4.

Performance and Efficiency Test of a Refrigeration Plant (Lecture)

1. Vapor Compression Refrigeration

Vapor-compression refrigeration, in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of
the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of buildings
and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses
for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of
other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing
plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often
utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing
heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be
called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump or chiller (heat
pump).

2. Description of the vapor-compression refrigeration system

The vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and
removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1
depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system.

All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a thermal expansion valve
(also called a throttle valve or metering device), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the
compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher
pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the
thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at
which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air. That hot vapor is routed through
a condenser where it is cooled and condensed into a liquid by flowing through a coil or tubes with
cool water or cool air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects

1
 heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever
may be the case).
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is
next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That
pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The
auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and
vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be
refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates the
warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor
mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time,
the circulating air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired
temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is
subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the
condenser.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a
saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.

3. Vapor Compression Cycle

The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus
entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2.

At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor.
From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed (i.e., compressed at constant
entropy) and exits the compressor as a superheated vapor.
From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the
superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the
remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a saturated liquid. The condensation process
occurs at essentially constant pressure.

2
 Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and
undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation
and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The
adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (i.e., occurs at constant enthalpy).
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or
tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being
refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates
at essentially constant pressure and boils of all available liquid there after adding 4-8 deg Kelvin of
super heat to the refrigerant as a safeguard for the compressor as it cannot pump liquid. The
resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the
thermodynamic cycle.
It should be noted that the above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in
the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or nonideal
gas behavior (if any).

4. Performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle

The standard vapor-compression cycle is shown on the temperature-entropy diagram in Figure 3.

The processes constituting the standard vapor-compression cycle are:

1-2 Reversible and adiabatic compression from saturated vapor to the condenser pressure
2-3 Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure, causing desuperheating and condensation
of the refrigerant
3-4 Irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy from saturated liquid to the evaporator pressure
4-1 Reversible addition of heat at constant pressure causing evaporation to saturated vapor

The work of compression in kJ/kg is the change in enthalpy in process 1-2 of Figure 4a or h1 – h2.
This relation derives from the steady-flow energy equation

3
 h1 + q=h2 + w

where changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible.

Because in the adiabatic compression the heat transfer is zero, the work equals h1 – h2. The
difference in enthalpy is a negative quantity, indicating that work is done on the system. Even though
the compressor may be of the reciprocating type, where flow is intermittent rather that steady,
process 1-2 still represents the action of the compressor. At a short distance in the pipe away from
the compressor, the flow has smoothed out and approaches steady flow. Knowledge of the work of
compression is important because it may be one of the largest operating costs of the system.
The heat rejection in kJ/kg is the heat transferred from the refrigerant in process 2-3, which is h3
– h2. This knowledge also comes from the steady-flow energy equation, in which the kinetic energy,
potential energy, and work terms drop out. The value of h3 – h2 is negative, indicating that heat is
transferred from the refrigerant. The value of heat rejection is used in sizing the condenser and
calculating the required flow quantities of the condenser cooling fluid.

4
 The refrigerating effect in kJ/kg is the heat transferred in process 4-1, or h1 – h4. Knowledge of
the magnitude of the term is necessary because performing this process is the ultimate purpose of
the entire system.
The coefficient of performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle is the refrigerating
effect divided by the work of compression:
h −h
Coefficient of performance= 1 4
h2 −h1 (1)
Sometimes the volume flow rate is computed at the compressor inlet or state point 1. The
volume flow rate is a rough indication of the physical size of the compressor. The greater the
magnitude of the term, the greater the displacement of the compressor in cubic meters per second
must be.
The power per kilowatt of refrigeration is the inverse is the inverse of the coefficient of
performance, and an efficient refrigeration system has a low value of power per kilowatt of
refrigeration but a high coefficient of performance.

