COSTAL CLASSIFICATION

Submitted To:
Submitted By:
Dr. Chandra Shekhar
Akash Gourav
Dwivedi
182604010001
Er. Md Gulam Ansari
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Approaches to Coastal Classification ...................................................................................................... 3
Early classifications. ................................................................................................................................ 5
Later classifications. ................................................................................................................................ 5
Classification & Characteristics ............................................................................................................... 5
Primary Coasts ................................................................................................................................. 5
Secondary Coasts ............................................................................................................................ 7
Classification of coasts (After Cotton, 1952). ......................................................................................... 8
Classification of coasts (After Johnson, 1919). ....................................................................................... 9
Classification of coasts After Shepard, 1948). ........................................................................................ 9
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 11

1|Page
Introduction
The coast is shaped by tectonic and structural features, the nature of the rock forming
the coast and depositional and erosive activity. The basic type of coast is determined
by tectonic and structural factors that have been imprinted during formation of the
continents. For example, the Pacific coast of North America has been uplifted,
compressed, and received exotic blocks from the subducting Pacific Plate. These
processes have developed a narrow continental shelf, with mountain ranges blocking
river drainage and sediment influx from the continent. In contrast, the Atlantic coast is
a divergent margin - the North American crustal plate is moving away from the Atlantic
oceanic ridge and the dominant tectonic process has been isostatic subsidence of the
continental margin. Greater river discharge carries sediments to the marine
environment and a broad coastal plain and wide shelf have resulted.

Although similar features can be found on both coasts of North America, the
development of coastal features has been affected by the underlying geologic
character and the wave conditions specific to each. On the west coast, high Pacific
waves cross the narrow shelf nearly unimpeded, with oceanic swell dominating. On
the east coast, lower waves cross a wider shelf, but we have higher waves
accompanying periodic hurricanes and extratropical storms.

Adding to these factors is sea-level history. Today's sandy coastlines are products of
a rise in sea level that began almost 15,000 yBP and slowed about 5,000 years ago.
Although the rapid rise of sea level ended some 5,000 years ago, there has been a
slow rise of several centimetre’s during the last fifty years. General sea level rise can
be compared to local tectonic adjustment to determine the relative emergence (i.e.,
uplift in Oregon and the southern coast of Alaska), submergence (i.e., southern
Louisiana and the Nile Delta), or stability of a shoreline. In an area of limited tidal
range, a rise of several centimetres would lead to changes in the beach equilibrium.

Classification schemes are used to reduce a highly variable world into smaller groups
that are easier to consider individually. Classifications of coastlines generally fall into
one of three categories: morphological, control based, and genetic, with considerable
cross-over that can sometimes make the three seem indistinguishable.

Coastal classifications have reflected the accepted dogmas of the time in which they
were developed. Primary among these are schemes that use either tectonic or sea-
level history as the dominant underlying control. Johnson proposed a classification
based largely on tectonic controls. It is significant to note that this classification came
in the wake of the revelations of Charles Darwin on the importance of tectonics in the

2|Page
development of atolls and other reefs worldwide. The classification introduced
by Valentin followed a similar theme, but added the concept of biological accretion and
strong input by physical processes. Inman and Nordstram continued on the theme of
tectonic control.
Price introduced a coastal classification that emphasized physical process over all
other controls. Following that lead, workers such as Davis and Hayes, Davis and
Hayes, championed the importance of physical processes as major factors in the
development of coastal landforms. A classification based on processes includes wave
energy, tidal range, sea-level stability, and the supply rate and type of material that is
available.
Shepard's classification integrated the ideas of many earlier classifications into one
that stresses the relative importance of primary (i.e. the geologic underpinning) and
secondary (modern marine processes) agents.

Approaches to Coastal Classification

There have been various attempts to classify coastal landforms (including shores and
shoreline features) but none were entirely successful (BIRD, 1976), for reasons
already indicated. Although many different schemes have been proposed, no
completely satisfactory classification of coasts has yet been devised. This situation
perhaps partly results from widespread beliefs in the superiority of genetic approaches
over descriptive classifications, as reported by KING (1966). Part of the difficulty also
stems from the fact that a genetic classification can only be applied satisfactorily when
the processes of landform development are known. Other attempts to use particular
types or associations of landforms as indicators of particular modes of origin frequently

3|Page
cause interpretive errors that are exposed by subsequent research. Previous
investigations propose that several salient factors should be taken into account when
devising a coastal classification (KING, 1966; DAVIES, 1964, 1973; BIRD, 1976;
FAIRBRIDGE, 1989): (1) the shape or form (morphology) of the land surface (above
and below sea level), (2) the movement of sea level relative to the land and vice versa
(e.g. change in relative sea level, RSL), (3) modifying effects of marine processes, (4)
climatic influences on process and form, and (5) age and durability of coastal
materials. Some of these factors have been used in various proposed classifications.
An additional factor that must be considered is the scale of observation (e.g.
SHERMAN and BAUER, 1993), a parameter that is often implied but not explicitly
indicated. A range of spatial scales determine the kinds of features, materials, or
processes that can be seen in the field, on maps, and from photographs or satellite
images. For the sake of the following discussion, the range of scales in common usage
include: global (worldwide coverage), continental, regional, and local (detailed). The
general categories of phenomena that are studied in coastal classification can be
grouped in terms of (1) processes, (2) materials, (3) forms, (4) age or stage of
development, and (5) environments (e.g. ecological regions, land systems, morpho
dynamic zones). Most systems focus on one or two of these categories and are thus
specialized rather than comprehensive.

