in various nominal pore size ranges, and
sizes for either low- or high-flow rates.
Filters of the adsorption type, such as activated Fuller’s earth, can be used; however, certain pour point
depressant and antioxidant additives can be removed from the liquid by these filters if the vacuum is too high.
The manufacturer of the liquid should be consulted to determine whether the possibility of additive removal
is a concern.
Just as when selecting pumps, care should be taken in selecting a filter for natural ester liquids. Because natural
ester liquid viscosities are higher than those for mineral oil, larger filters or higher liquid temperature may be
required to achieve the same flow rate.
If filters for mineral oil are used, a decrease in flow rate may be necessary unless steps are taken to decrease the
liquid viscosity by heating.
8.4.2.3 Dissolved water removal
If the dissolved water content should be lowered, a high vacuum dehydration system may be required. The
vacuum dehydrator is an efficient means of reducing the gas and water content of an insulating liquid to a
very low value. Two types of vacuum dehydrators are in general use today. The operating principle of both
is the same, i.e., the liquid is exposed to a high vacuum and heat for a short interval of time. In one method,
the exposure of the liquid is accomplished by spraying the liquid through a nozzle into a vacuum chamber.
In the other type of vacuum dehydrator, the liquid is allowed to flow over a series of baffles inside a vacuum
chamber, thus forming thin films so that a large surface is exposed to the vacuum. If the liquid contains solid
matter, it is advisable to filter it before processing it in the vacuum dehydrator because solid contaminants can
plug the nozzle of one type of dehydrator or pass through either type without being removed from the liquid.
In addition to removing water, processing natural ester insulating liquid with a vacuum dehydrator also
extracts dissolved gases, normally removing any volatile acids. However, most remaining dissolved acids are
relatively unaffected by the process. Thus, it is doubtful the overall acidity of the liquid can be significantly
reduced by using the vacuum dehydration method. In either type of dehydrator, some means of automatically
recirculating a very wet liquid should be provided to prevent excessive water content in the outgoing liquid.
Molecular sieve filters have been found effective for removing dissolved water from natural ester insulating
liquid. Activated grade 3A or 4A molecular sieves are recommended for water removal from natural ester
liquids and are effective over a broad temperature range, provided adequate care is taken in filter selection to
help ensure sufficient residence time in the filter and provided a particulate filter is used downstream of the
molecular sieve filter (to catch fine particulates from the sieves).
An in-line moisture hygrometer with alarm calibrated for use in natural ester insulating liquid should be
installed downstream of any moisture absorbing filter or molecular sieve to help ensure that the moisture
removing media has not become saturated, potentially causing the release of moisture into the liquid.
8.5 Reclaiming
The removal of deterioration products from natural ester insulating liquid is usually accomplished by the
use of reclaiming processes involving Fuller’s earth. Other absorbents that should also be effective include
magnesium silicate, magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate, activated alumina, and bauxite. Mixtures of
absorbents may improve removal performance.
31
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
The manufacturer of the liquid should be consulted for recommendations regarding reclaiming, as the
recommended treatments may vary from those outlined in IEEE Std 637™. Some additives provided with
unused liquid can be removed by the reclamation process and may need to be added back to the reclaimed liquid.
8.6 Mixtures of different types of insulating liquids

Although in most cases different types of insulating liquids are miscible (with the exception of silicone
liquid), such mixtures should typically be avoided in transformers and liquid processing equipment when
possible and practical. This is due to potential negative impact on key environmental, performance, and fire
safety characteristics. Obviously, some low percentage contamination cannot be avoided when retrofilling,
particularly transformers and other equipment with impregnated cellulose material. Transformers containing
mineral oil and HMWH have been retrofilled with natural ester. Consult the manufacturers of the insulating
liquids or the transformer for advice if mixing different types of insulating liquids is permissible or has
occurred. Refer to B.3 for mixture information, including an example of the impact on a few key properties
using a natural ester with different ratios of mineral oil content.
9. General environmental procedures