Example No. 1
A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating capacity of 80 kw. The cycle is a
standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating temperature is -8 C and the condensing
temperature is 42 C.
(a) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per second at the inlet to the
compressor.
(b) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(c) At the entrance to the evaporator what is the fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on
a mass basis and a volume basis?
Given:
Refrigerant 22.
Refrigerating Capacity = 80 kW
Evaporating temperature = -8 C
Condensing temperature = 42 C
Required:
(a) Volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per second at the inlet to the compressor.
(b) Power required by the compressor.
(c) Fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on a mass basis and a volume basis at the
entrance of the evaporator.
Solution:

5
Use Refrigerant 22 Table from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker and Jones
At 1, -8 C
h1 = hg1 = 402.341 kJ/kg
hf1 = 190.718 kJ/kg
vg1 = 61.0958 L/kg
vf1 = 0.76253 L/kg
s1 = 1.76394 kJ/kg.K

At 2, 42 C condensing temperature, constant entropy

h2 = 438.790 kJ/kg

At 3, 42 C
h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg

h4 = h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg

(a) Volume flow of refrigerant = wvg

w(h1 - h4) = 80 kw
w(402.341 - 252.352) = 80
w = 0.5334 kg/s
Volume flow of refrigerant
= (0.5334 kg/s)(61.0958 L/kg)
= 32.59 L/s
= 0.03259 m3/s - - - Ans.
(b) Power required by compressor
= w(h2 - h1)
= (0.5334)(438.790 - 402.341)

6
 = 19.442 kw - - - Ans.
(c) Let xm = fraction of vapor by mass basis and
xv = fraction of vapor by volume basis.
Mass Basis:
h4 −hf 1 252. 352−190 .718
x m= = =0. 292
hg 1 −hf 1 402 .341−190 . 718 (answer)
Volume Basis:
1−x v +x v
Total volume = ( m) f 1 m g1

Total volume = (1 - 0.292)(0.76253) + 0.292(61.0958) = 18.38 L/s

xm vg 1 0 . 292 ( 61. 0958 )

xv= = =0 . 971
Total volume 18. 38 (answer)

4.1 Heat Exchangers

Some refrigeration systems use a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger, which subcools the liquid
from the condenser with suction vapor coming from the evaporator. The arrangement is shown
in Figure 5a and the corresponding pressure-enthalpy diagram in Figure 5b.

7
 Saturated liquid at point 3 coming from the condenser is cooled to point 4 by means of
vapor at point 6 being heated to point 1. From a heat balance, h3 – h4 = h1 – h6. The refrigerating
effect is either h6 – h5 or h1 – h3. Figure 6 shows a cutaway view of a liquid-to-suction heat-
exchanger.

Compared with the standard vapor-compression cycle, the system using the heat exchanger
may seem to have obvious advantages because of the increased refrigerating effect. Both the
capacity and the coefficient of performance may seem to be improved. This is not necessarily
true, however. Even though the refrigerating effect is increased, the compression is pushed
farther out into the superheat region, where the work of compression in kJ/kg is greater than it
is close to the saturated-vapor line. From the standpoint of capacity, point 1 has a higher specific
volume than point 6, so that a compressor which is able to pump a certain volume delivers less
mass flow if the intake is at point 1. The potential improvements in performance are thus
counterbalanced, and the heat exchanger probably has negligible thermodynamic advantages.
The heat exchanger is definitely justified, however, in situations where the vapor entering
the compressor must be superheated to ensure that no liquid enters the compressor. Another
practical reason for using the heat exchanger is to subcool the liquid from the condenser to
prevent bubbles of vapor from impeding the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve.

Example No. 2

8
A refrigerant 22 vapor compression system includes a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger in the
system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapor coming from the evaporator from -10 to 5 C
with liquid which comes from the condenser at 30 C. The compressions are isentropic in both
cases listed below.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger but with
the condensing temperature at 30 C and an evaporating temperature of -10 C.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger?
(c) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured at the compressor suction, what
is the refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) With the same compressor capacity as in (c), what is the refrigerating capacity of the system
with the heat exchanger?

Given:
Refrigerant 22
Liquid-to-suction heat exchanger
Evaporator from -10 to 5 C
Condenser at 30 C

Required:
(a) Coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger but with the
condensing temperature at 30 C and an evaporating temperature of -10 C.
(b) Coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger?
(c) Refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) Refrigerating capacity of the system with the heat exchanger?

