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Designing for Service as One Way of Designing Services

Article  in  International Journal of Design · August 2011

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ORIGINAL  ARTICLE

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

Lucy  Kimbell
Saïd  Business  School,  University  of  Oxford,  UK

This  paper  considers  different  ways  of  approaching  service  design,  exploring  what  professional  designers  who  say  they  design  services  
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services  as  entities  that  are  both  social  and  material.  The  designers  in  the  study  saw  service  as  relational  and  temporal  and  thought  of  
value  as  created  in  practice.  They  approached  designing  a  service  through  a  constructivist  enquiry  in  which  they  sought  to  understand  the  
experiences  of  stakeholders  and  they  tried  to  involve  managers  in  this  activity.  The  paper  proposes  describing  designing  for  service  as  a  
particular  kind  of  service  design.  Designing  for  service  is  seen  as  an  exploratory  process  that  aims  to  create  new  kinds  of  value  relation  
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research,  practice  and  teaching.  

Keywords  -­  Designing  for  Service,  Service  Design,  Service  Management.

Relevance   to   Design   Practice   -­   Helps   designers   identify   which   concepts   of   design   and   service   are   mobilized   in   projects.   Describes  
designing  for  service  as  an  exploratory  process  in  which  distinctions  between  products  and  services  are  not  important.  Instead,  services  are  
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Citation:/XF\.LPEHOO'HVLJQLQJIRUVHUYLFHDVRQHZD\RIGHVLJQLQJVHUYLFHVInternational  Journal  of  Design,  5

Introduction conferences   within   universities   (such   as   the   2006   conference  

in   Northumbria   University,   see   http://www.cfdr.co.uk/isdn/),  
Over   the   past   decade,   a   profession   of   service   designers   has   a   professional   Service   Design   Network   (Mager,   2004)   with  
HPHUJHGDQGDQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\¿HOGRIVHUYLFHGHVLJQUHVHDUFK annual  conferences,  books  (Hollins  &  Shinkins,  2006;;  Meroni  &  
has   begun   to   take   shape.  Accounts   of   service   design   vary   from   Sangiorgi,   forthcoming),   and   through   the   work   its   practitioners  
WKRVH WKDW VHH LW DV D QHZ ¿HOG RI GHVLJQ WR WKRVH WKDW VWUHVV LWV publish   in   reports   and   on   websites.   There   has   been   description  
origins   in   other   disciplines   and   make   references   to   existing   of  the  methods  and  tools  these  designers  use,  but  relatively  little  
approaches   within   design,   management   and   the   social   sciences.   WKHRU\EXLOGLQJ 6DQJLRUJL  0HDQZKLOH WKHUH LV OLWWOH
Although  these  studies  provide  useful  insights,  they  do  not  offer  a   published  about  these  designers  within  the  management  literature.  
systematic  analysis  of  what  is  involved  in  designing  services  that   Exceptions  include  Bate  and  Robert’s  (2007)  study  of  what  they  
draws  extensively  on  both  design  and  service  literatures  (Meroni   FDOO³H[SHULHQFHEDVHG´GHVLJQEDVHGRQ8.GHVLJQFRQVXOWDQF\
&   Sangiorgi,   2011).   Similarly,   although   the   services   marketing   ThinkPublic’s   work   with   a   cancer   treatment   service;;   Zomerdijk  
DQGRSHUDWLRQVPDQDJHPHQW¿HOGVKDYHGLVFXVVHGVHUYLFHGHVLJQ and  Voss’s  (2010)  work  on  the  design  of  cruises  and  entertainment  
there   has   been   little   effort   to   engage   with   different   theories   of   services;;   and   qualitative   research   on   the   material   practices   of  
design  (Menor,  Tatikonda  &  Sampson,  2002;;  Tax  &  Stuart,  1997).   service  designers  by  Stigliani  and  Fayard  (2010).
7KLV UHÀHFWV D GHHSURRWHG ODFN RI DWWHQWLRQ WR GHVLJQ ZLWKLQ This   paper   uses   an   interdisciplinary   approach   to   explore  
management   and   organization   studies   resulting   in   part   from   a   different   ways   of   thinking   about   service   design.   It   investigates  
gulf   between   the   research   and   education   traditions   in   the   social   whether  professionals  who  take  service  design  as  their  specialism  
sciences  and  design  disciplines  (Boland  &  Collopy,  2004;;  Jelinek,   bring  something  new  to  existing  understandings  of  design.  First,  
Romme  &  Boland,  2008;;  Simon,  1969).   I  review  the  literature  on  design  and  services  drawing  on  design  
There   is   relatively   little   literature   analyzing   the   work  
of   professional   service   designers.   Two   decades   ago,   services   Received  November  29,  2010;;  Accepted  April  30,  2011;;  Published  August  15,  
researcher   Evert   Gummesson   declared   “We   have   yet   to   hear   of   2011.
service   designers”   (Grönroos,   1990,   p.   57).   Now,   a   profession   Copyright:‹.LPEHOO&RS\ULJKWIRUWKLVDUWLFOHLVUHWDLQHGE\WKHDXWKRU
of   service   designers   exists.   Many   service   designers   are   ZLWK ¿UVW SXEOLFDWLRQ ULJKWV JUDQWHG WR WKH International   Journal   of   Design.  All  
HGXFDWHG ZLWKLQ WKH DUWVFKRRO GHVLJQ WUDGLWLRQ ZLWKLQ ¿HOGV journal   content,   except   where   otherwise   noted,   is   licensed   under   a   Creative  
such   as   product   or   interaction   design,   rather   than   within   the   Commons   Attribution-­NonCommercial-­NoDerivs   2.5   License.   By   virtue   of  
SDUDGLJP RI HQJLQHHULQJ GHVLJQ $OWKRXJK WKH ¿HOG RI VHUYLFH WKHLUDSSHDUDQFHLQWKLVRSHQDFFHVVMRXUQDODUWLFOHVDUHIUHHWRXVHZLWKSURSHU
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design   is   small   and   fragmented,   without   strong   professional  
bodies   or   a   developed   research   literature,   it   is   visible   through   Corresponding  Author:  lucy.kimbell@sbs.ox.ac.uk

www.ijdesign.org   41   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

studies   and   management,   especially   marketing   and   operations.   Design  Literatures