9.1 General
Typically, natural esters covered by this guide have been formulated to minimize health and environmental
hazards. Although no known hazard is involved in the normal handling and use of natural ester liquids,
additives to the base vegetable oils may differ. Users should obtain a safety data sheet (SDS) for each natural
ester liquid in use.
Where manufacturer’s instructions differ from recommendations made in this guide, the manufacturer’s
instructions should be followed. Personnel should avoid eye/liquid contact and inhalation of spray mists, and
take appropriate steps if such incidents occur. SDSs should provide appropriate guidelines with respect to
handling these liquids. Although not listed as a hazardous substance or waste by any U.S. federal agency,
disposal of natural ester liquids may require certain precautions, depending on regulatory jurisdiction, as
environmental regulations can vary by country, province, state, county, and local community. Currently,
the U.S. EPA Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) regulation (40 CFR 112) makes no
practical distinction between mineral oils and vegetable oils, except for possible reduction in spill remediation
requirements. For natural esters that contain mineral oil, such as natural ester liquid used as a flushing liquid
for retrofilling transformers originally containing mineral oil, follow the same disposal requirements for
mineral oil provided by the authority having jurisdiction.
9.2 Leaks
During scheduled routine maintenance, or a regular equipment maintenance schedule, checks should be
made for leaks. For units with pressure gauges, a constant periodic reading of zero-gauge pressure is a strong
indication of a head space leak or some other problem that should be investigated. Areas to check and repair
should include valves, bushings, gauges, tap changers, welds, sample ports, manhole covers, pipe fittings, and
pressure relief valves. If a leak does not involve a replaceable seal, welding or epoxy sealing kits can typically
be used to seal it.
Proper care should be taken to protect the integrity of the natural ester liquid and equipment insulation if leak
repair requires lowering the liquid level. Clean and dry temporary liquid storage containers should be used.
Testing of the liquid before returning it to the equipment is recommended. The recommendations on sampling,
testing, and filling of transformers presented in this guide should be followed.
32
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
9.3 Minor spills

Minor spills, such as those occurring in the manufacture or repair of transformers and in testing natural ester
liquid, can be cleaned using absorbent rags. Using suitable cleaners facilitates the cleanup. Many common
solvents suitable for use with petroleum liquids may not be effective with natural esters. Common household
detergents are recommended. If thin films of natural esters have partially or completely polymerized, household
detergents may not be effective. The surface area should be saturated with a suitable cleaner (water-based,
biodegradable, non-flammable, non-conductive cleaner/degreaser) and then steam or hot water spray should
be applied. Contact the natural ester liquid manufacturer for recommended cleaners. See IEEE Std 980™ for
additional information.
9.4 Spills on soil

States typically have jurisdiction for spills onto soils. Many states currently do not list natural esters as soil
spill-regulated material. However, state and local regulations should be consulted to enable compliance with
any applicable regulations. Soil acts as an absorbent and typically offers excellent conditions for natural
biodegradation. If the presence of natural ester liquid is objectionable to the authorities having jurisdiction, the
soil can be treated with a bioremediation catalyst to maximize the biodegradation rate. The two most frequently
used technologies for oil spill cleanups in the United States are fertilization and seeding. Fertilization helps
speed up the biodegradation process by adding nutrients to stimulate the growth of microorganisms. Seeding
adds additional microorganisms to assist the native organisms in the degradation process.
In terms of potential physical hazard (e.g., slippage), natural ester liquids in spill situations behave much the
same as motor oil or hydrocarbons of comparable viscosity. The same cleanup requirements may be applicable.
See IEEE Std 980 for more information.
9.5 Spills on water