4|Page
Early classifications.
Many early geologists took a genetic approach to classification and distinguished
whether the coast had been primarily affected by rising sea level (submergence),
falling sea level (emergence), or both (compound coasts).

Later classifications.
The best known of the modern classifications are those of Cotton (1952), Inman and
Nordstrom (1971), Shepard (1937), with revisions in 1948, 1971 (with Harold
Wanless), 1973, and 1976, and Valentin (1952). Except for Inman and Nordstrom
(1971), the classifications emphasized onshore and shoreline morphology but did not
include conditions of the offshore bottom. This may be a major omission because the
submarine shoreface and the shelf are part of the coastal zone. Surprisingly few
attempts have been made to classify the continental shelf. Shepard (1948; 1977) and
King (1972) discussed continental shelf types, but their classifications are not detailed
and contain only a few broadly defined types.

Classification & Characteristics

classification schemes vary, but are generally either:

erosional/depositional: depending on whether their primary features were created

by erosion of land or deposition of eroded material erosional coasts are those that
developed where active erosion by wave action occurs or where rivers or glaciers
caused erosion when sea level was lower than it presently is; these include cliffs or
rocky shores

depositional coasts develop where sediments accumulate either from a local source
or after being transported to the area in rivers and glaciers or by ocean currents and
waves; these include deltas, mangrove swamps, salt marshes, barrier islands, and
beach-sand dunes

primary/secondary: primary coasts are generally young and are shaped by terrestrial
processes, including erosion, river/stream deposition, glaciers, volcanism, and
tectonic movements

secondary coasts are shaped mainly by marine erosion or deposition due to wave
action, sediment transport by currents, or building activities of certain organisms (e.g.,
reefs); generally, these coasts are older.

Primary Coasts

• formed by land erosion

o during the last glaciations, rivers cut across the land and eroded
sediments to form coastal river valleys which then drowned when sea
level rose again
o glaciers can have the same effect by scouring out steep-sided valleys
and carrying sediments that are deposited where the ice melts at
glacier's end (moraines); as sea level rose, the valleys were also

5|Page
 flooded to form deep and narrow fjords many of which are partially
closed off from the ocean by sills formed by moraines
• formed by land processes where sediment washes off the land to build out the
coast
o deltas are formed when the sediment discharge from a river is so large
that former estuaries become completely filled and wave and tidal
current action are unable to disperse the sediment that reaches the river
mouth; most deltas occur at mid- to low-latitudes and form extensive
wetlands of high biological productivity and fertility
o a delta has the following features:
1. delta plain: an extensive lowland area above sea-level, usually
crossed by a network of active and abandoned channels which
are separated by either vegetated or shallow water areas;
channels are called distributaries which constantly change as
sediment blocks the channel so that flow will split to form a new
route
2. delta front: comprises part of the shoreline and part of the delta
below sea level where delta sediments dip seawards; this is
where the river bedload is deposited and it consists most of sandy
sediments
3. prodelta: the deeper, offshore zone which receives much of the
silt and clay that is transported seawards in suspension; generally
merges with the shelf-sediment environment

• there are several types of deltas:

1. river-dominated deltas -- occur where the tidal range is very low
and the tidal current action is very weak
▪ can have a situation where the speed of river's flow is
moderate to low and the distributary mouth is relatively
deep, allowing salt water (in form of a wedge) to penetrate
upriver; river water spreads out over the surface of
seawater as a two dimensional jet and mixing occurs at the
base of the freshwater where it flows over the seawater

6|Page
 and at the sides of the plume; get raised banks of
sediments which diverge little as they are built seaward so
their distributaries tend to be long, straight, and finger-like;
also get density stratification example: Mississippi delta
▪ can also have a situation where the speed of the river
discharge is so high that it literally forces the seawater
back, causing turbulent mixing as it does so; no density
stratification here
▪ example: Amazon river
2. tide-dominated deltas: occur in regions where wave action is
limited and tidal ranges are generally in excess of 4 m, generating
strong tidal currents -- have a major effect on mixing of river water
and seawater and on sediment redistribution; density stratification
is prevented; two-way sediment movement occurs with the
formation of sediment ridges parallel to the direction of the river
flow; have a very ragged outline
3. wave-dominated deltas: occur where wave energy is high;
outflowing freshwater behaves as a countercurrent, slowing down
oncoming wave crests and causing waves to break in deeper
water than normal; waves are also refracted so that wave energy
is concentrated on the freshwater plume -- this leads to vigorous
mixing, rapid deceleration of the freshwater flow, and sediment
deposition; wave action reworks the deposited sediments to form
sand bars and beaches, creating a straight shoreline with only a
small protuberance at the distributary mouth