Then,   I   develop   a   framework   to   support   discussion   of   service  
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design  that  makes  explicit  underlying  tensions  in  how  the  concepts  
(Alexander,   1971),   management   (Simon,   1969),   engineering  
of  design  and  service  are  understood.  Then,  I  illustrate  in  detail  one  
(Hubka,   1982),   product   development   (Wheelwright   &   Clark,  
quadrant  of  the  framework  through  an  exploratory  study  of  three  
1992)  and  systems  design  (Ehn  &  Löwgren,  1997).  Descriptions  
professional  service  design  consultancies.  Using  an  ethnographic  
of   design   often   hinge   on   differences   between   underlying   views  
approach,  I  analyze  the  practitioners’  activities  in  three  cases  to  
of  science  and  knowledge:  positivist  science  or  constructionism  
EULQJ WR DWWHQWLRQ WKH WKRXJKWZRUOGV RI WKH GHVLJQHUV DQG WKH
(Dorst   &   Dijkhuis,   1995).   Ways   of   thinking   of   design   range  
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from  attempts  to  build  general  theories  to  accounts  of  particular  
of   how   these   practitioners   approach   designing   services.   Two  
practices.  For  Alexander  (1971),  for  example,  “The  ultimate  object  
are   concerned   with   what   services   are:   they   were   approached   as  
of  design  is  form”  (p.  15)  whereas  for  Simon  (1969),  “Everyone  
VRFLRPDWHULDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVWKDWDUHUHODWLRQDODQGWHPSRUDODV
designs  who  devises  courses  of  action  aimed  at  changing  existing  
value  is  constituted  in  practice.  Two  are  concerned  with  how  to  
situations   into   preferred   ones”   (p.   55).   Design   can   be   seen   as   a  
do  service  design:  designing  a  service  was  approached  through  a  
VHDUFKSURFHVVIRUSUREOHPVROYLQJLQZKLFKWKHGHVLUHGVWDWHRI
constructivist  enquiry  in  which  the  designers  sought  to  understand  
affairs  is  known  at  the  outset  and  problems  can  be  decomposed  
the  experiences  of  diverse  stakeholders  and  involve  managers  in  
into   smaller   units   before   being   solved   (Simon,   1969),   or   in  
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ethnographic  study.  
that  is  exploratory  and  in  which  the  desired  end  state  cannot  yet  
This  paper  adds  to  the  literature  by  proposing  a  framework  
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that  distinguishes  between  different  approaches  to  service  design.  
interpretation.  For  example  in  a  close  reading  of  Simon  (1988),  
It  explores  the  least  understood  one  in  depth.  I  describe  designing  
Pandza   and   Thorpe   (2010)   distinguish   between   deterministic  
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design,   in   which   designers’   agency   is   paramount   as   it   is   their  
combining   an   exploratory,   constructivist   approach   to   design,  
decisions   that   determine   the   nature   and   behavior   of   artifacts;;  
proposing   and   creating   new   kinds   of   value   relation   within   a  
SDWKGHSHQGHQW GHVLJQ LQ ZKLFK DGDSWDWLRQ DQG UHSHWLWLRQ
VRFLRPDWHULDO FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ LQYROYLQJ GLYHUVH DFWRUV LQFOXGLQJ
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people,   technologies   and   artifacts.   This   conceptualization   has  
engineering  design,  in  which  novelty  emerges  through  individual  
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LQWKHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQGLYHUVHDFWRUVUDWKHUWKDQDVDVSHFL¿F
kind  of  object  to  be  designed.  The  framework  may  be  of  value  to  
practitioners  and  researchers  by  helping  identify  which  concepts  
of  design  and  service  are  mobilized  in  their  work.  
Literature  Review
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practice  in  which  professionals  moved  between  different  framings  
of   problems   as   they   went   about   solving   them.   Drawing   on   this  
earlier   work,   Buchanan   (1992)   described   design   as   a   liberal  
art   capable   of   dealing   with   what   Rittel   and   Webber   (1973)   call  
“wicked   problems”   for   which   there   is   no   single   solution   and   in  
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.ULSSHQGRUII  GHVFULEHV GHVLJQ DV JLYLQJ PHDQLQJ WR
To  launch  this  discussion  I  draw  on  several  bodies  of  literature.  
WKLQJVPDNLQJGHVLJQD³KXPDQFHQWUHG´DFWLYLW\LQFRQWUDVWWR
Theories   of   design   are   not   found   in   one   literature.   There   are  
DWHFKQRORJ\FHQWUHGGHVLJQIRFXVLQJRQIXQFWLRQDOLW\)U\
several   design   professions   institutionalized   in   different   kinds  
describes  design  as  concerned  with  redirecting  practices  towards  
of   educational   and   research   context   ranging   from   architecture,  
creating  sustainable  futures.  
engineering  and  computing,  all  of  which  have  strong  professional  
bodies  and  accreditation  procedures  for  practitioners,  to  graphic,   An   important   research   focus   is   the   process   of   designing.  
product  and  fashion  design,  for  example,  which  are  often  found   'HVLJQFDQEHXQGHUVWRRGDVGHVLJQHUVFRFUHDWLQJSUREOHPVDQG
in  art  schools  and  which  have  weaker  institutions  (Abbott,  1988).   solutions  in  an  exploratory,  iterative  process  in  which  problems  
Ideas   of   design   also   permeate   management,   for   example   in   DQG VROXWLRQV FRHYROYH &URVV  'RUVW  &URVV 
organization  design,  often  lacking  a  developed  theory  of  design.   Designing   is   seen   as   shaped   by   a   situated   understanding   of   the  
Similarly,  services  can  be  approached  within  several  management   issue   at   hand   (Winograd   &   Flores,   1986)   in   contrast   to   a   view  
¿HOGVLQFOXGLQJPDUNHWLQJRSHUDWLRQVDQGLQIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPV of   design   in   which   engineers   design   functions   in   response   to  
LQÀXHQFHG E\ GLIIHUHQW WUDGLWLRQV ZLWKLQ WKH VRFLDO VFLHQFHV , constraints   (Hubka,   1982).   In   recent   years,   some   educators   and  
GUDZ VHOHFWLYHO\ IURP WKHVH ¿HOGV WR EXLOG XS D IUDPHZRUN WKDW practitioners  have  argued  that  designers  share  a  kind  of  “design  
distinguishes  between  different  kinds  of  service  design. thinking”  in  which  they  frame  problems  and  opportunities  from  
DKXPDQFHQWUHGSHUVSHFWLYHXVHYLVXDOPHWKRGVWRH[SORUHDQG
Lucy   Kimbell   is   a   researcher,   educator   and   designer.   She   is   associate   fellow   generate  ideas,  and  engage  potential  users  and  stakeholders  (e.g.,  
at  Saïd  Business  School,  University  of  Oxford,  where  she  has  taught  an  MBA   Brown,  2008).  
elective  in  design  and  design  management  since  2005.  In  her  consultancy,  she  
works   on   public   and   commercial   service   design.   Lucy   originally   studied   B.   Buchanan   (1992)   argues   that   designing   is   essentially  
Engineering  Design  and  Appropriate  Technology  at  the  University  of  Warwick,   indeterminate,  but  can  be  thought  about  in  relation  to  “placements”  
then   a   MA.   Computing   in   Art   and   Design   at   Middlesex   University.   She   is  
completing  a  doctorate  on  design  theory  at  Lancaster  University.  Her  artwork   situated   around   artifacts   that   a   particular   design   professional  
has   been   exhibited   internationally   including   in   Making   Things   Public   (2005)   makes,   such   as   posters,   products,   computer   systems   or  
and  at  TEDGlobal  (2011).  
organizations  (Buchanan,  2001).  Sociologists  and  anthropologists  