Because natural ester liquids float on water, a spill can be contained by floating booms or dikes. If containment
equipment is unavailable or impractical, the natural ester liquid can be treated by applying surface-active
dispersant chemicals, also known as detergents, designed to remove the oil from the surface of the water and
into the water column. Only chemical dispersants that are listed on the U.S. National Contingency Plan (NCP)
Product Schedule should be used to treat oil spills. For spills into water surfaces, check with the authorities
having jurisdiction for reporting and remediation requirements.
Once the natural ester liquid has been concentrated, it can be removed from the water surface by systems
normally used for vegetable oil spills. These systems include pumps, skimmers, and physical absorbents.
When collected, the liquid can be reclaimed or incinerated in a suitable burner. See IEEE Std 980.
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IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use only.
[B1] ASTM D117, Standard Guide for Sampling, Test Methods, and Specifications for Electrical Insulating
Oils of Petroleum Origin.13
[B2] ASTM D2112, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Inhibited Mineral Insulating Oil by
Pressure Vessel.
[B3] ASTM D2440, Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Mineral Insulating Oil.
[B4] ASTM D3487, Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus.
[B5] ASTM D5949, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products (Automatic Pressure Pulsing
Method).
[B6] ASTM D5950, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Petroleum Products (Automatic Tilt Method).
[B7] ASTM D6866, Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and
Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis.
[B8] Boss, P., Insulating fluids for power transformers, prepared by P. Boss in the name of CIGRE SC A2.
[B9] CIGRE Technical Brochure 436, Experiences in service with new insulating liquids, CIGRE WG A2-35,
2010.14
[B10] Claiborne, C. C., T. V. Oommen, H. D. Le, E. J. Walsh, and J. P. Baker, “Enhanced cellulosic insulation
life evaluation in a high oleic vegetable oil dielectric fluid,” Paper 3C, Doble Conference, Apr. 2002.
[B11] Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 Part 761.1 (40 CFR 761.1), Protection of Environment—
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Manufacturing, Processing, Distribution in Commerce, and Use
Prohibitions—Applicability.15
[B12] Davydov, V. G., “New Natural Ester Dielectric Liquids for Transformers and Other HV Apparatus,”
Proceedings of TechCon 2014 Asia-Pacific, pp. 181–200, Sydney, Australia 2014.
[B13] Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of several synthetic and
agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th Annual International Conference of Doble
Clients, Watertown, MA, USA, 2001.
[B14] Duy, C. T., O. Lesaint, A. Denat, and N. Bonifaci, “Streamer propagation and breakdown in natural ester
at high voltage,” IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 18, pp. 285–294, 2011.
13
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (http://www.astm.org/).
14
CIGRE publications are available from the Council on Large Electric Systems (http://www.e-cigre.org/).
15
CFR publications are available from the U.S. Government Publishing Office (http://www.ecfr.gov/).
34
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
[B15] EPA OPPTS 835.3100, Fate, Transport and Transformation Test Guidelines: Aerobic Aquatic
Degradation.16
[B16] EPA OPPTS 835.3110, Fate, Transport and Transformation Test Guidelines: Ready Biodegradability.
[B17] Eriksson, A., R. Liu, and C. Törnkvist, “Differences in Streamer Initiation and Propagation in Ester
Fluids and Mineral Oil,” IEEE ICDL Conference 2011, File no. 40, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICDL.2011
.6015421.
[B18] Factory Mutual Global, FM Approval Guide—Electrical Equipment, 2006.17
[B19] Fritsche, R., U. Rimmele, F. Trautmann, and M. Schafer, “Prototype 420 Kv Power Transformer using
Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid, Proceedings of TechCon 2014, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
[B20] FM Approvals 3990, FM Approval Standard for Less or Nonflammable Liquid-Insulated Transformers,
January 2018.18
[B21] Frotscher, R., D. Vuković, M. Jovalekic, S. Tenbohlen, J. Harthun, M. Schäfer, and C. Perrier, Behaviour
of Ester Liquids under Dielectric and Thermal Stress – From Laboratory Testing to Practical Use, CIGRE
Conference 2012, Paris, Paper D1-105.
[B22] IEC 61099, Insulating liquids – Specifications for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical
purposes.19
[B23] IEC 61203:1992, Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes—Guide for maintenance of
transformer esters in equipment.
[B24] IEC 60156, Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method.
[B25] IEEE Power Distribution & Regulating Transformers Collection: VuSpec™ (2014).20,21
[B26] IEEE Std C57.106™-2002, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Mineral Oil in
Electrical Equipment.
[B27] Insulect Energy Blog, Guide for Considering Natural Ester Fluids for Retrofilling, November 24, 2016.22
[B28] Lewand, L. R., C. C. Claiborne, and D. B. Cherry, “Oxidation and Oxidation Stability of Natural Ester
Dielectric Liquids,” Paper IM-2, Doble Conference, Mar. 2010.
[B29] Lippiatt, B.C., BEES 4.0: Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability. Technical Manual
and User Guide. NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) – 7423, August 1, 2007.
[B30] Liu, Q. and Z. D. Wang, “Streamer Characteristic and Breakdown in Synthetic and Natural Ester
Transformer Liquids under Standard Lightning Impulse Voltage,” IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation, vol. 16, pp. 1582–1594, 2009.
16
EPA publications are available from the Environmental Protection Agency (https://www.regulations.gov/).
17
FM publications are available from Factory Mutual Global (https://www.fmapprovals.com/).
18
Documents are available from FM Approvals (http://www.fmapprovals.com/).
19
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch) and the American National
Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
20
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
21
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Annex A are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
22
The blog is available at http://insulect.com/energy-blog.
35
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
[B31] Lu, W., Q. Liu, and Z. D. Wang, “Combined Effect of Cellulose Particles and Moisture on Lightning
Impulse Breakdown Voltages of Ester Transformer Liquids,” 2013 International Symposium on High
Engineering (ISH): 1326–1331. eSchojlarID: 258292.
[B32] Luksich, J. and K. Rapp, “Review of Kraft paper/natural ester fluid insulation system aging,” IEEE
ICDL Conference 2011, File no.110.
[B33] McShane, C. P., “New safety dielectric coolants for distribution and power transformers,” IEEE Industry
Applications Magazine, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 24–32, May/June 2000, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/2943.838037.
[B34] McShane, C. P., K. J. Rapp, J. L. Corkran, G. A. Gauger, and J. Luksich, “Aging of paper insulation in
natural ester dielectric fluid,” IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, Oct. 28–
Nov. 2, 2001, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TDC.2001.971319.
[B35] McShane, C. P., J. Luksich, and K. J. Rapp, “Retrofilling aging transformer with natural ester based
dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,” Proceedings of the IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical
Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/CITCON.2003.1204715.
[B36] OECD 203, OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 2, Test Number 203: Fish, Acute
Toxicity Test.23
[B37] OECD 420, OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, Section 4, Test Number 420: Acute Oral
Toxicity – Fixed Dose Procedure.
[B38] Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the AOCS, American Oil Chemists Society.
[B39] Oommen, T. V., C. C. Claiborne, E. J. Walsh, and J. P. Baker, “A new vegetable oil based transformer
fluid: development and verification,” IEEE Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena,
Vancouver, BC, Canada, Oct. 2000, pp. 308–312, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/CEIDP.2000.885288.
[B40] Paella, T., C. Perrier, Y. Zelu, G. Morin, and M. Saravolac, “Study on flow electrification hazards with
ester oils,” IEEE ICDL Conference 2011, File no. 13.
[B41] Rapp, K., J. Luksich, and A. Sbravati, “Application of Natural Ester Insulating Liquids in Power
Transformers,” My Transf 2014, Turin, Italy, November 18–19, 2014.
[B42] Singha, S., R. Asano Jr., G. Frimpong, C. C. Claiborne, and D. Cherry, “Comparative Aging
Characteristics between a High Oleic Natural Ester Dielectric Liquid and Mineral Oil,” IEEE Transactions on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 149–158, February 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
TDEI.2013.003713.
[B43] Underwriters Laboratories Gas and Oil Equipment Directory, 2006.24
[B44] Unge, M., S. Singha, N. V. Dung, D. Linhjell, S. Ingebrigtsen, and L. E. Lundgaard, “Enhancements in
the lightning impulse breakdown characteristics of natural ester dielectric liquids,” Applied Physics Letters,
vol. 102, no. 17, p. 172905, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4803710.
[B45] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technology Verification, Joint Verification
Statement for Vegetable Oil-Based Insulation Dielectric Fluid, Statement VS-R-02-02, June 2002, and VS-R-
02-03, June 2002.
23
OECD publications are available from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/).
24
UL publications are available from Underwriters Laboratories (http://www.ul.com/).
36
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
[B46] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Technologies Verification (ETV) Reports,
EPA 600/R-02/042 and EPA 600/R-02/043, Office of Research and Development, National Center for
Environmental Research, Washington, DC.
[B47] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Test Method OPPTS 835.3110, Office of Prevention, Pesticides,
and Toxic Substances Test Guidelines, Washington, DC, Sept. 1995.
[B48] Viertel, J., K. Ohlsson, and S. Singha, “Thermal aging and degradation of thin films of natural ester
dielectric liquids,” IEEE ICDL Conference 2011, File no. 128, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICDL.2011.6015478.
[B49] Vukovic, D., S. Tenbohlen, J. Harthun, C. Perrier, and H. Fink, “Breakdown Strength of Vegetable-
based Oils Under AC and Lightning Impulse Voltages,” IEEE ICDL Conference 2011, File no. 116, http://dx
.doi.org/10.1109/ICDL.2011.6015468.
37
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Annex B
(informative)
Additional technical information
B.1 Relative moisture saturation of natural esters compared to conventional

