DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

GWALIOR

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
2018-2019
PHYSICS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr.Abhishek Rai Aryan Tripathi

CLASS: 12TH (P.C.M.)

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Aryan Tripathi student of
class XII has successfully completed the
investigatory project under the guidance of Mr.
Abhishek Rai (subject mentor) during the year
2018-2019 in partial fulfilment of Physics
Practical Examination conducted by C.B.S.E., New
Delhi.
This project in absolutely genuine and does not
indulge in any plagiarism of any kind.
The reference in making this project has been
declared at the end of this project.

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

Teacher’s signature: Principal’s signature:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I humbly consider it as a privilege and honour

to express my heartiest and profound
gratitude to my Physics educator
Mr.Abhishek Rai for his able guidance and
support in completing my project.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to
the Principal Ms.Gaytari Shrivastava for
providing me with all the facilities that were
required for the completion of this project.
Last but not least, I would extend my
gratitude towards all the teaching staff of
DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL and my friends who
had supported me throughout this project.

ARYAN TRIPATHI
 CONTENT
 Introduction
 Principle
 Digital logic levels OR basic gates
 Simple Diode Logic Gates
i. OR Gate
ii. AND Gate
 Transistor Logic Gates
i. NOT Gate
ii. NAND Gate
iii. NOR Gate
 Universal Gates
i. XNOR Gate
ii. XOR Gate
 Application
 AND Gate
 Ex-OR/Ex-NOR Gate
 NOT Gate OR Inverters
 NAND Gate
 OR Gate
 NOR Gate
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION
Logic gates are the heart of the digital electronics. A logic
gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean
function; that is, it performs a logical operation on one or
more binary inputs and produces a single binary output. A gate
is an electronic device which is used to compute a function on a
two valued signal. Logic gates are the basic building block of
digital circuits.

Basically, all logic gates have one output and two inputs. It
follows a logical relationship between input and output voltages
and hence called logic gates. Some logic gates like NOT gate or
Inverter has only one input and one output. The inputs of the
logic gates are designed to receive only binary data (only low 0
or high 1) by receiving the voltage input.

The low logic level represents Zero volts and high logic level
represents 3 or 5 volts positive supply voltage.

We can connect any number of logic gates to design a required

digital circuit. Practically, we implement the large number of
logic gates in ICs, by which we can save the physical space
occupied by the large number of logic gates. We can also
perform complicated operations at high speeds by using
integrated circuits (IC).

By combining logic gates, we can design many specific circuits

like flip flops, latches, multiplexers, shift registers etc.
Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors
acting as electronic switches. But can also be constructed
using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays (relay logic) fluidic
logic, pneumatic logic, molecules, and even mechanical elements.
With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way
that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the
construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and
therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be
described with Boolean logic.

Logic circuits include devices like multiplexers, registers, ALUs,

and computer memory, complete microprocessors, which may
contain more than 100 million gates. In modern practice, most
gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs),
particularly Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors (MOSFETs).Compound logic gates AND-OR-
Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) is often employed in
circuit design because their construction using MOSFETs is
simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.
 PRINCIPLE
Any Boolean algebraic operation can be associated with the input
and output, which represents the statement of Boolean algebra.
Although these circuits may be complex, they may all be
constructed from three basic devices like a p-n junction diode, a
resistance and an n-p-n transistor.

LOGICAL STATEMENTS
1 0

High Low

Positive Negative

On Off

Close Open

Conducting Non-conducting

Right Wrong

True False

Yes No
 DIGITAL LOGIC
LEVELS OR
BASIC GATES
A logic level is defined as a specific state or voltage of a signal.
We know that 0 and 1 are the two states of logic gates. The
logic levels 0 and 1 are known as LOW and HIGH respectively.
In digital electronics, these binary logic levels play a crucial role
in data storage, data transfer.

Generally these logic levels can be understand as ON and OFF

states. As we said earlier, the logic levels are introduced to the
logic gate by the supply voltage. If the supply voltage to the
logic gate is 0 volts, it refers to Low logic level or OFF state.