www.ijdesign.org   42   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

 Kimbell,  L

KDYHVKRZQKRZVSHFL¿FGHVLJQSURIHVVLRQDOVVXFKDVHQJLQHHULQJ should  think  of  back  and  front  stages  as  complementary  parts  of  
designers  (Henderson,  1999)  and  product  designers  (Michlewski,   a  service  system.  Morelli  (2009)  discusses  the  tensions  between  
2008)  go  about  their  work,  enriching  the  understanding  of  what   the   distinct   origins   of   service   design   within   management   and  
designers  do,  but  not  providing  generalisable  accounts.   HQJLQHHULQJ DQG ZLWKLQ QRQHQJLQHHULQJ GHVLJQ SUDFWLFH DQG
Within   management,   interest   in   design   has   two   main   WKHLU LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU FRQFHSWXDOL]LQJ WKH ¿HOG (YHQVRQ DQG
strands:  investigating  the  role  of  design  within  innovation  and  new   Dubberly   (2010)   describe   designing   for   service   as   conceiving  
product   development,   and   thinking   of   management   as   a   design   of,   iteratively   planning   and   constructing   a   service   system   or  
science  rather  than  a  natural  science.  With  regard  to  the  former,   architecture  to  deliver  resources  that  choreograph  an  experience  
design  is  seen  as  key  to  innovation  because  it  involves  generating   that  others  design.
new  concepts  and  new  knowledge  (Hatchuel  &  Weil,  2009),  has  a   This   brief   review   highlights   key   ideas   in   research   about  
structured  creative  process  (Ulrich  &  Eppinger,  1995)  or  because   design,  ranging  from  general  theories  of  the  design  process  and  
GHVLJQOHG LQQRYDWLRQ LQYROYHV ¿UPV JHQHUDWLQJ QHZ PHDQLQJV practice   to   accounts   of   particular   design   professions.   Important  
for  objects  by  engaging  with  a  wide  range  of  interpreters  (Ravasi   WHQVLRQVH[LVWPDNLQJLWGLI¿FXOWWRJHQHUDOL]HDERXWGHVLJQDQG
&  Rindova,  2006;;  Verganti,  2009).  With  regard  to  the  idea  of  a   KDPSHULQJHIIRUWVWR¿QGVWURQJIRXQGDWLRQVRQZKLFKWRGLVFXVV
design   science,   researchers   argue   that   management   should   be   service  design.  A  key  tension  exists  between  a  deterministic  view  
thought  of  as  a  design  activity,  although  this  has  raised  questions   RI GHVLJQ 3DQG]D  7KRUSH  WKDW VHHV LW DV D SUREOHP
as   to   which   kind   of   design   is   being   invoked   by   these   claims   solving  activity  that  aims  to  work  towards  a  desired  state  of  affairs  
(Pandza  &  Thorpe,  2010).   that  can  be  determined  in  advance,  or  as  an  exploratory  enquiry  
A  number  of  efforts  have  been  made  to  describe  the  activities   during   which   understanding   of   an   issue   or   problem   emerges  
that  go  on  during  designing  services.  Many  of  these  accounts  have   (Dorst   &   Cross,   2001;;   Buchanan,   1992).   In   the   latter   case,   a  
been   written   by   practitioners   (e.g.,   Burns,   Cottam,  Vanstone,   &   diverse  group  of  people  can  be  seen  to  be  involved  in  constructing  
:LQKDOO  3DUNHU  +HDS\ $Q LPSRUWDQW LQÀXHQFH DQG LQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH PHDQLQJ RI D GHVLJQ .ULSSHQGRUII 
RQWKHHPHUJLQJ¿HOGRIVHUYLFHGHVLJQLVWKHLGHDRIGHVLJQLQJ Verganti,  2009).  The  paper  now  turns  to  research  in  management  
SURGXFWVHUYLFHV\VWHPV0HURQL 6DQJLRUJLZKLFKKDV to   provide   additional   foundations   with   which   to   understand  
OHGWRXQGHUVWDQGLQJVHUYLFHVDVVRFLRWHFKQLFDOV\VWHPV0RUHOOL service  design.
2002).  In  contrast  to  an  idea  of  design  that  focuses  on  designers  
making  forms,  designing  services  has  been  described  as  looking   Management  Literatures
DWVHUYLFHVIURPDQRXWVLGHLQSHUVSHFWLYHVWDUWLQJZLWKFXVWRPHU
perspectives  (Holmlid  &  Evenson,  2008).  Service  design  has  been   Within   management   literatures,   research   on   services   is  
VHHQDVDVXEVHWRIWKH¿HOGRIGHVLJQFRQFHUQHGZLWKGHVLJQLQJ predominantly   associated   with   marketing   and   operations.  
interactions   with   technology   (Moggridge,   2006),   or   as   having   8QGHUSLQQLQJWKLVUHVHDUFKKDYHEHHQHIIRUWVWRGH¿QHVHUYLFHV
important  differences  to  it  (Holmlid,  2007).   RIWHQ LQ RSSRVLWLRQ WR JRRGV +RZHYHU LW KDV SURYHG GLI¿FXOW
for   researchers   to   agree   what   they   mean   by   services.   Four  
Some   of   the   emphasis   has   been   on   the   design   of   the  
characteristics   summarized   by   Zeithaml,   Parasuraman   and  
physical   artifacts   and   encounters   with   service   personnel   that  
%HUU\  IURP D VXUYH\ RI H[LVWLQJ UHVHDUFK  LQWDQJLELOLW\
are  part  of  a  service,  often  called  touchpoints.  Researchers  have  
KHWHURJHQHLW\ LQVHSDUDELOLW\ DQG SHULVKDELOLW\  KDYH VLQFH
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been   shown   to   be   not   generalisable   across   all   services   and   to  
involve  them  in  design  using  ethnography  and  activity  theory  to  
be   applicable   to   some   goods   (Lovelock   &   Gummesson,   2004;;  
understand   their   perspectives,   goals   and   practices   (Sangiorgi   &  
Vargo  &  Lusch,  2004b).  Further  developments  in  conceptualizing  
Clark,  2004).  Aspects  of  Participatory  Design  have  been  explored  
services   have   lead   to   what   is   currently   an   unresolved   question.  
WR H[DPLQH GHVLJQ SUDFWLWLRQHUV¶ FODLPV DERXW FRFUHDWLRQ
Either   (a)   everything   is   service,   based   on   Vargo   and   Lusch’s  
participation   and   emancipation   during   service   design   (Holmlid,  
D D DUWLFXODWLRQ RI D VHUYLFHGRPLQDQW ORJLF ZKLFK
2009).  Service  design  has  been  seen  as  a  way  to  address  issues  
draws   on   earlier   work   in   services   marketing   and   management  
of   sustainability   in   contrast   to   a   perceived   emphasis   in   product  
(Grönroos,   2000;;   Normann,   1991;;   Normann   &   Ramírez,   1993;;  
DQG LQGXVWULDO GHVLJQ SUDFWLFH RQ FUHDWLQJ DHVWKHWLFDOO\SOHDVLQJ
Ramírez,   1999),   suggesting   that   the   conventional   distinction  
novelty  (Manzini,  2003)  by  being  attentive  to  designing  in  time  
between   goods   and   services   does   not   matter;;   or   (b)   new   ways  
(Fry,  2009;;  Tonkinwise,  2003).
QHHGWREHIRXQGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHVSHFL¿FTXDOLWLHVRIRUJDQL]LQJ
6RPHOLWHUDWXUHLQWKHGHVLJQ¿HOGKDVPDGHH[SOLFLWOLQNV
for  and  consuming  services,  such  as  highlighting  ownership  and  
to   management   research.   Pinhanez   (2009)   proposes   thinking   of  
access  to  resources  (Lovelock  &  Gummesson,  2004).  Vargo  and  
VHUYLFHV DV GHVLJQLQJ FXVWRPHULQWHQVLYH V\VWHPV HPSKDVL]LQJ
Lusch   (2004b)   distinguish   between   service   in   the   singular,   as   a  
ownership  and  means  of  control  in  the  production  process.  Edman  
fundamental  activity  of  economic  exchange,  and  services,  in  the  
H[SORUHVWKHRYHUODSVEHWZHHQGHVLJQWKLQNLQJDQGVHUYLFH
plural,  as  an  economic  category  in  contrast  to  goods.  For  Vargo  and  
dominant  logic  (Vargo  &  Lusch,  2004a)  and  concludes  that  design  
Lusch,   service   involves   dynamic   processes   within   which   value  
RIIHUVWRROVDQGPHWKRGVWRKHOSPDQDJHUVGHYHORSVHUYLFHEDVHG
LVFRFUHDWHGE\DFWRUVZLWKLQDYDOXHFRQVWHOODWLRQ1RUPDQQ 
offerings.   Glushko   and   Tabas   (2009)   argue   that   the   differences  
5DPtUH]RUVHUYLFHV\VWHP0DJOLR6ULQLYDVDQ.UHXOHQ
EHWZHHQ WKH ³EDFN RI¿FH´ DQG ³IURQW RI¿FH´ RULHQWDWLRQV RI
&  Spohrer,  2006).
different  kinds  of  specialist  are  not  productive;;  instead  designers  

www.ijdesign.org   43   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

'HVSLWHWKLVODFNRIDJUHHPHQWRQKRZWRGH¿QHVHUYLFHV what   is   involved   in   constituting   a   service,   Bitner   (1992)   argues  