mineral oil
Natural ester water solubility is expressed by the following equation:
Log y = −A / K + B
where
A is a constant of a given liquid (contact insulating liquid supplier for the values)
B is a constant of a given liquid (contact insulating liquid supplier for the values)
K is 273.1 + °C
y is milliliters/kilogram (mL/kg) (ppm)
Table B.1—Calculated water saturation values (mg/kg) for natural ester liquids
Temperature Natural ester
Typical mineral oil
(°C) (average of 3 types)
0 22 658
10 36 814
20 55 994
30 83 1198
40 121 1427
50 173 1681
60 242 1962
70 332 2269
80 447 2604
90 593 2965
100 773 3354
Modified with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory
evaluation of several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings of the
86th Annual International Conference of Doble Clients, Doble Engineering Company,
Watertown, MA, USA, 2001 [B13].
38
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
a
Modified with permission from Doble Engineering Company, Lewand, L. R., “Laboratory evaluation of
several synthetic and agricultural-based dielectric liquids,” Proceedings of the 86th Annual International
Conference of Doble Clients, Doble Engineering Company, Watertown, MA, USA, 2001 [B13].
b
Source: IEEE Std C57.106™-2002, pages 8–10 [B26].
Figure B.1—Natural ester liquid versus mineral oil saturation curves
B.2 Service-aged natural ester liquids