Solution:

(a) Without heat exchanger

At 1,6, -10 C, Table A-6. (Stoecker and Jones)
h1 = h6 = 401.555 kJ/kg
s1 = s6 = 1.76713 kJ/kg.K
At 2, 30 C, constant entropy, Table A-7

9
 h2 = 431.787 kJ/kg
At 3,4 , 30 C, Table A-6.
h3 = h4 = 236.664 kJ/kg
At 5, h5 = h4 = 236.664 kJ/kg
h6 −h 5 401 . 555−236 . 664
= = =5 . 46
coefficient of performance h2 −h1 431 . 787−401. 555 (answer)

(b) With heat exchanger

At 6, -10 C , Table A-6 (Stoecker and Jones)
h6 = 401.555 kJ/kg
At 1, -10 C evaporator temperature, 5 C, Table A-7
h1 = 411.845 kJ/kg
At 2, 30 C, constant entropy, Table A-7
h2 = 444.407 kJ/kg
At 3, 30 C, table A-6
h3 = 236.664 kJ/kg.

h3 – h4 = h1 – h6
h4 = h3 + h6 – h1
h4 = 236.664 + 401.555 – 411.845 = 226.374 kJ/kg
h5 = h4 = 226.374 kJ/kg
h6 −h 5 401 . 555−226 . 374
= = =5 . 38
coefficient of performance h2 −h1 444 . 407−411 . 845 (answer)

(c) Refrigerating capacity without heat exchanger

At 1, v = 65.3399 L/kg
Refrigerating Capacity
12.0 L/ s 12 .0 L/ s
= ( 65.3399 L/kg )
( h6−h5 )= (
65 .3399 L/ kg )
( 401.555−236. 664 )
= 30.3 kW (answer)

(d) Refrigerating capacity with heat exchanger

At 1, v = 70.2751 L/kg
Refrigerating Capacity

= (12.70 .2751
0 L/ s
L/kg )1( h −h ) =(
5
12. 0 L/s
70. 2751 L /kg )
( 401. 555−226 .374 )
= 29.9 kW (answer)

4.2 Actual vapor-compression cycle

The actual vapor-compression cycle suffers from inefficiencies compared with the standard
cycle. There are also other changes from the standard cycle, which may be intentional or
unavoidable. Some comparisons can be drawn by superimposing the actual cycle on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram of the standard cycle, as in Figure 7.

10
 The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle appear in the pressure
drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the subcooling of the liquid leaving the condenser,
and in the superheating of the vapor leaving the evaporator. The standard cycle assumes no drop
in pressure in the condenser and evaporator. Because of friction, however, the pressure of the
refrigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result of these drops in pressure is that the
compression process between 1 and 2 requires more work than in the standard cycle.
Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser is a normal occurrence and serves the desirable
function of ensuring that 100 percent liquid will enter the expansion device. Superheating of the
vapor usually occurs in the evaporator and is recommended as a precaution against droplets of
liquid being carried ever into the compressor. The final difference in the actual cycle is that the
compression is no longer isentropic and there are inefficiencies due to friction and other losses.

5. Compressor
5.1 Types of Compressors
The most common compressors used in chillers are reciprocating, rotary screw, centrifugal,
and scroll compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency and
pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-
hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant
being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following
configurations:
 Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor
 Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor
 Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor
 Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semihermetic compressor

11
 Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible
hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and
operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be
cooled by, the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor
compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor
must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can
contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and
the refrigerant replaced.
An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and
provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open
compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired
without degassing of the refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a
failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.
Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend
to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where
compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for
additional cooling can generally overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.

5.2 Reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressors are piston-style, positive displacement compressors.

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5.2.1 Performance
Two of the most important performance characteristics of a compressor are its
refrigerating capacity and its power requirement. These two characteristics of a
compressor operating at constant speed are controlled largely by the suction and
discharge pressures.

5.2.2 Volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting performance of reciprocating
compressors. Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be considered, actual and
clearance. The actual volumetric efficiency va is defined by
3
volume flow rate entering compressor ,m /s
ηva =
displacement rate of compressor , m3 /s (2)
where the displacement rate is the volume swept through by the pistons in their suction.
Clearance volumetric efficiency depends on the reexpansion of gas trapped in the
clearance volume, as in Figure 8.