Similarly, if the supply voltage to the logic gate is 5 volts or 3.3

volts (for modern ICs), it refers to High logic level or ON state.
The manufacturers will follow the TTL or Transistor – Transistor
Logic as standard voltage level, while designing the ICs.
 Simple Diode Logic Gates

Diodes can act like switches, so these are used in digital logic
operations and switching. For low and high impedance states a
diode will work in forward bias and reverse bias.

The diode will conduct only in one direction (Forward bias) and it
remains closed in reverse bias condition. So it behaves like a
switch. Now let’s see some simple diode logic gates, which are
constructed by using only Diodes and resistors.
 OR Gate
The simple OR gate designed by two diodes is shown in the below
figure. Inputs are given to this circuit by the two diodes. In
this, the logic HIGH (1) is represented by +5 Volts and logic
LOW (0) is represented by 0 Volts or Ground.

If any one of the two inputs is connected to +5 volts, then the

diode becomes forward biased and it will conduct .Thus the
output is logic HIGH i.e. 1.If voltage of +5 V is connected to
both the inputs (both diodes), they will be in forward biased
state, which makes the output of OR circuit to set in HIGH
logic.

The functioning of OR gate is mathematically given as Z = X +

Y, where Z is the output of the OR gate and X, Y are the
inputs. The truth table and logic diagram and circuit diagram for
the logical OR gate is shown below.

Truth table:
 AND Gate
The simple AND gate designed by two diodes is shown in the
below figure. In this, the logic HIGH (1) is represented by +5
Volts and logic LOW (0) is represented by 0 Volts or ground. If
two inputs are left unconnected, so the output is also 0 i.e. logic
low. If any one of the two inputs is connected to +0 volts, then
the diode becomes reverse biased and it will not conduct and
makes the output as LOW logic i.e. 0.If the voltage of +5 V is
connected to both the inputs (both diodes), both the diodes will
be in forward biased state, which makes the output of AND
circuit to set in HIGH logic.

The functioning of AND gate is mathematically given as Z = X.

Y, where Z is the output of the AND gate and X, Y are the
inputs. The truth table and logic diagram and circuit diagram for
the logical AND gate is shown below.

Truth table:
 Transistor Logic Gates
Like diode, transistor also acts as electronic switch. We can
design logic gates using transistors also. Let’s have a look about
the transistor -made logic gates.

NOT Gate
The NOT gate is generally known as an inverter. It produces the
exact reverse output to that of given input. It has only one
input and one output. The output of NOT gate is always the
complement of its input. When low input signal is connected to
the input of the NOT gate, then the output will be HIGH (logic
1).Similarly, if high input signal is connected to the input, then
the output will be LOW (logic 0). The NOT operation is denoted
by ‘-’ bar symbol. If the input of NOT gate is X and output is Z
then the operation of NOT gate is given as Z =X bar.

Truth table:
 Universal Logic Gates
NAND Gate
The NAND gate has the ability to perform 3 operations such as
AND, OR and NOT. This gate is a combination of NOT & AND
gates. The NAND gate output is equal to the inverse of the
AND gate. The NAND gate has two inputs X and Y, and a single
output Z. The inputs are applied to the diodes which are
connected to the transistor. The NAND gate circuit is driven by
+5 Volts. When both inputs are connected to a voltage supply of
5 V, then both diodes D1 and D2 are in OFF state. Then the
transistor Q1 is able to drive from the supply voltage through
the resistor. So the transistor is in ON state and the output
voltage becomes 0.Similarly, when low level voltage is applied the
to the inputs i.e. 0 V, the transistor will be OFF and the output
voltage becomes +5 V. Mathematically NAND gate is
represented as Z = (X.Y) bar. So the output of the NAND gate
becomes LOW only when both the inputs are high. It becomes
HIGH for any other combination of inputs.

Truth table:
 NOR Gate
NOR gate is the combination of NOT gate and OR gate. The
NOR gate output is equal to the inverse of the OR gate. The
NOR gate has two inputs X and Y, and a single output Z.

When both the inputs of the NOR gate are connected to 0

Volts, then the transistors Q1 and Q2 are in OFF state. So no
current flows through the resistor and there is no voltage drop
across the resistor. Then the output voltage is equal to the
supply voltage +5 Volts i.e. HIGH logic level. If any one of the
input is connected to +5 V, then the transistors will be ON
state. So the voltage drop would be high. So the output voltage
of the circuit will be 0 V i.e. equal to ground voltage.