Table B.2—Provisional guidelines for key property values of service-aged
natural ester liquids for triggering prompt additional investigation
IEEE value for voltage class
≤ 69 kV ≥ 69 kV < 230 kV ≥ 230 kV
Dissipation factor (power factor),
ASTM D924, at 25 °C, % ≥3 ≥3 ≥3
Viscosity increase from value at time of initial
energization, ASTM D445, at 40 °C, % ≥ 10 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
Acid number, ASTM D974, mg KOH/gm c
≥ 0.5 ≥ 0.3 ≥ 0.3
Flash point, ASTM D92, °C ≤ 275 ≤ 275 ≤ 275
Color, ASTM D1500 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5
Interfacial tension ≤ 10 ≤ 12 ≤ 14
Inhibitor content (see footnote d) (see footnote d) (see footnote d)
a
Applies only for transformers originally designed for and filled with unused natural ester liquid.
b
These values are based on limited accelerated aging and field samples taken over a period of up to 20 years. As statistically
significant data is developed for each property, the property listing should be moved to Table 4.
c
For samples with significant discoloration, ASTM D664 may be the preferred test method.
d
Contact the manufacturer of the specific liquid for recommended inhibitor test method and trigger point values.
39
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
B.3 Examples of key properties of mixtures of an unused natural ester with

unused mineral oil
Source: McShane, C. P., J. Luksich, and K. J. Rapp, “Retrofilling aging transformer with natural
ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,” Proceedings of the IEEE IAS/
PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, May 2003 [B35].
Figure B.2—Effect on the viscosity of a natural ester liquid mixed with mineral oil
Source: “Retrofilling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Figure B.3—Effect on the pour point of a natural ester liquid mixed with mineral oil
40
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Source: “Retrofilling aging transformer with natural ester based dielectric coolant for safety and life extension,”
Figure B.4—Effect on the fire point and flash point of a

natural ester liquid mixed with mineral oil
B.4 Relative cooling performance properties