The maximum volume in the cylinder, which occurs when the piston is at one end of
its stroke, is V3. The minimum volume, or clearance volume, is Vc, which occurs at other
end of the piston stroke. The discharge pressure is pd.
In the first instance, assume that the suction pressure is p1. Gas trapped in the
clearance volume must first expand to volume V1 before the pressure in the cylinder is
low enough for the suction valves to open and draw in more gas. The volume of gas
drawn into the cylinder will be (V3 – V1), and the clearance volumetric efficiency vc for
this case is (V3 – V1)(100)/(V3 – Vc). When the suction pressure is p2, the intake portion of
the stroke is reduced to V3 – V2. In the extreme case where the suction pressure has

13
 dropped to p3, the piston uses its entire stroke to reexpand the gas in the clearance
volume and the clearance volumetric efficiency is 0 percent.
The clearance volumetric efficiency can be expressed in another way, illustrated in
Figure 8 using p1 as the suction pressure. The percent clearance m, which is constant for
a given compressor, is defined as
Vc
m= 100
V 3 −V c (3)
Adding Vc – Vc to the numerator of the expression for hvc gives
V 3 −V c +V c −V 1 V c−V 1
ηvc = 100=100+ 100
V 3 −V c V 3−V c (4)
and
V 1 −V c Vc V1
ηvc =100−
V 3 −V c
100=100−
( )
V 3 −V c V c
−1 100

Therefore
V1
ηvc =100−m
( ) Vc
−1
(5)
If an isentropic expansion is assumed between Vc and V1.
V 1 v suc
=
V c v dis (6)
where vsuc = specific volume of vapor entering compressor
vdis = specific volume of vapor after isentropic compression to pd

Values of the specific volumes are available from the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the
refrigerant or from tables of properties of superheated vapor.

Substituting Equation (6) into Equation (5) gives

v suc
ηvc =100−m
(v dis
−1
) (7)

5.2.3 Performance of the ideal compressor

Figure 9 shows the effect of evaporating temperature on clearance volumetric efficiency.

14
 The mass rate of flow controls the capacity and power requirement more directly
than the volume rate of flow. The mass rate of flow, w kg/s, through a compressor is
proportional to the displacement rate in liters per second and the volumetric efficiency
and inversely proportional to the specific volume of gas entering the compressor. In
equation form
η /100
w=displacement rate× vc
v suc (8)

Example No. 3
An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a displacement rate of
80 L/s and pumps against a condensing temperature of 40 C. For the two different
evaporating temperatures of -10 and 10 C, compute the refrigerant flow rate assuming
that the clearance volumetric efficiency applies.
Given:
Ammonia compressor
5 % clearance volume
Displacement rate = 80 L/s
Condensing temperature = 40 C
Evaporating temperatures are -10 C and 10 C.
Required:
Refrigerant flow rate
Solution:
Equation (8)

15
 ηvc /100
w=displacement rate×
v suc
(a) At -10 C, Table A-3. (Stoecker and Jones)
s1 = 5.7550 kJ/kg
vsuc = 417.477 L/kg
At 40 C, constant entropy, Fig. A-1
vdis = 112.5 L/kg
m=5%
Equation (5) and Equation (6).
v suc
ηvc =100−m
( v dis )
−1

ηvc =100−5 (417 . 477

112 .5
−1 )=86 . 445

ηvc /100
w=displacement rate×
v suc
86. 445/100
w=( 80 L/s )× =0. 166 kg /s
417 . 477 at -10 C (answer)

(b) At 10 C, Table A-3. (Stoecker and Jones)

s1 = 5.4924 kJ/kg
vsuc = 205.22 L/kg
At 40 C, constant entropy, Fig. A-1
vdis = 95 L/kg
m=5%
Equation (5) and Equation (6).
v suc
ηvc =100−m
( v dis )
−1

ηvc =100−5 (205

95
.22
−1)=94 . 199

ηvc /100
w=displacement rate×
v suc
94.199 /100
w=( 80 L/s )× =0 .367 kg /s
205 .22 at 10 C (answer)

5.2.4 Power requirement

The power required by the ideal compressor is the product of the mass rate of flow
and the increase in enthalpy during the isentropic compression,
P=wΔhi (9)
where P = power, kW
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s

16
 hi = isentropic work of compression, kJ/kg

Figure 10 shows the variation in hi as the evaporating temperature changes.

The value of hi is large at low evaporating temperatures and drops to zero when
the suction pressure equals the discharge pressure (when the evaporating temperature
equals the condensing pressure). The curve of the power requirement in Figure 10
therefore shows a zero value at two points, where the evaporating temperature equals
the condensing temperature and where the mass rate of flow is zero. Between the two
extremes the power requirement reaches a peak.