researchers   have   advanced   knowledge   about   how   organizations   that   what   she   calls   “servicescapes”   –   the   physical   surroundings  
manage   them.   However,   discussion   about   how   organizations   in  which  service  is  provided  and  experienced  –  play  an  important  
design  services  has  not  drawn  in  detail  on  design  literatures  and   role   in   determining   the   perceived   quality   of   consumer   services.  
researchers  have  rarely  made  explicit  links  to  theories  of  design.   Hence  Stuart  and  Tax  (2004)  draw  on  theatre  as  an  approach  to  
The  design  process  has  been  seen  as  part  of  a  process  of  new  service   designing  memorable  service  experiences.
development   (Scheuing   &   Johnson,   1989;;   Zeithaml   &   Bitner,   Efforts  to  bridge  the  gaps  between  marketing  and  operations  
2003)  or  the  redesign  of  existing  services  (Berry  &  Lampo,  2000).   perspectives  on  service  design  include  developing  service  concepts  
Design  is  seen  as  a  phase  that  comes  after  concept  generation  and   (Goldstein,   Johnston,   Duffy,   &   Rao,   2002)   and   a   proposal   to  
WHVWLQJDQGEXVLQHVVDQDO\VLVLQFRQWUDVWWRGH¿QLWLRQVRIGHVLJQ create   a   new   function   called   customer   experience   management,  
introduced  above  that  see  design  as  generating  new  concepts  and   responsible  for  ensuring  that  organizational  service  delivery  aligns  
new   knowledge.   Although   operations   management   researchers   ZLWKPDUNHWLQJSURPLVHVDQGFXVWRPHUH[SHFWDWLRQV.ZRUWQLN 
have  paid  attention  to  the  design  of  the  service  delivery  system  and   Thompson,  2009).  Others  have  taken  forward  Shostack’s  work  on  
the  service  process  (Edvardsson  &  Olsson,  1996;;  Fitzsimmons  &   blueprints   and   shown   how   creating   experience   blueprints   helps  
Fitzsimmons,   2000;;   Ramaswamy,   1996)   or   bringing   modularity   GHVLJQPXOWLLQWHUIDFHVHUYLFHVGHOLYHUHGXVLQJGLIIHUHQWFKDQQHOV
to   service   architecture   (Voss   &   Mikkola,   2007),   overall   new   and  technologies  (Patricio,  Fisk,  &  Cunha,  2008)  and  how  such  
service  design  and  development  are  not  well  understood  (Menor,   DFWLYLWLHV KHOS PXOWLIXQFWLRQDO WHDPV JHQHUDWH RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU
Tatikonda,   &   Sampson,   2002).   Studies   of   manufacturing   innovation  (Bitner,  Ostrom,  &  Morgan,  2008).
processes  such  as  in  the  car  industry  (Womack,  Jones,  &  Roos,   Recent  empirical  work  that  studies  professional  designers’  
1990)   and   business   process   engineering   (Hammer   &   Champy,   approach   to   designing   services   includes   Bate   and   Robert’s  
1993)   with   important   foci   on   quality,   continuous   improvement   (2007)   study   of   designers   using   an   ethnographic   approach   to  
and  benchmarking  (Zairi  &  Sinclair,  1995)  may  apply  to  service   understanding  users’  experiences  in  their  own  terms  and  involving  
operations.  However,  it  is  possible  that  experiential  services  might   WKHP LQ FRGHVLJQLQJ FDQFHU VHUYLFHV 9RVV DQG =RPHUGLMN
present   new   challenges   for   knowledge   based   in   manufacturing.   (2007)   study   professionals   involved   in   designing   experiential  
Recent   work   within   information   systems   has   led   to   calls   for   a   VHUYLFHV VXFK DV WUDYHO DQG HQWHUWDLQPHQW 7KH\ ¿QG WKDW WKHVH
“services   science”   combining   engineering,   management   and   professionals   approached   design   from   the   perspective   of   the  
the   social   sciences   (Chesbrough   &   Spohrer,   2006).  An   analysis   customer   journey,   resembling   Shostack’s   blueprints,   and   that  
RI WKHVH GHYHORSPHQWV LGHQWL¿HG HQKDQFLQJ VHUYLFH GHVLJQ DV D these   designers   have   relatively   informal   methodologies   shaping  
UHVHDUFKSULRULW\VHHLQJLWDVDVLWHIRUFURVVGLVFLSOLQDU\UHVHDUFK how  they  design.  Blomberg  (2008)  illustrates  the  importance  of  
(Ostrom  et  al.,  2010). focusing   on   how   proposed   service   users   negotiate   the   meaning  
Shostack   (1982;;   1984)   was   a   pioneering   advocate   of   the   of  a  service.  Zomerdijk  and  Voss  (2010)  develop  six  propositions  
idea  that  services  could  be  designed  intentionally,  proposing  that   about  the  design  of  experiential  services  and  test  them  empirically  
documenting  and  monitoring  the  service  delivery  process  was  the   in  17  case  studies,  which  highlight  the  importance  of  context  in  
key  methodology  behind  designing  a  successful  service  offering.   GHVLJQLQJVHUYLFHH[SHULHQFHV+RORSDLQHQ ¿QGV WKDWWKH
Shostack  proposed  creating  a  visual  representation  that  she  called   emerging  concept  of  service  design  is  extended  to  cover  almost  
a  “blueprint”  of  a  service  design.  She  argued  this  was  an  important   entirely  the  development  of  new  services.  
way   to   specify   what   a   service   ought   to   be   like.   A   blueprint   Together,  these  concepts  –  the  design  of  the  service  delivery  
represents  what  happens  in  front  of  the  customer  engaging  with   system,  continuously  designing  processes  to  improve  quality,  the  
service  personnel  and  service  “evidence”,  and  behind  a  “line  of   service   encounter,   blueprints,   evidence,   clues,   serviscapes   and  
visibility”  where  others  supported  service  delivery.   the  management  of  customer  experiences  –  represent  importance  
Complementing   this   emphasis   on   managing   the   service   advances   in   understanding   how   organizations   design   services,  
process,  researchers  in  service  marketing  point  to  the  importance   although  lacking  clarity  about  what  is  meant  by  design.  There  has  
RI WKH VHUYLFH HQFRXQWHU XQGHUVWRRG DV D SHUVRQWRSHUVRQ been  research  into  how  professional  designers  who  see  their  work  
interaction   (Solomon,   Surprenant,   Czepiel,   &   Gutman,   1985)   as  service  design  go  about  doing  it,  but  further  work  is  needed.  It  
or   an   interaction   between   customers   and   human   and   artefactual   remains   unclear   at   a   conceptual   level   if   the   distinction   between  
service  evidence  (Bitner,  Boons,  &  Tetreault,  1990).  Parasuraman,   goods   and   services   is   important   and   how   designing   for   service  
Zeithaml   and   Berry   (1985)   developed   ways   to   study   service   might   be   approached   if,   as   Vargo   and   Lusch   (2004a)   suggest,  
quality.   The   service   encounter   creates   a   “moment   of   truth”   at   service   is   understood   as   dynamic   processes   within   which   value  
the  interface  of  service  providers  and  their  customers  (Normann,   LVFRFUHDWHG
$ODPDQG3HUU\HPSKDVL]HDFXVWRPHURULHQWDWLRQ
in   new   service   development.   Berry,   Wall,   and   Carbone   (2006)  
Different  Ways  of  Approaching  Service  Design
argue   for   the   importance   of   designing   service   “clues”   when  
“engineering”  service  experiences.  Carbone  and  Haeckel  (1994)   7KLV UHYLHZ LGHQWL¿HV WKDW WZR DUHDV LQ ZKLFK ZH PLJKW H[SHFW
claim  that  paying  greater  attention  to  the  details  of  the  material   WR¿QGUHVHDUFKRQVHUYLFHGHVLJQ±ZLWKLQGHVLJQOLWHUDWXUHDQG
artifacts   involved   in   a   service   experience   will   result   in   greater   within  services  literature  –  have  not  produced  a  developed  body  
customer   satisfaction.   Further   extending   the   understanding   of   of  knowledge.  Rather,  what  emerges  are  two  important  tensions.  

www.ijdesign.org   44   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

 Kimbell,  L

7KH ¿UVW LV EHWZHHQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ GHVLJQ HLWKHU DV SUREOHP the   use   of   the   preposition   “for”   (cf   Meroni   &   Sangiorgi,   2011;;  
solving  that  aims  to  realize  what  has  already  been  conceived  of,   .LPEHOO  6HLGHO  $V 0DQ]LQL  VLPLODUO\ DUJXHV
or  as  an  exploratory  enquiry  involving  constructing  understanding   talking   of   designing   for   services   rather   than   designing   services  
about  what  is  being  designed,  involving  end  users  and  others  in   recognizes   that   what   is   being   designed   is   not   an   end   result,   but  
creating  meaning.  The  second  is  a  tension  between  the  view  that   rather  a  platform  for  action  with  which  diverse  actors  will  engage  
WKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVPDWWHUVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ over  time.  Designing  for  service,  rather  than  designing  services,  
or  that  service  is  better  understood  as  a  fundamental  activity  with   points   to   the   impossibility   of   being   able   to   fully   imagine,   plan  
multiple  actors  within  a  value  constellation.  Figure  1  summarizes   RU GH¿QH DQ\ FRPSOHWH GHVLJQ IRU D VHUYLFH VLQFH QHZ NLQGV RI
these  perspectives.   value  relation  are  instantiated  by  actors  engaging  within  a  service  
context.   Designing   for   service   remains   always   incomplete   (cf  
Ways  of  thinking  about  service Garud  et  al,  2008).  
This  framework  makes  explicit  differences  in  how  people  
Distinctions  between   Service  is  the  basic  
goods  and  services   unit  of  economic   think  about  design  and  service,  shaping  how  service  design  can  
are  maintained exchange be  understood.  It  helps  illuminate  the  underlying  concepts  about  
design  and  service  that  practitioners  bring  to  their  work  as  they  
Design  as  

engage   in   service   design.   The   paper   now   turns   to   an   empirical  

problem-­

Service  
Engineering
solving

engineering study   of   professional   designers   working   within   the   exploratory  

Ways  of   design  tradition.  As  practitioners  who  say  they  design  services,  the  
thinking  
about  design ways  they  approach  their  work  will  add  depth  to  the  framework.    
Design  as  