Four cooling performance properties of the dielectric coolant are often used for transformer design. These
include viscosity, coefficient of expansion, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity. As viscosity is the most
significant, limits are listed within the main clauses of this guide. However, for thermal design optimization, it
is useful to have the values of the other three properties. Specific typical values of thermal properties for each
brand of liquid should be obtained from the liquid manufacturer.
41
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Annex C
(informative)
Additional information on fire, safety, environmental, and

sustainable properties of natural esters
C.1 Fire safety considerations

The first “less-flammable” insulating liquids were introduced in the 1970s as the use of polychlorinated
biphenyl (PBC) based insulating liquids was being regulated, and production banned in 1979 in the USA.
Several non-flammable and less-flammable liquids were introduced as PCB alternatives, but HMWH and
silicone liquids became dominant, followed by synthetic esters.
Since 1984, listing as a “less-flammable” insulating liquid per the National Fire Protection Association (2017
NEC, Article 50.23), the transformer insulating liquids have had the following two key requirements:
— The fire point shall be 300 °C or higher per ASTM test method D92.
— The liquid shall be listed “less-flammable” by one or more nationally recognized safety testing
laboratories.
Most commercially available less-flammable insulating liquids are listed as UL Classified, FM Global
Approved, or both. Less-flammable insulating liquids are also recognized as a fire safeguard in Section 15 of
the 2017 NESC for distribution and generation substations.
Listings and classifications are also available for less-flammable liquid immersed transformers. For UL,
transformer listings are per XPLH as ANSI-compliant. Within the UL XPLH listing is the option for additional
certification markings to Article 450.23 of the 2017 NEC as UL Classified for use as less-flammable liquid
insulated transformer. The FM Global requirements for an FM Approved Transformer insulated with less-
flammable insulating liquids are found in FM Standard 3990 [B20].
Natural ester insulating liquids were initially developed in the 1990s as an additional askarel (PCB) alternative.
Because less-flammable insulating liquids have inherently higher flash and fire points than that of conventional
mineral oil, ASTM D6871 requires a minimum 275 °C flash point and a minimum fire point of 300 °C as
received from the natural ester manufacturer. If unused natural ester tests below 300 °C fire point, it should be
assumed that it has been contaminated.
IEC 61039 designates a class K for insulating liquids with a fire point above 300 °C. This International
Standard defines a system for classifying insulating liquids according to fire-point and net calorific value. The
characteristics on which the system is based are given together with limiting values in Table C.1 below.
Table C.1—Fire classification of liquids

Class Fire point Class Net calorific value
O ≤ 300 °C 1 ≥ 42 MJ/kg
K > 300 °C 2 < 42 MJ/kg and ≥ 32 MJ/kg
L No measurable fire point 3 < 32 MJ/kg
Reprinted with permission from CIGRE Technical Brochure 436, Experiences in service with new
insulating liquids, CIGRE WG A2-35, 2010 [B9].
42
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Due to increased focus on environmental and sustainable practices by the electrical power industry, and the
resulting improved cellulose insulation life when impregnated with natural esters, the industry began applying
natural esters for new and retrofilled transformers, including installations not requiring less-flammable liquids.
For mineral oil transformers retrofilled with natural esters, due to residual mineral oil in the impregnated
cellulose insulation, the flash point can fall below the ASTM minimum value for unused liquid as received.
With proper retrofill procedures, the fire point should remain above the 300 °C for natural esters with >350 °C
fire point. However, a fire point falling below 300 °C should not impact the functionality of the transformer.
C.2 Environmental and health safety considerations

Most currently available natural ester insulating liquids in the USA are edible oil based. Edible vegetable base
oils have relatively fast biodegradation rate, and are naturally non-toxic. While the base vegetable oil typically
constitutes a minimum 95% of the content of the insulating liquid, there are additives applied, generally for
improved pour point and oxidation stability. Because the health and environmental properties of additives
can impact the overall safety of the insulating liquid, it may be important to users to be able to determine the
overall environmental and health properties. At a minimum, users should request a current SDS from the
manufacturer. Currently, the ASTM Guide D6871 does not list minimum requirements for environmental and
health related properties. However, there are common tests used for environmental and health assays. These
include the following:
— Aerobic aquatic biodegradation by test guideline EPA OPPTS 835.3100 [B15]

— Ready biodegradability by test guidelines EPA OPPTS 835.3110, Method 301b [B16]
— Acute aquatic toxicity by test method OECD 203 [B36]
— Acute oral toxicity by test method OECD 420 [B37]
— Total life cycle greenhouse gas determination per NIST Building for Environmental and Economic
Sustainability (BEES) software evaluation method [B29]
C.3 Sustainability considerations