5.2.5 Refrigerating capacity.

The refrigerating capacity q is
q=w ( h1 −h4 ) kW
(10)
where h1 and h4 are enthalpies in kJ/kg of the refrigerant leaving and entering the
evaporator, respectively. The refrigerating effect; h1 – h4, increases slightly with an
increase in suction pressure, as Figure 11 shows, provided that the enthalpy entering
the expansion valve remains constant. The increase is due to the slightly higher enthalpy
of saturated vapor at higher evaporating temperatures.

17
 Figure 11 also shows the refrigeration capacity calculated with Equation (10). The
capacity is zero at the point where the mass rate of flow is zero. The refrigerating
capacity is doubled, for example, by increasing the evaporating temperature from 0 to
20 C.

5.2.6 Coefficient of performance and volume flow rate per kw of refrigeration

The coefficient of performance can be derived from the refrigerating capacity of
Figure 11 and the power from Figure 10. The result, displayed in Figure 12, shows a
progressive increase as the evaporating temperature increases.

18
 The volume flow rate per unit refrigeration capacity is an indication of the physical
size or speed of the compressor necessary to develop 1 kW of refrigeration. A large
volume flow must be pumped for a given capacity at low evaporating temperature
because of the high specific volume.

5.2.7 Effect of condensing temperature

The response of a reciprocating compressor to changes in condensing temperature
can be analyzed similarly to the evaporating temperature. Figure 13 shows the clearance
volumetric efficiency as calculated from Equation (7) for a compressor with an
evaporating temperature of -20 C.

19
 As the condensing temperature increases, the volumetric efficiency drops off.
Because the specific volume of the refrigerant at the compressor suction remains
constant, only the volumetric efficiency affects the mass rate of flow, which shows a
corresponding decrease as the condensing temperature increases.
Figure 14 shows such a progressive decrease.

The refrigerating capacity is the product of the refrigerating effect and the mass rate
of flow, both of which decrease with increasing condensing temperature. The result is

20
 that the refrigerating capacity drops rather rapidly on an increase in condensing
temperature.
The remaining important characteristic is the power, shown in Figure 15.

The compressor power is the product of the work of compression in kJ/kg and the
mass flow rate. The work of compression in kJ/kg increases and the mass rate of flow
decreases as the condensing temperature increases, so that the power increases to a
peak and then begins to drop off, a trend similar to the power as a function of the
evaporating temperature shown in Figure 10.

5.2.8 Actual volumetric efficiency

The prediction of volumetric efficiency on the basis of reexpansion of vapor in the
clearance volume is a good start toward predicting the actual volumetric efficiency.
Other factors that influence the volumetric efficiency are the pressure drop across the
suction and discharge valves, leakage past the rings of the piston, and leakage back
through the discharge and suction valves. Also cylinder heating of suction gas reduces
the volumetric efficiency, since immediately upon entering the cylinder the gas is
warmed and expanded. The specific volume of the gas inside the cylinder is
consequently higher than when entering the compressor, which is the position on which
the volumetric efficiency is based. All the above-mentioned factors result in a lower
actual volumetric efficiency than that predicted by the reexpansion of clearance gas
alone. Figure 16 shows the actual volumetric efficiency compared with the clearance
volumetric efficiency.

21
 The abscissa in Figure 16 is the discharge-to-suction pressure ratio, a convenient
parameter on which to base the volumetric performance of the compressor. The curve
for the actual volumetric efficiency as a function of the pressure ratio applies to a wide
variety of evaporating and condensing temperatures. When this curve is available, along
with the knowledge of the displacement rate of the compressor, the refrigerating
capacity of the compressor can be calculated over a wide variety of conditions.

5.2.9 Compression efficiency

The compression efficiency c in percent is
isentropic work of compression , kJ/kg
ηc = ×100
actual work of compression , kJ /kg (11)
where the work of compression are referred to the same suction and discharge
pressures. The compression efficiencies for open-type reciprocating compressors are
usually in the range of 65 to 70 percent. Some of the processes that reduce the
compression efficiency from its ideal value of 100 percent are friction of rubbing
surfaces and pressure drop through valves.