Non-­engineering   Designing  
enquiry

design  disciplines for  service

Research  Design
Three   professional   consultancies   offering   service   design   took  
Figure  1.    Approaches  to  conceptualizing  service  design. part  in  the  study.2(DFKZDVSDLUHGZLWKDVPDOO¿UPRIIHULQJD
service  focusing  mainly  on  business  customers.  These  were  small  
The   framework   in   Figure   11   has   two   axes:   one   concerns   HQWHUSULVHVZLWKRXWZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGSURFHVVHVDQGURXWLQHV(DFK
how   service   is   understood,   the   other   concerns   the   nature   RIIHUHGDVHUYLFHEDVHGRQDQRYHOWHFKQRORJ\RUUHFHQWVFLHQWL¿F
of   design.   Together,   the   quadrants   propose   distinct   ways   of   UHVHDUFK , FKRVH WKH ¿UPV WR H[SORUH ZKDW VHUYLFH GHVLJQ
understanding   service   design.   In   the   top   left   quadrant,   design   might  mean  in  a  context  with  little  previous  exposure  to  design  
LV VHHQ DV SUREOHPVROYLQJ DQG WKH FRQYHQWLRQDO GLVWLQFWLRQ professions,  in  contrast  to  consumer,  entertainment  or  hospitality  
between  goods  and  services  is  maintained,  a  view  that  underpins   sectors   from   which   concepts   in   services   marketing   have   been  
ZRUN LQ VRPH PDQDJHPHQW ¿HOGV HJ 6KRVWDFN  8OULFK GUDZQ([SRVLQJWHFKQRORJ\EDVHG¿UPVXQIDPLOLDUZLWKVHUYLFH
&   Eppinger,   1995).   This   quadrant   is   labeled   “engineering”   as   design  to  professionals  advocating  it  created  conditions  in  which  
its  focus  is  the  design  of  new  products  and  services  that  can  be   WKH GHVLJQHUV ZHUH OLNHO\ WR PDNH HIIRUWV ERWK WR UHÀHFW RQ WKH
VSHFL¿HG LQ DGYDQFH XVLQJ V\VWHPDWLF SURFHGXUHV VHUYLFHV DUH relevance  of  their  approach  to  this  context  and  to  invest  resources  
one  particular  category  of  artefact  to  be  designed.  Below,  design   LQ FRPPXQLFDWLQJ ZKDW WKH\ ZHUH GRLQJ 7KH GHVLJQHU¿UP
can  be  understood  as  an  exploratory  process  of  enquiry  that  can  be   SDLUV ZRUNHG WRJHWKHU IRU VL[ GD\V RYHU ¿YH PRQWKV IRU ZKLFK
applied  to  different  kinds  of  artefact  such  as  products  or  services   the   designers   were   paid   a   fee.   All   the   designers   and   managers  
and   where   the   distinctions   based   in   industrial   manufacturing   DWWHQGHG ¿YH ZRUNVKRSV RYHU RQH \HDU $URXQG  UHVHDUFKHUV
between   types   of   designed   things   matter   (e.g,   Buchanan,   2001;;   IURP VHYHUDO PDQDJHPHQW ¿HOGV DQG IURP GHVLJQ DOVR DWWHQGHG
%XUQVHWDO:LWKLQWKLVTXDGUDQWVLWWKHFRQYHQWLRQDO¿HOGV the  workshops,  which  generated  a  multidisciplinary  conversation  
RUVXEGLVFLSOLQHVRIGHVLJQLQWKHDUWRUGHVLJQVFKRROWUDGLWLRQV about  designing  services.  
with  their  focus  on  particular  kinds  of  artefact  such  as  furniture   Written   up   in   three   cases,   the   study   focuses   on   how   the  
design,   interiors   or   interaction   design.   This   quadrant   is   labeled   designers   practiced   service   design   by   describing   what   they   did  
³QRQHQJLQHHULQJGHVLJQGLVFLSOLQHV´ DVWKH\EHJDQWKHLUUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKH¿UPWKH\ZHUHDVNHGWR
7KH WRS ULJKW TXDGUDQW VHHV GHVLJQ DV SUREOHPVROYLQJ work  with  when  the  latter  did  not  have  a  clear  idea  what  service  
but   views   service   as   a   fundamental   process   of   exchange   (e.g.,   design  was  or  what  it  might  do  for  them  or  with  them.  Given  an  
&KHVEURXJK  6SRKUHU  .ZRUWQLN  7KRPSVRQ  open  brief  to  “do  some  service  design”  and  with  limited  resources,  
LQÀXHQFHG E\ WKH VHUYLFHGRPLQDQW ORJLF 9DUJR  /XVFK the  designers  engaged  with  their  temporary  clients  in  similar  ways  
2004b).  This  quadrant  is  labeled  “service  engineering”  since  the   although  each  case  is  written  up  to  highlight  differences  between  
emphasis   is   on   service,   but   the   underlying   design   tradition   is   them.  The  cases  aim  to  illustrate  the  framework  in  more  depth  by  
engineering.  Finally,  the  bottom  right  quadrant  sees  design  as  an   FRQQHFWLQJWKHOLWHUDWXUHGLVFXVVHGDERYHZLWK¿HOGZRUN
exploratory  enquiry,  but  does  not  make  an  important  distinction   An   ethnographic   approach   was   taken   to   bring   into   view  
between   goods   and   services   (e.g,   Bate   &   Robert,   2007).   This   what  the  designers  and  managers  thought  was  involved  in  doing  
quadrant  is  labeled  “designing  for  service”  rather  than  designing   such  design  work.  This  was  done  for  two  reasons,  one  theoretical  
services,   echoing   work   by   several   practitioners   and   scholars   in   and  one  methodological.  Firstly,  the  theoretical  underpinning  to  

www.ijdesign.org   45   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

the  research  is  theories  of  practice  that  place  everyday  activities   based  on  what  the  designers  referred  to  as  “insights”  gathered  by  
as  the  locus  for  the  production  and  reproduction  of  social  relations   the  designers  at  their  meetings  and  further  input  from  the  manager.  
(Reckwitz,   2002;;   Schatzki,   2001).   In   research   into   practices   it   In  this  workshop,  the  designers  provided  a  structured  yet  informal  
is   important   to   be   able   to   observe   what   people   do,   the   objects   way  to  generate  ideas  including  creating  “what  if”  scenarios  each  
they  create  and  work  with,  what  they  say  and  the  nature  of  their   focusing  on  particular  industries  within  which  the  organization’s  
work   as   they   go   about   it   (Carlile,   2002).   To   better   understand   services  could  be  exploited.  
how   designers   structure   their   work,   it   was   important   to   specify   In   this   workshop,   one   of   the   designers   created   a   sketch  
the   empirical   practices   involved   in   their   work.   Secondly,   the   representing   the   problem   facing   Prosonix’s   customer   in   which  
HWKQRJUDSKLFDSSURDFKRIIHUHGPHWKRGRORJLFDOEHQH¿WV1H\ODQG D VPDOO KXPDQ ¿JXUH LV VHHQ WU\LQJ WR SXVK D ODUJH REMHFW XS D
2008).  Observing  designers  as  they  went  about  their  work  provided   hill.   This   sketch   crystallized   the   problem   facing   the   business  
EHWWHUDFFHVVWRWKHLUWKRXJKWZRUOGVWKDQUHO\LQJRQVXUYH\GDWD manager  and  his  role  in  communicating  the  enterprise’s  service  to  
or  on  interviews.  Data  were  gathered  both  by  observing  some  of   potential  client  organizations.  It  became  a  motif  used  repeatedly  
the   encounters   between   the   designers   and   the   managers,   and   in   in   subsequent   conversations   and   at   project   workshops   by   the  
one  instance  of  the  designers  working  together  in  the  studio,  and   manager  and  the  designers.  Another  visualization  used  repeatedly  
by  watching  video  recordings  of  these  meetings  made  by  a  third   in   the   project   was   a   Venn   diagram   of   three   overlapping   circles  
SDUW\DVZHOODVUHFRUGLQJRQYLGHRWKH¿YHSURMHFWZRUNVKRSV labeled   desirability,   feasibility   and   viability.   It   represented   the  
In  total,  I  had  access  to  40  hours  of  video  footage  as  well  as  my   consultancy’s   criteria   for   a   successful   service   design   (Jones   &  
notes   from   my   observations   of   the   designers   and   the   artifacts   Samalionis,  2008),  which  another  colleague  from  the  consultancy  
created   by   the   designers   and   by   workshop   participants.   One   of   KDGSUHVHQWHGDWERWKRIWKH¿UVWWZRZRUNVKRSVLQWKHUHVHDUFK
the  challenges  has  been  to  represent  such  a  large  collection  of  data   project.  One  designer  explained  “Often  when  we’re  talking  about  
in  three  short  cases.  The  data  were  collected  between  December   innovation   or   trying   to   get   businesses   to   do   new   things   we’re  
2006  and  October  2007.  Analysis  was  shaped  abductively  by  the   talking  about  desirability;;  which  is  what  do  the  customers  want,  
multidisciplinary   conversations   that   emerged   in   the   workshops   the  human  side  of  it  and  then  we’ve  got  viability  and  feasibility…
and  by  reviewing  the  literature  (Blaikie,  2000).   How   can   we   make   money   out   of   it?   And   how   can   we   make  
it?”  The  manager  seemed  to  accept  this  framework  as  a  way  of  
Sampling RUJDQL]LQJ WKH GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ GXULQJ KLV ZRUN RQ VFHQDULR
generation  with  the  designers  that  day.  In  later  discussions  at  the  
The  study  involved  three  design  consultancies  of  different  sizes   project   workshops,   both   he   and   the   CEO   referred   several   times  
DQG ZLWK H[LVWLQJ FOLHQWV LQ VHUYLFH GHVLJQ 7KH WKUHH ¿UPV to  these  three  criteria  and  commented  that  their  organization  paid  
LQYROYHGZHUHVHOHFWHGRQWKHEDVLVRIEHLQJJURZWKSKUDVHVPDOO LQVXI¿FLHQW DWWHQWLRQ WR GHVLUDELOLW\ )LQDOO\ WKH GHVLJQHUV DQG
HQWHUSULVHV RIIHULQJ VHUYLFHV EDVHG RQ D WHFKQLFDO RU VFLHQWL¿F manager  prioritized  which  scenarios  to  take  further  and  agreed  on  
innovation  in  which  the  service(s)  had  been  designed  without  the   the  next  piece  of  work  the  consultancy  would  undertake.  
EHQH¿WRIZRUNLQJZLWKDSURIHVVLRQDOVHUYLFHGHVLJQHU7KH\DUH
Working  in  their  studio  with  a  colleague,  the  two  designers  
shown  in  Table  1.
created   four   elements   for   what   they   called   a   toolkit   for   the  
company.  They  presented  it  to  the  business  development  manager  
Case  A DW D ¿QDO PHHWLQJ LQ /RQGRQ (DFK RI WKHVH DUWLIDFWV OLQNHG WR
The  project  began  with  one  designer  from  IDEO  visiting  Prosonix   the  prioritized  scenarios   and   used   high   production  values.  They  
DQGPHHWLQJ¿UVWO\ZLWKWKH&(2DQGODWHUZLWKVHYHUDOPHPEHUV included   three   visual   artefacts   the   designers   called   “adcepts”  
RIWKHWHDPWR¿QGRXWPRUHDERXWWKHLUWHFKQRORJLHVDQGVHUYLFHV DGYHUWLVLQJFRQFHSWVLQWKHIRUPRI¿FWLRQDODGYHUWLVHPHQWVLQ
As  a  result  of  this  discussion,  the  pair  agreed  that  IDEO  would  help   glossy  magazines,  communicating  to  Prosonix’s  potential  clients  
the  company  create  an  “opportunity  map”  for  their  services.  This   the   sorts   of   innovations   possible   using   the   company’s   particle  
lead  to  another  designer  accompanying  the  manager  of  business   engineering   services.   One,   aimed   at   potential   pharmaceutical  
GHYHORSPHQWWRD¿UVWPHHWLQJZLWKDSRWHQWLDOFOLHQWWRREVHUYH clients,   showed   an   imaginary   asthma   inhaler.   Another   showed  
the   discussion   and   description   of   services.   The   next   step   was   a   DQ LPDJLQDU\ SHUIXPH SURGXFW DQG D WKLUG D ¿FWLRQDO FRVPHWLF
day  spent  at  IDEO’s  London  studio  in  which  both  designers  and   product.  Finally,  the  designers  presented  a  prototype  folder  they  
the  business  development  manager  generated  the  opportunity  map   had  created  to  help  the  business  development  manager  customize  

Table  1.  Organizations  involved  in  the  study.