As the electrical power industry increasingly recognizes the need supply chain sustainability, it may be
important to factor in the relative sustainability of insulating liquids. To be designated biobased for natural
ester based insulating liquids, a U.S. EPA program requires a minimum biobased content of 95%. The method
used to determine bio-based content is ASTM D6866 [B7].
43
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
Annex D
(informative)
Discussion regarding natural ester immersed load tap changers

(LTCs)
Regulated power transformers are equipped with LTCs to change their ratio and, subsequently, adapt the
transformer output voltage to the respective conditions. This enables the power supply network to be kept
stable under changing load conditions.
Tap changers are complex electro-mechanical devices that also should adapt to high-voltage conditions. This
combination makes them unique components in energy supply technology. While the insulating liquid in a
transformer has dual tasks of cooling and (in combination with the solid insulation) electrically insulating
windings and bushings against high voltage, a suitable insulating liquid for tap changers should also fulfill the
following recommendations:
— The switching arcs should be cooled and quenched by the surrounding liquid.
— All mechanically moving parts (gears, selector contacts, etc.) should be sufficiently lubricated in order
to reach a high mechanical life, which correlates to the lifespan of the transformer (>30 years).
— The spring-driven switches should be able to help ensure a proper switching sequence of the contact
system within the entire permissible insulating liquid temperature range (typically −25 °C to +125 °C).
A diverter switch is an example of a spring-driven switch.
— A large variety of different high-tech materials may be used inside a tap changer to achieve high
electrical and mechanical functionality and a long working life; all of those should be compatible with
the insulating liquid used.
Thus the dielectric, mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties of the insulating liquids should be evaluated.
Historically, tap changers have been optimized to work reliably in mineral oil. If the same tap changer design
is used for natural esters, some limitations may apply, due to the differences in certain properties (Frotscher
et al. [B21]). For example, the higher viscosity can limit tap changer operation in cold insulating liquids. A
tap changer has a limited amount of spring force to operate the diverter mechanism. If the insulating liquid
is too viscous, the switching sequence slows down. If, in the worst case, the switching operation begins but
cannot be completed, a failure could occur. Viscosity also affects the arc-quenching behavior and can lead to a
reduced switching capacity.
Natural esters also show different breakdown behavior in long gaps in highly non-uniform electrode
configurations such as needle to plane and needle to sphere. This is due to a different streamer propagation
mechanism that exists at voltages higher than the partial discharge inception level (Duy et al. [B14] and Liu
and Wang [B30]). Fast streamers can develop at significantly lower voltages than in mineral oil. They have
a long stopping length so there is a significant possibility they can bridge long insulating liquid gaps and
cause a breakdown. This can occur under impulse voltage at inhomogeneous electrode configurations with
uncoated electrodes, as commonly applied on tap changers. The geometric shape of tap changer electrodes
and contacts is the result of a compromise between mechanical function, mechanical endurance, number of
taps, required load current, and electrical insulation. The established compromises for mineral oil cannot be
assumed to be optimal for other types of insulating liquids. When electrical insulation is the only function of
the insulating liquid, the electrode shape can be optimized for minimum field stress. Thus, the same dielectric
performance is achievable. In contrast, non-homogeneous electrode configurations used in tap selectors can
result in significantly reduced withstand voltages, depending on the degree of non-homogeneity and insulating
44
IEEE Std C57.147-2018
liquid gap length. Such insulating distances have to be designed carefully and adjustments may be necessary
to limit the test voltage levels to acceptable values and, consequently, derating. Because the voltage level
deratings are specific for different tap changer models, the tap changer manufacturer should be consulted to
determine permissible test voltage levels for ac and LI. Distribution class transformers equipped with step
voltage regulators probably do not need any deratings relative to immersion in mineral oil because of lower
electrical stress conditions.
Natural esters require prevention from continuous contact with ambient air (sealed tank design) to avoid
oxidation and subsequent increase in the viscosity of the insulating liquid due to polymerization of the ester
molecules. Accordingly, for LTCs immersed in natural esters, it may be preferable to use vacuum interrupters
where the switching arcs are encapsulated inside vacuum cells. Arc-breaking-in-insulating liquid tap changers
can also be used if the conservator is fitted with a rubber bag and the LTC is equipped with a venting one-way
breather. A nitrogen filled cycle purged LTC is yet another option.
The following are some suggested design guidelines for the application of natural ester insulating liquids in
on-load tap changers:
— Vacuum LTC models preferably may be used. However, arc-breaking LTC models could be used,
depending on the breaking capacity and construction of the preservation system. Discuss the
application with the manufacturer.
— Avoid highly non-homogeneous fields wherever possible. Consider adding shielding or coatings on
uncoated electrodes to avoid partial discharge inception, and to prevent streamers from formation and
propagation. Alternatively, consider selecting a higher voltage class (longer insulating liquid gaps)
than required by the application for mineral oil.
— For electrode setups where constructive measures are needed but not possible (conventional tap
selector design), lower withstand voltages for test voltage levels for applied voltage and lightning
impulse tests (IEC: AC and LI) than in mineral oil may be required.
— Contact the manufacturer regarding low temperature limits for the operation of the tap changer. The
tap changer should not be operated if the temperature of the insulating liquid surrounding the moving
parts is lower than the specified low temperature limit.
— Mitigate prolonged arcing times on the reversing or coarse tap switch by reducing the admissible
switching capacity, if necessary. The tap changer manufacturer should take appropriate measures to
compensate for this reduction.
45
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IEEE Guide for Acceptance and