Example No. 4
The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic compressor operating at 29 r/s. a
condensing temperature of 40 C and an evaporating temperature of -4 C shows a
refrigeration capacity of 115 kw. At this operating points the motor (whose efficiency is
90 percent) draws 34.5 kW. The bore of the cylinders is 87 mm and the piston stroke is
70 mm. The performance data are based on 8 C of subcooling of the liquid leaving the
condenser. Compute (a) the actual volumetric efficiency and (b) the compression
efficiency.

Given:

22
Refrigerant 2
Four cylinder, hermetic compressor at 29 r/s
Condensing temperature = 40 C
Evaporating temperature = -4C
Refrigeration capacity = 115 kw = q
Motor efficiency = 90 % = m
Motor = 34.5 kw = Pm
Bore = 87 mm = 0.087 m = D
Piston Stroke = 70 mm = 0.070 m = L
8 C of subcooling

Required:
(a) the actual volumetric efficiency
(b) the compression efficiency

Solution:

Reference. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker and Jones

Table A-6, -4 C evaporating temperature.
h1 = 403.876 kJ/kg
vsuc = 53.5682 L/kg
s1 = 1.75775 kJ/kg.K
At 2, table A-7, constant entropy, 40 condensing temperature
h2 = 435.391 kJ/kg
vdis = 17.314 L/kg
At 3, 40 C condensing temperature, Table A-6, 8 C Subcooling
t = 40 -8 = 32 C
h3 = 239.23 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 239.23 kJ/kg

(a) For actual volumetric efficiency

Displacement rate = (4 cyl)(29 r/s)[(/4)(D2) m3/cyl.r](L)
Displacement rate = (4 cyl)(29 r/s)[(/4)(0.087)2 m3/cyl.r](0.070)
= 0.04827 m3/kg = 48.27 L/kg
Actual rate of refrigerant flow , w = q/(h1 – h4)

23
 = 115 kw / (403.876 - 239.23 kJ/kg) = 0.6985 kg/s
Actual volumetric flow rate at the compressor suction
= w x vsuc
= (0.6985 kg/s)(53.5682 L/kg)
= 37.42 L/s
3
volume flow rate entering compressor ,m /s
ηva =
displacement rate of compressor , m3 /s
37 .42 L/s
ηva = ×100=77 .5
48.27 L/s (answer)
(b) For compression efficiency.
Actual work of compression
= mPm/w
= 0.9 (34.5 kW) / (0.6985 kg/s) = 44.45 kJ/kg
isentropic work of compression , kJ/kg
ηc = ×100
actual work of compression , kJ /kg
h 2−h1
ηc = ×100
actual work of compression ,kJ /kg
435 . 391−403 . 876
ηc = ×100=70 . 9
44 . 45 (answer)

5.2.10 Compressor discharge temperatures

If the discharge temperature of the refrigerant from the compressor becomes too
high, it may result in breakdown of the oil, causing excessive wear or reduced life of the
valves, particularly the discharge valves. In general the higher the pressure ratio, the
higher the discharge temperature, but the properties of the refrigerant are also crucial.
Figure 17 shows the discharge temperatures for four refrigerants following isentropic
compression from saturated vapor at 0 C to various condensing temperatures.
Refrigerants 12 and 502 have low discharge temperatures while refrigerant 22
experiences higher temperatures. Since the highest temperature of the four refrigerants
shown is ammonia, ammonia compressors are equipped with water-cooled heads.

24
5.3 Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-
rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the
refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point.

25
5.4 Centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the
refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it
to pressure energy.

5.4.1 Tip speed to develop pressure

A rough estimate of the tip speed of the impeller can be made by using several
fundamental relationships for turbomachinery. The torque the impeller ideally imparts
to the gas is
T =w ( V 2t r 2−V 1t r 1 )
(12)
where T = torque in N.m
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s
V2t = tangential velocity of refrigerant leaving impeller, m/s
r2 = radius of exit of impeller, m
V1t = tangential velocity of refrigerant entering impeller, m/s