Case 6HUYLFH¿UP Design  consultancy

Prosonix.  Firm  specializing  in  ultrasonic  crystallization  and  particle   IDEO.  Multidisciplinary  consultancy  established  in  1991  with  over  
A
engineering. 550  employees  in  nine  international  locations  in  2011.

g-­Nostics.  Firm  offering  personalized  medicine  based  on  analysis  of   live|work.  Dedicated  service  design  and  innovation  consultancy  
B
genetic  markers.   founded  in  2001  with  20  people  in  three  countries  in  2011.  

Oxford  Gene  Technologies.  Firm  offering  micro-­array  services  for   Radarstation.  Design-­led  management  consultancy  founded  in  2003  
C
genomic  research.   focusing  on  service  design.

www.ijdesign.org   46   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

 Kimbell,  L

the  service  for  existing  or  new  clients  by  organizing  information   ZKRKDGDWWHQGHGWKH¿UVWWZRZRUNVKRSVLQWKLVVWXG\7RJHWKHU
about  them  and  prompting  him  to  consider  particular  aspects  of   the  designers  critiqued  the  service,  jumping  repeatedly  from  the  
the  service  in  relation  to  their  needs.  At  the  meeting,  the  manager   detail   of   the   design   of   the   touchpoints   to   the   enterprise’s   goals  
VHHPHGVDWLV¿HGZLWKWKHVHDUWLIDFWV7KHUHZDVDOVRDGLVFXVVLRQ and  the  customer  proposition.  As  they  talked,  some  of  them  wrote  
about   how   the   enterprise   might   act   on   these   ideas   beyond   the   on   sticky   notes   and   stuck   them   on   the   assemblage   on   the   wall,  
scope  of  the  study. building  up  a  detailed,  layered  analysis  of  the  customer  journey  for  
the  existing  service.  One  designer  began  to  draw  a  “stakeholder  
Case  B ecology”  diagram,  which  showed  organizations,  artifacts  such  as  
computer   servers   as   well   as   people   involved   in   constituting   the  
Consultancy   live|work   began   their   work   with   two   designers   service,  with  arrows  showing  links  between  them.  
PDNLQJDWULSWRWKHRI¿FHVRIJ1RVWLFVZLWKWKHDLPRIJHWWLQJ Next,   the   three   designers   sat   at   a   table,   individually  
to  know  the  organization  and  its  service.  The  enterprise  asked  the   VNHWFKLQJLQUHVSRQVHWRLVVXHVWKH\KDGLGHQWL¿HGLQDVVHPEOLQJ
designers  to  help  with  its  Nicotest  smoking  cessation  service  then   the   customer   journey   on   the   wall.   Using   the   company’s   own  
XQGHUWULDOLQVRPH8.SKDUPDFLHV7KHVHUYLFHVXSSRUWVSHRSOH WHPSODWHZKLFKLQFOXGHG³XVHUQHHG´DVDFDWHJRU\WR¿OORXWWKH
trying   to   give   up   smoking   by   using   genetic   testing   to   identify   designers  quickly  generated  simple  sketches  for  improvements  to  
appropriate  levels  of  nicotine  replacement  therapies.  During  their   existing   touchpoints   (e.g.,   the   test   kit   pack),   proposals   for   new  
meeting   with   the   CEO   and   the   business   development   manager,   VHUYLFH FRPSRQHQWV HJ D ZHEVLWH WDUJHWLQJ ZRXOGEH TXLWWHUV
the   designers   focused   on   learning   about   the   experience   of   the   and   proposals   for   entirely   new   services   (e.g.   a   genetic   test   data  
customer  using  the  service,  while  the  service  managers  talked  on  a   bank).  
more  abstract  level  about  strategy,  marketing  and  the  industries  in  
Later,   the   designers   produced   a   digital   document  
which  they  were  working.  One  of  the  designers  repeatedly  turned  
representing   the   customer   journey   that   organized   the   timeline,  
the   conversation   back   to   the   experience   of   using   the   service,  
touchpoints,   issues   and   opportunities   into   phases   of   the   service  
using   phrases   such   as   “From   the   user’s   point   of   view…”   as   he  
HQJDJHPHQW 7KH ¿QDO DFWLYLW\ LQYROYHG RQH RI WKH GHVLJQHUV
persuaded  the  managers  to  describe  the  service  in  detail.  During  
visiting  the  enterprise  again,  taking  their  sketches,  the  customer  
this  meeting,  the  designers  were  also  attentive  to  the  artifacts  that  
journey   diagram   and   other   artifacts   and   talking   through   them  
the  managers  showed  them  and  wanted  to  take  them  away.  They  
around   a   table.   This   lead   to   a   more   structured   conversation   in  
also  successfully  requested  permission  to  access  the  website  that  
relation  to  a  poster  the  designer  brought  with  them  and  placed  on  
formed  part  of  the  service.
a  wall.  The  managers’  responded  very  positively  to  the  designers’  
The   designers’   second   activity   was   visit   to   a   pharmacy   suggestions,  both  those  at  the  level  of  improvements  to  an  existing  
where  the  service  was  being  trialled  in  the  company  of  one  of  the   touchpoint  as  well  as  those  proposing  a  new  way  of  conceiving  
enterprise  managers,  a  cameraman  and  the  author.  Here,  one  of  the   of  the  service.  This  lead  to  a  discussion  about  how  the  enterprise  
GHVLJQHUVFRQGXFWHGDZDONWKURXJKRIWKHVHUYLFHLQYROYLQJWKH might  take  forward  these  ideas  beyond  the  scope  of  the  academic  
pharmacy  assistant  taking  blood  and  saliva  samples  from  him  as   study.
part  of  the  test  and  conducting  an  online  registration,  as  if  he  were  
a  customer.  During  this,  the  designer  asked  the  assistant  to  explain  
what  was  going  on  at  each  stage  and  her  views  on  the  service  as  a   Case  C
whole.  The  other  designer  documented  this  with  photos,  notes  and   In  their  engagement  with  Radarstation,  the  OGT  managers  decided  
drawings  with  a  particular  focus  on  the  assistant’s  work  practices   WRIRFXVRQWKHLUFXVWRPVHUYLFHFUHDWLQJPLFURDUUD\VHQDEOLQJ
and   what   kinds   of   artifacts   were   part   of   the   service   encounter,   researchers   to   understand   genetic   information   gathered   from  
such  as  the  test  kit,  but  also  attending  to  other  artifacts  such  as  a   research  subjects  and  processed  by  OGT.  After  an  initial  meeting  
KDQGZULWWHQWKDQN\RXQRWHRQWKHZDOORIWKHVPDOOFRQVXOWLQJ DW2*7¶VRI¿FHVLQZKLFKWKHGHVLJQHUVVRXJKWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKH
room  and  marketing  literature  produced  by  other  organizations.   enterprise’s  activities  by  meeting  the  COO,  the  designers  decided  
Their  next  activity  took  place  in  the  consultancy’s  London   they   needed   to   know   more   about   the   enterprise’s   customers,  
studio  where  the  two  designers  assembled  on  the  wall  what  they   typically   research   managers   in   companies   or   university  
called  the  “customer  journey”,  combining  photographs  they  had   UHVHDUFKHUV 7KH\ FRQGXFWHG IDFHWRIDFH LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK RQH
taken  at  the  pharmacy  and  pages  from  the  service  website,  again   existing,   one   past   and   one   new   client,   taking   notes   and   photos.  
observed   by   the   author.   Grounded   in   one   designer’s   experience   The  designers  then  generated  three  visual  representations  of  the  
of   undertaking   the   test,   this   visual   representation   followed   the   customer  journey,  arranging  in  a  linear  sequence  the  touchpoints  
ZRXOGEH QRQVPRNHU DV WKH\ HQJDJHG ZLWK ZKDW WKH GHVLJQHUV through  which  each  client  engaged  with  OGT  over  time,  such  as  
called   the   service   “touchpoints”   over   time.   These   ranged   in   emails,  phone  calls  and  contracts.  
material  form  from  the  graphic  design  of  a  poster  in  the  pharmacy   The   next   stage   involved   the   designers   organizing   what  
window  to  the  website  for  customers  to  connect  with  other  people   WKH\ UHIHUUHG WR DV D ³FRFUHDWLRQ ZRUNVKRS´ DWWHQGHG E\ WKH
trying   to   give   up   smoking.  The   designers   appeared   to   go   about   COO  and  another  manager.  During  this  workshop  the  managers  
this  in  a  relatively  unstructured  way,  although  as  they  built  up  the   DQG GHVLJQHUV ¿UVW VDW URXQG D WDEOH VWXG\LQJ WKH FXVWRPHU
customer  journey,  they  distinguished  between  phases  they  labeled   journeys  for  each  client  and  hearing  what  the  designers  referred  
awareness,   access   and   joining.   A   third   colleague   joined   them   to   as   “insights”   based   on   the   interviews   they   had   conducted.  