Maintenance of Natural Ester

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE IEEE Std C57.147™-2018

IEEE Guide for Acceptance and

Approved 15 February 2018

IEEE-SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2018 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-1-5044-4919-9 STD23135

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Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE Standards documents

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Donald Ayers John Harley Ryan Musgrove

Jean-Philippe Faure, Chair

Ted Burse Xiaohui Liu Robby Robson

Figure B.1 was reprinted from IEEE Std C57.106™-2002 [B26].

Annex B (informative) Additional technical information������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38

1.3 System design

1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester liquids with other

2. Normative references

Accredited Standards Committee C2, National Electrical Safety Code®(NESC®).3,4

Accredited Standards Committee C2-2017, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).

ASTM D923, Standard Practices for Sampling Electrical Insulating Liquids.

IEC 61039 Classiﬁcation of insulating liquids.7

NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®(NEC®).10,11

NFPA 70®, 2017 Edition, National Electrical Code® (NEC®).

3. Acronyms and abbreviations

AOCS American Oil Chemists Society

LTC load tap changer

4. Liquid tests and the significance of each test

4.2 Practices for sampling (ASTM D923)

4.3 Acid number (ASTM D664 and ASTM D974)

4.4 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D1816)

4.5 Dielectric breakdown voltage—impulse conditions (ASTM D3300)

4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity

4.7 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)

4.8 Color (ASTM D1500)

4.9 Kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445)

4.11 Relative density (ASTM D1298)

4.13 Volume resistivity (ASTM D1169)

4.14 Gas analysis (ASTM D3284, D3612)

4.15 Oxidation stability

4.16 Water content—Karl Fischer Method (ASTM D1533)

4.17 Visual examination of used liquids (ASTM D1524)

4.18 Gassing of insulating liquids under electrical stress and ionization

4.19 Corrosive sulfur test (ASTM D1275)

4.20 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (ASTM D4059)

4.21 Furanic compounds (ASTM D5837)

5. Liquid compatibility with transformer materials

6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester liquids for use in filling

6.2 Shipping containers

6.3 Check tests on receipt

Dehumidification of the air in the storage tank can also be used.

7. Evaluation of natural ester liquids received in new equipment and after

Table 3—Test limits for unused natural ester liquid received in

Table 3—Test limits for unused natural ester liquid received in

8. Maintenance of natural ester liquids

Annex B (informative) Additional technical information�� 38

1.4 Background information on mixtures of natural ester liquids with other

4.6 AC loss characteristics—dissipation factor and relative permittivity

4.18 Gassing of insulating liquids under electrical stress and ionization

6. Handling and evaluation of natural ester liquids for use in filling

7. Evaluation of natural ester liquids received in new equipment and after

B.3 Examples of key properties of mixtures of an unused natural ester with