26
 r1 = radius of inlet of impeller, m

If the refrigerant enters the impeller in an essentially radial direction, the tangential
component of the velocity V1t =0, and so
T=wV 2t r 2 (13)
The power required at the shaft is the product of the torque and the rotative speed
P=Tω=wV 2t r 2 ω (14)

where P = power, W
 = rotative speed, rad/s

At least at very low refrigerant flow rates the tip speed of the impeller and the tangential
velocity of the refrigerant are nearly identical; therefore
r 2 ω=V 2 t
and P=wV 22 t (15)

Another expression for ideal power is the product of the mass rate of flow and the
isentropic work of compression,
P=wΔhi ( 1000 kJ /kg ) (16)
Equating the two expression for power, Equation (15) and (16), yields
V 22t =1000 Δhi (17)
Although, Equation (17) is based on some idealizations, it can provide an order-of-
magnitude estimate of the tip speed and can also show important comparisons.

Example No. 5
A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress refrigerant 11
from an evaporating temperature of 4 C to a condensing temperature of 35 C. If both
wheels are to be of the same diameter, what is this diameter?
Given:
Two stage
60 r/s, Refrigerant 11,
Evaporating temperature = 4 C
Condensing temperature = 35 C
Required:
Diameter
Solution:
At 4 C evaporating temperature, Table A-4. (Stoecker and Jones)
h1 = 390.93 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.68888 kJ/kg.K
At 35 C condensing temperature, Fig. A-2, constant entropy,
h2 = 410 kJ/kg
 = 60 r/s = 120 rad/s
Equation 11-16,
V 22t =1000 Δhi

27
 h2 −h1
( )
V 22t =1000
2
410−390 .93
V =1000 (
2
2t )
2
V 2t =97 .65 m/ s per stage

r 2 ω=V 2 t
D2
( 120 π )=97 . 65
2
D2 =0 .518 m (answer)

5.5 Scroll compressors

Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed
when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets
and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.

28
 5.6 Controls
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a
simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or simple thermostatic
expansion valve. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use
of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which
compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion
valves.
In addition to the operational controls, separate high pressure and low pressure switches are
normally utilized to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of
the system from operating outside of safe parameters.
In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and
proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to
accurately meet differing cooling demands whilst reducing energy consumption.

6. Condensers and Evaporators

The most widely used types of condensers and evaporators are shell-and-tube heat exchangers
(Figure 18) and finned-coil heat exchangers (Figure 19).

29
6.1 Overall heat-transfer coefficient
The overall heat-transfer coefficient for an evaporator or condenser is the proportionality
constant, which, when multiplied by the heat-transfer area and the mean temperature
difference between the fluids, yields the rate of heat transfer. If heat flows across a tube, as in
Figure 20, between refrigerant on the outside and water on the inside, for example, under
steady state conditions the rate of heat transfer q in watts is the same from the refrigerant to the
outside surface of the tube, from the outside to inside surface of the tube, and from the inside
surface of the tube to the water.

The expressions for q in each of these transfers are, respectively,

q=ho A o ( t o −t os )
(18)
k
q= A m ( t os−t is )
x (19)
q=hi Ai ( t is −t i )
(20)

where q = rate of heat transfer, W

ho = heat-transfer coefficient on outside of tube, W/m 2.K
Ao = outside area of tube, m2
to = refrigerant temperature, C

30
 tos = temperature of outside surface of tube, C
k = conductivity of tube metal, W/m.K
x = thickness of tube, m
tis = temperature of inside surface of tube, C
Am = mean circumferential area of tube, m2
hi = heat-transfer coefficient on inside of tube, W/m 2.K
Ai = inside area of tube, m2
ti = water temperature, C

To express the overall heat-transfer coefficient the area on which the coefficient is based
must be specified. Two acceptable expressions for the overall heat-transfer coefficient are
q=U o A o ( t o −t i )
(21)
q=U i Ai ( t o −t i )
and (22)
where Uo = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside area, W/m 2.K
Ui = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on inside area, W/m 2.K
From Equations (21) and (22) it is clear that UoAo = UiAi. The U value is always associated with an
area. Knowledge of Uo or Ui facilitates computation of the rate of heat transfer q.
To compute the U value from knowledge of the individual heat-transfer coefficients, first
divide Equation (18) by hoAo, Equation (19) by kAm/x, and Equation (20) by hiAi, leaving only the
temperature differences on the right sides of the equations. Next add the three equations, giving
q qx q
+ + =( t −t ) + ( t −t ) + ( t −t )
ho A o kA m hi A i o os os is is i
q qx q
+ + =t −t
ho A o kA m hi A i o i (23)
Alternate expressions for to – ti are available from Equation (21) and (22)
q q
t o−t i = =
U o Ao Ui Ai
(24)
Equating Equations (23) and (24) and canceling q provides an expression for computing the U
values
1 1 1 x 1
= = + +
U o Ao U i A i ho A o kA m hi Ai (25)