www.ijdesign.org   47   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

2Q D ÀLSFKDUW RQH RI WKH GHVLJQHUV GUHZ D WZRE\WZR PDWUL[ 2006;;   Verganti,   2009),   the   designers   seemed   to   see   the   value  
ZLWK FRVW DQG YDOXH DV LWV WZR D[HV 7KH &22 ¿OOHG WKLV LQ DV of   service   as   constituted   in   practice   involving   a   wide   array   of  
KHGLVFXVVHGWKH¿UP¶VSRVLWLRQLQJLQUHODWLRQWRLWVFRPSHWLWRUV material,  digital  and  human  actors  (Normann  &  Ramírez,  1993;;  
The  participants  spent  time  writing  and  drawing  on  copies  of  the   9DUJR /XVFKD,QWKHLUYLVLWVWRWKH¿UPVFRQYHUVDWLRQV
consultancy’s   touchpoint   template,   which   included   sections   for   ZLWKPDQDJHUVDQGGXULQJWKHLUDQDO\VLVRIWKH¿UPV¶ZHEVLWHVDQG
XVHU QHHG 2*7¶V DSSURDFK FXVWRPHU EHQH¿WV DQG DOWHUQDWLYHV other  materials,  the  designers  repeatedly  sought  to  understand  the  
These  were  then  assembled  along  a  wall  in  the  sequence  of  the   QDWXUHRIHDFK¿UP¶VRIIHULQJDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIYDOXHWKURXJK
customer  journey,  discussed  and  annotated  with  sticky  notes.   the  practices  of  end  users  and  others  such  as  employees,  instead  
Back   in   the   studio,   the   designers   further   analyzed   the   RI DWWHQGLQJ WR SUHGH¿QHG FDWHJRULHV RI VFLHQFH WHFKQRORJ\
customer  journey  and  sketched  and  annotated  possible  solutions.   product   or   service.   During   a   workshop,   one   designer   from  
$VWKHLU¿QDORXWSXWVWKHGHVLJQHUVFUHDWHGDJHQHUDOL]HGFXVWRPHU live|work   emphasized   the   temporality   of   service   by   describing  
journey  and  a  presentation  that  summarized  much  of  the  discussion   organizations  as  being  “in  perpetual  beta”,  a  process  of  ongoing  
LQ WKH FRFUHDWLRQ ZRUNVKRS LW DOVR LQFOXGHG UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV change   as   services   were   repeatedly   redesigned   and   constituted  
for   ways   to   “realign   key   touchpoints”.   These   recommendations   in   practice.   The   designers   tried   to   represent   the   relational   and  
were  driven  by  making  the  process  more  visible  and  streamlined,   temporal  nature  of  service  in  visual  form,  for  example  by  creating  
handholding   new   customers   and   extending   OGT’s   relationship   WZRGLPHQVLRQDOGRFXPHQWVVKRZLQJWRXFKSRLQWVLQWKHFXVWRPHU
with  the  customer.  The  document  focused  mostly  on  touchpoints   journey  (e.g.,  all  cases)  or  as  a  service  ecology  visualized  from  a  
in   the   service   and   proposed   an   improvement   to   each   existing   bird’s  eye  view  (e.g.,  Case  B).  
touchpoint,   practices   around   it   or   made   suggestions   for   entirely   Thirdly,  the  designers  approached  their  work  as  an  enquiry  
new   ones.   Each   of   these   included   comments   about   the   user   in  which  they  and  others  would  construct  an  understanding  of  what  
QHHG DSSURDFK DQG EHQH¿W VRPH LQFOXGHG D FRPPHQW DERXW WKHVHUYLFHZDVDQGKRZWKH\PLJKWDSSURDFKGHVLJQRUUHGHVLJQ
competitors.  These  recommendations  were  presented  at  a  project   In   all   three   cases,   they   were   involved   in   considering   existing  
workshop  and  later  sent  to  the  organization  by  email. VHUYLFHVLQRSHUDWLRQWKDWKDGEHHQDVVHPEOHGE\WKH¿UPZLWKRXW
the  help  of  specialist  service  designers.  All  the  designers  invested  
the  limited  resources  available  to  them  in  this  study  in  trying  to  
Findings
understand  the  service  from  the  point  of  view  of  customers  and  
Looking   at   the   cases   together,   four   main   themes   emerge,   two   end   users,   as   well   as   the   service   organization’s   perspectives,  
connected  with  what  these  designers  understand  themselves  to  be   accessed  by  interviewing  managers.  This  emerging  understanding  
designing  when  they  are  doing  service  design  and  two  connected   shaped   how   they   went   about   their  work.   In   the   documents  they  
with  how  they  go  about  doing  it.   created   such   as   visual   representations   of   their   design   processes  
Firstly,  these  designers  paid  great  attention  to  design  of  the   and  during  their  presentations  at  the  workshops,  they  emphasized  
PDWHULDODQGGLJLWDOWRXFKSRLQWVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKH¿UP¶VVHUYLFH an  iterative  process  during  which  they  conducted  their  research,  
to  people  and  their  roles,  knowledge  and  skills  and  where  these   developed   insights   and   generated   ideas   through   sketching   or  
service  encounters  took  place.  In  contrast  to  an  idea  of  service  as   SURWRW\SLQJWREHDVVHVVHGE\WKH¿UP,Q&DVHV$DQG%WKH\DOVR
EHLQJLQWDQJLEOHDNH\GH¿QLWLRQRIVHUYLFHWKDWKDVUHFHQWO\EHHQ generated  entirely  new  service  concepts  that  did  not  draw  directly  
questioned  (e.g.,  Lovelock  &  Gummesson,  2004;;  Vargo  &  Lusch,   on   knowledge   about   existing   customers   and   users   (Verganti,  
2004b),   these   designers’   work   practices   focused   extensively   on   2009).  In  contrast  to  descriptions  of  the  new  service  development  
studying   and   then   redesigning   the   artifacts   they   saw   as   part   of   process  in  which  design  is  a  phase  (Scheuing  &  Johnson,  1989),  
the   service   and   participants’   practices   as   they   engaged   with   the   these  designers  saw  their  entire  activity  as  design,  consistent  with  
¿UPV,QVRPHFDVHVWKLVLQFOXGHGVWXG\LQJDUWLIDFWVWKDWKDGQRW Holopainen  (2010).  
been   created   by   the   service   organization   (e.g.,   Cases  A   and   B),   Fourthly,   the   designers   created   opportunities   for   the  
suggesting   that   the   designers   have   a   broad   view   of   the   artifacts   PDQDJHUVRIWKH¿UPVWKH\ZRUNHGZLWKWRWDNHSDUWLQWKLVHQTXLU\
and   interactions   that   constitute   a   service.   However,   while   they   and  invested  resources  in  creating  material  artifacts  and  situations  
paid  attention  to  many  artifacts  within  the  services,  the  distinction   that   enabled   this.   Rather   than   mostly   working   on   their   own  
between   products   and   services   did   not   seem   important   in   their   DQG SUHVHQWLQJ D ¿QDO GHOLYHUDEOH WR WKH ¿UP WKHVH FRQVXOWDQWV
work.  Far  from  being  intangible,  a  service  can  be  thought  of  as   spent   time   and   effort   to   organize   and   facilitate   workshops  
both  social  and  material.  Thus  the  designers  seemed  to  conceive   with   the   managers   they   worked   with.   The   designers   described  
of   service   in   a   similar   way   to   Vargo   and   Lusch   (2004a),   who   how   they   preferred   to   include   end   users   and   customers   in   such  
propose   that   material   objects   (such   as   “goods”)   play   roles   in   workshops   when   resources   allowed.   These   activities   suggest   a  
FRQVWLWXWLQJ YDOXHLQXVH EXW WKDW VHUYLFH LV WKH IXQGDPHQWDO view  of  service  design  as  a  constructive  process  involving  both  
activity  of  economic  exchange. professional  designers  and  managers,  but  also  other  stakeholders  
Secondly,   the   designers   in   this   study   understood   service   such   as   present   or   past   customers   and   service   personnel.   The  
as   both   relational   and   temporal   as   users   and   stakeholders   of   designers  made  an  important  part  of  their  work  the  construction  of  
GLIIHUHQWNLQGVLQWHUDFWHGZLWKWKHVHUYLFH¿UPVWKURXJKSUDFWLFDO artifacts  to  make  visible  and  comprehensible  the  complexities  of  
engagement   with   artifacts   and   people   over   time   and   space.   the  service,  ranging  from  prototypes  (Case  A)  to  sketches  (Cases  
(FKRLQJGLVFXVVLRQVDERXWPHDQLQJZLWKLQGHVLJQ.ULSSHQGRUII A   and   B)   to   the   customer   journey   diagrams   (all   three).   These  