Secondary Coasts

• have high-energy and low-energy secondary coasts

o high-energy coasts are battered by large waves; more exposed to
tropical storms; shore straightening occurs most rapidly here (wave
energy focuses onto headlands and causes sediments here to erode and
form beaches -- beaches modify irregular form of original shoreline and
"straighten" it)
o low-energy coasts are infrequently battered by large waves; are more
protected
• erosive forces form the following features along these coasts:
o sea cliffs -- marks shoreward limit of erosion; steepness results from the
collapse of undercut notches
o sea caves -- cuts into cliffs at local zones of weakness in the rocks; can
have a blowhole at top of cliff if erosion continues upward along a zone
of weakness
o sea arches -- formed by erosion of rock
o sea stacks -- formed by a rock pile seaward from the beach
o wave-cut platforms -- marks the submerged limit of rapid erosion just
offshore

7|Page
 • volcanic coasts: if an island, coastline will consist of lava flows that are
weathered by waves; if on a continent, can get a concave shoreline from
a volcanic crater (which results from a volcano exploding or collapsing)
that fills with seawater
• fault coasts: occur where the crust is being warped or faulted -- when
one side of the fault moves upward relative to the other side, the sea can
intrude (ex: Gulf of California)

Classification of coasts (After Cotton, 1952).

I. Coasts of stable regions. (These are all drowned by the recent submergence, but in
reality, are compound.)
A. Dominated by features of the most recent submergence
B. Dominated by some features of an earlier emergence
C. Miscellaneous—volcanic, fjord, etc.
II. Coasts of mobile regions. (These are all compound and affected by diastrophism
as well as eustatic changes of base level.)
A. Coasts on which the most recent change is submergence
B. Diastrophic movements on coasts resulting in emergence
C. Fault and monoclinal coasts D. Miscellaneous coasts—volcanic, fjord, etc.

8|Page
Classification of coasts (After Johnson, 1919).
I. Submergence coasts
A. Ria coasts
B. Fjord coasts II. Emergence coasts (with barriers) coastal plain shoreline
III. Neutral coasts
A. Delta coasts
B. Alluvial plain coasts
C. Outwash plain coasts
D. Volcano coasts
E. Coral-reef coasts
F. Fault coasts
IV. Compound coasts—any combination of the above types

Classification of coasts After Shepard, 1948).

I. Coasts shaped primarily by non-marine agencies. (Primary, youthful shoreline)
A. Shaped by terrestrial agencies of erosion (subaerial denudation) and drowned by
the Recent (Flandrian) marine transgression or down-warping of the land margin
1. Ria coast (drowned mouths of river valleys)
a. Parallel trend between structure and coast (Dalmatian type)
b. Transverse trend between structure and coast (SW-Ireland type)
2. Drowned glacial erosion coast
a. Fjord coast (drowned glacial valleys)
b. Glacial trough coast
B. Shaped by terrestrial (subaerial) deposition
1. River deposition
a. Delta coast—convex out
b. Alluvial plain coast—straight
2. Glacial deposition
a. Partially submerged moraine
b. Drumlins—often partly drowned
3. Wind deposition
a. Dune coast

9|Page
4. Vegetation coast
a. Mangrove coast
C. Shaped by volcanic activity
1. Volcanic deposition coast—lava flow—convex out
2. Volcanic explosion coast—concave out
D. Shaped by diastrophism
1. Fault coasts or fault scarp coasts
2. Fold coasts, due to monoclinal flexures
II. Coasts shaped primarily by marine agencies. Secondary or mature coastlines. A.
Shaped by marine erosion
1. Cliffed coasts made more regular by marine erosion
2. Cliffed coasts made less regular by marine erosion
B. Shaped by marine deposition
1. Coasts straightened by marine deposition
2. Coasts prograded by marine deposition
3. Shorelines with barriers and spits—concavities facing ocean
4. Organic marine deposition—coral coasts

Conclusion
Costal classification has been by various geologist from the very beginning.
Classification has been a long and vexed problem in coastal science. Different
scientists have given their own classification schemes. These classification schemes
give us better understanding of the coast.

10 | P a g e
Bibliography
Bruce P. Hayden, G. C. (2009). Classification of Coastal and Marine Environments. Published online by
Cambridge University Press: 24 August 2009.

Claudia Wolff, a. A. (2018). A Mediterranean coastal database for assessing the impacts of sea-level
rise and associated hazards . doi: 10.1038/sdata.2018.44.

Finkl, C. W. (2004). Coastal Classification: Systematic Approaches to Consider in the Development of

a Comprehensive Scheme. Journal of Coastal Research, Number 201:166-213. 2004.

IHL, T., Martínez, O. F., López, J. R., & Verdinelli, F. B. (2006). A Coastal Classification: A First Step for
a Better Coastal Management System in Yucatan? . XXIII FIG Congress Munich, Germany.

11 | P a g e