Mathematically NOR gate is represented as Z =(X+Y) bar.

So the output of the NAND gate becomes HIGH only when both
the inputs are low. It becomes LOW for any other combination
of inputs.

Truth table:
 Exclusive Logic Gates
XNOR Gate
Basically the “Exclusive-NOR” gate is a combination of the
Exclusive-OR gate and the NOT gate but has a truth table
similar to the standard NOR gate in that it has an output that is
normally at logic level “1” and goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when
any of its inputs are at logic level “1”.
However, an output “1” is only obtained if both of its inputs are
at the same logic level, either binary “1” or “0”. For example,
“00” or “11”. This input combination would then give us the
Boolean expression of: Q = (A ⊕ B) = A.B + A.B
Then the output of a digital logic Exclusive-NOR gate only goes
“HIGH” when its two input terminals, A and B are at the same
logic level which can be either at a logic level “1” or at a logic
level “0”. In other words, an even number of logic “1’s” on its
inputs gives a logic “1” at the output otherwise is at logic level
“0”.
Then this type of gate gives and output “1” when its inputs are
“logically equal” or “equivalent” to each other, which is why
an Exclusive-NOR gate is sometimes called an Equivalence Gate.

Truth table:
 XOR Gate
X here stands for exclusive. Output from this gate will be a 1
only when one or the other of the inputs is a 1.

Truth table:
 APPLICATION
AND Gate
There are mainly two applications of AND gate as Enable gate
and Inhibit gate. Enable gate means allowance of data through a
channel and Inhibit gate is just the reverse of that process i.e.
disallowance of data through a channel. We are going to show an
enabling operation to understand it in an easier way. Suppose in
the measurement of frequency of a pulsed waveform. For
measurement of frequency a gating pulse of known frequency is
sent to enable the passage of the waveform whose frequency is
to be measured. The diagram below shows the arrangement of
the above explained operation.

Ex-OR/Ex-NOR Gate
This type of logic gates are used in generation of parity
and checking units. The two diagrams below shows the even and
odd parity generator circuits respectively for a four data.
With the help of these gates parity check operation can be also
performed. The diagrams below show even and odd parity check.
 NOT Gate or Inverters
NOT gates are also known as inverter because they invert the
output given to them and show the reverse result. Now the
CMOS inverters are commonly used to build square wave
oscillators which are used for generating clock signals. The
advantage of using these is they consume low power and their
interfacing is very easy compared to other logic gates.
The above figure shows the most fundamental circuit made of
ring configuration to generate square wave oscillator. The
frequency of this type generator is given by

F=1/2ntp

Where, n represents the number of inverters and tp shows the

propagation delay per gate.

NAND Gate
Freezer warning buzzer
When the thermistor is cold its resistance is large and the input
to the NAND gate is high. Since the NAND gate is connected as
an inverter the output is LOW.As the thermistor warms up its
resistance decreases, the voltage across it falls and the input to
the NAND gate falls. When it becomes low enough the output
becomes HIGH and the buzzer sounds.

OR Gate
Wherever the occurrence of any one or more than one event is
need to be detected or some actions are to be taken after their
occurrence, in all those cases OR gates can be used. It can be
explained with an example.

Suppose in an industrial plant if one or more than one parameter

exceeds the safe value, and then some protective measures are
needed. In that case OR gate is used. We are going to show
this with the help of a diagram.

The above figure is a typical schematic diagram where an OR

gate is used to detect increase in temperature or pressure and
produce command signal for the system to take required actions.

NOR Gate
Logic NOR Gate is a universal gate which can be used to
construct other basic gates like AND gate. In real life, NOR
gates are used in
i. Cell phone
ii. Calculators
iii. Computing
iv. STB
v. LCD TV
vi. Digital logic circuits
vii. Decision making circuits like mixer tanks in factory
viii. Industrial controllers
 CONCLUSION
Logic gates are used to develop many IC circuits or
microchips in today’s modern world.
NAND gate and NOR gate are known as universal gates
because we can construct all the three basic gates using
NAND and NOR gates.

WITHOUT LOGIC GATES, ELECTRONIC

WORLD WOULD NEARLY BE
INCOMPLETE.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org
 https://www.scribd.com
 https://www.slideshare.net
 www.icbse.com