www.ijdesign.org   48   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

 Kimbell,  L

boundary  objects  (Star  &  Griesemer,  1989;;  Carlile,  2002)  played   GLVFLSOLQHV6RPHOLWHUDWXUHRQVHUYLFHGHVLJQVHHVLWDVDQHZVXE
an  important  role  in  all  three  cases  as  the  designers  tried  to  make   discipline  of  design  (Meroni  &  Sangiorgi,  2011).  However,  this  
the   practices   of   service   stakeholders   visible   to   the   managers   to   study   suggests   that   designing   for   service   offers   an   opportunity  
KHOSZLWKGHFLVLRQPDNLQJDERXWWKHUHGHVLJQRIWKHVHUYLFHV7KLV to   rethink   professional   design   and   its   role   in   organizations   and  
¿QGLQJLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWK6WLJOLDQLDQG)D\DUG societies  more  broadly  by  making  clear  how  underlying  concepts  
such  as  service  are  mobilized.  Evenson  and  Dubberly  (2010)  and  
Manzini   (2011)   also   make   this   argument.   For   researchers,   the  
Discussion
diversity   of   research   used   in   this   paper,   from   design   studies   to  
This  paper  has  explored  different  ways  of  understanding  service   operations,  marketing  and  practice  theory,  offers  a  new  perspective  
design.   Secondly,   it   has   considered   what   we   can   learn   from   on  service  design  that  joins  up  literatures  at  a  time  when  calls  for  
professional   designers   who   say   they   practice   it.  The   framework   interdisciplinary  research  approaches  have  been  made.  
LQ )LJXUH  LGHQWL¿HG LPSRUWDQW GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH OLWHUDWXUHV RQ Finally,   a   discussion   of   the   limitations   of   this   study  
design  and  on  service  on  to  which  it  is  possible  to  map  different   is   required.   The   framework   in   Figure   1   connects   important  
professional   and   disciplinary   emphases   as   to   how   design   and   conceptual   and   empirical   research   in   design   and   management  
VHUYLFH DUH XQGHUVWRRG 7KH ¿QGLQJV IURP WKH WKUHH FDVHV GUDZ ¿HOGV +RZHYHU WKH XVH RI D [ PDWUL[ VLPSOL¿HV DQG UHGXFHV
attention  to  two  aspects  of  service  design  –  what  is  being  designed   DQ\ VXFK ZLGH UDQJH RI FRQWULEXWLRQV 6HFRQGO\ WKH ¿HOGZRUN
in   the   design   of   services   and   how   designers   go   about   service   focused  on  only  one  quadrant  of  the  framework.  It  helps  clarify  
design.   ZKDW LV GLVWLQFWLYH DERXW WKH DSSURDFK RI VHOIWLWOHG VHUYLFH
The  research  found  that  the  designers  attended  closely  to   designers,   but   further   work   is   needed   to   test   the   framework’s  
a  wide  range  of  material  and  digital  artifacts  and  practices  within   relevance  by  exploring  in  depth  the  other  three  quadrants.  Thirdly,  
services.  For  these  designers,  a  service  is  both  social  and  material.   in   this   study   the   use   of   an   ethnographic   approach   to   generating  
They  saw  service  as  relational  and  temporal  as  value  was  created   data  for  cases  was  appropriate  for  an  exploratory  study  in  which  
in  practice.  In  addition,  the  research  showed  that  these  designers   the  phenomenon  is  not  well  understood,  but  this  limits  how  these  
DSSURDFKHG GHVLJQLQJ DV DQ RSHQHQGHG HQTXLU\ LQ ZKLFK SDUW ¿QGLQJV PLJKW EH JHQHUDOL]HG )RXUWKO\ WKH VWXG\ IRFXVHG RQ
of   their   work   involved   creating   boundary   objects   that   served   to   VHUYLFHGHVLJQHUVZRUNLQJIRUWHFKQRORJ\EDVHGVPDOOHQWHUSULVHV
make  visible  these  actors  within  a  service,  as  both  they  and  the   7KLV PD\ KDYH SURGXFHG ¿QGLQJV WKDW DUH QRW JHQHUDOL]DEOH
managers  constructed  an  understanding  of  the  service.  Combining   to   other   contexts   such   as   those   in   which   notions   of   customer  
these  suggests  that  what  these  professional  service  designers  are   experience   are   more   common.   Finally,   there   was   no   attempt   to  
doing  is  focused  on  the  bottom  right  quadrant  in  Figure  1:  they   assess  whether  the  approach  practiced  by  these  designers  would  
are  designing  for  service.  The  analysis  of  the  cases  suggests  they   lead  to  better  designed  services.  The  emphasis  was  on  describing  
combine  a  constructivist  approach  to  doing  design,  with  a  view   the  approach.  Further  work  is  needed  to  assess  its  effectiveness.
that  the  distinction  between  goods  and  services  is  not  important.  
Rather,   the   designers’   efforts   to   understand   the   strategies   of   the  
businesses   they   worked   with   and   to   rethink   these   highlighted  
Conclusion
how  they  saw  service  as  relational  and  instantiated  in  practice.  In   This   paper   aimed   to   explore   how   the   work   of   service   design   is  
their  research  and  proposals  to  redesign  aspects  of  the  enterprises’   understood.   It   developed   a   framework   through   which   service  
services,  the  designers  focused  on  how  the  various  actors  involved   design   can   be   discussed   and   explored   it   by   analyzing   the   work  
LQWKHVHUYLFHZHUHFRQ¿JXUHGWRFUHDWHYDOXH of   designers   who   say   they   design   services.   Two   approaches  
By   referring   to   this   as   designing   for   service,   rather   than   have   been   combined:   an   examination   of   literatures   in   design  
service   design,   makes   clear   that   the   purpose   of   the   designers’   DQGPDQDJHPHQW¿HOGVDQGDQH[SORUDWRU\VWXG\RIWKUHHGHVLJQ
enquiry  is  to  create  and  develop  proposals  for  new  kinds  of  value   consultancies  specializing  in  service  design.  In  doing  so,  the  paper  
UHODWLRQZLWKLQDVRFLRPDWHULDOZRUOG7KHSDSHU¶VFRQWULEXWLRQLV has  highlighted  different  ways  of  thinking  about  service  design.  
to  describe  a  distinctive  way  of  approaching  service  design,  that   ,QGHVLJQ,QRWHGDGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQVHHLQJGHVLJQDVSUREOHP
is,   design   for   service,   which   has   not   thus   far   been   presented   in   solving  in  which  the  desired  state  of  affairs  is  already  known  or  
either  the  design  or  management  literatures. as  a  process  of  enquiry  during  which  meaning  is  constructed  with  
I  now  turn  to  the  possible  implications  of  this  research  for   diverse   stakeholders.   Within   research   on   services,   I   highlighted  
managers,   designers   and   researchers.   The   framework   makes   a   contrasting   positions   that   either   see   important   distinctions  
distinction  between  different  ways  of  thinking  about  service  design   between  the  ways  goods  and  services  are  designed  and  managed  
and  may  help  designers  and  managers  navigate  the  complexities   or  which  see  the  distinction  as  not  important,  but  which  instead  
WKH\IDFHLQRUJDQL]DWLRQVZKHWKHUZRUNLQJDVFRQVXOWDQWVRULQ sees   service   as   the   fundamental   basis   of   creating   value.   From  
house   and   whatever   their   originating   discipline.   The   designers   WKUHH FDVHV , SUHVHQWHG IRXU ¿QGLQJV WKDW DGG GHSWK WR RQH
in  this   study   attended   to  practices  and   value  relations  involving   quadrant  of  this  framework.  Using  the  theoretical  perspective  of  
artefacts  as  diverse  as  posters,  websites  and  staff  training  manuals,   SUDFWLFHVKHOSHGIRFXVWKHUHVHDUFKRQWKHWKRXJKWZRUOGVRIWKH
suggesting  that  designing  for  service  is  a  strategic  kind  of  design   GHVLJQHUVVKRZLQJKRZWKH\HQDFWVHUYLFHGHVLJQLQWKHLUGD\WR
DFWLYLW\WKDWRSHUDWHVDWWKHOHYHORIVRFLRPDWHULDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQV GD\ZRUN%\FRPELQLQJWKHOLWHUDWXUHDQG¿QGLQJV,DGGGHSWK
RU V\VWHPV UDWKHU WKDQ EHLQJ IUDPHG ZLWKLQ SUHH[LVWLQJ GHVLJQ WR RQH VSHFL¿F ZD\ RI WKLQNLQJ DERXW VHUYLFH GHVLJQ , FDOOHG

www.ijdesign.org   49   International  Journal  of  Design  Vol.5  No.2  2011

Designing  for  Service  as  One  Way  of  Designing  Services

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