6.2 Liquid in tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop

The expression for the heat-transfer coefficient for fluids flowing inside tubes is of the form
n m
Nu=C Re Pr
where n and m are exponents. The constant C and exponents in the equation are
0. 4
0.8 cp μ
hD
k
=0 .023
VD ρ
μ ( )( ) k (26)

where h = convection coefficient, W/m2.K

D = ID of tube, m
k = thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K
V = mean velocity of fluid, m/s
= density of fluid, kg/m3

31
  = viscosity of fluid, Pa.s
cp = specific heat of fluid, J/kg.K
Equation (26) is applicable to turbulent flow, which typically prevails with the velocities and
properties experienced in most commercial evaporators and condensers.

Example No. 6
A refrigerant 22 condenser has four water passes and a total of 60 copper tubes that are 14 mm
ID and have 2 mm wall thickness. The conductivity of copper is 390 W/m.K. The outside of the
tubes is finned so that the ratio of outside to inside area is 1.7. The cooling-water flow through
the condenser tubes is 3.8 L/s.
(a) Calculate the water-side coefficient if the water us at an average temperature of 30 C, at
which temperature k = 0.614 W/m.K,  = 996 kg/m3, and  = 0.000803 Pa.s.
(b) Using a mean condensing coefficient of 1420 W/m 2.K, calculate the overall heat-transfer
coefficient based on the condensing area.

Given:
Refrigerant 22 condenser
4 passes, total of 60 copper tubes
14 mm ID, 2 mm wall thickness
Conductivity of copper is 390 W/m.K
Ratio of outside to inside area = 1.7
Cooling water through condenser tubes = 3.8 L/s
Water at 30 C:
k = 0.614 W/m.K,  = 996 kg/m3, and  = 0.000803 Pa.s.
Mean condensing coefficient = 1420 W/m 2.K
Required:
(a) Water side coefficient, hi.
(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the condensing area, Uo.

Solution:
(a) Water-side coefficient:
0. 4
0.8 cp μ
hD
k
=0 .023
μ ( )( )
VD ρ
k
D = 14 mm = 0.014 m
k = 0.614 W/m.K
 = 996 kg/m3
 = 0.000803 Pa.s
cp = 4190 J/kg.K

Q 3 . 8×10−3 m3 /s
V= =
A 60 tubes π
(
4 pass 4 )( )
( 0 . 014 m )2
V =1.6457 m/s
0 .8 0. 4
h ( 0. 014 )
0. 614
=0 .023 [
( 1. 6457 )( 0 . 014 ) ( 996 )
0 . 000803 ][ ( 4190 )( 0 . 000803 )
0 .614 ]
32
 2
h=7,313 W /m ⋅K (answer)

(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient

1 1 x 1
= + +
U o Ao ho A o kA m hi A i
1 1 xA o A o
= + +
U o h o kAm hi A i
ho = 1420 W/m2.K
k = 390 W/m.K
Ao / Ai = 1.7
Ao
1 1
(
A m= ( A o + A i ) = A o +
2 2 1. 7 )
Ao / Am = 1.25926
x = 2 mm = 0.002 m
hi = 7,313 W/m2.K

1 1 ( 0 . 002 ) (1 . 2596 ) 1 .7
= + +
U o 1420 390 7, 313
U o =1060 W /m2⋅K (answer)

As the fluid flows inside the tubes through a condenser or evaporator, a pressure drop occurs
both in the straight tubes and in the U-bends or heads of the heat exchanger. Some drop in
pressure is also attributable to entrance and exit losses. The expression for pressure drop of fluid
flowing in straight tubes is
L V2
Δp=f ρ
D 2 (27)
Where p = pressure drop, Pa
f = friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of tube, m
Since the pressure drop in the straight tubes in an evaporator or condenser may represent
only 50 to 80 percent of the total pressure drop, experimental or catalog data on the pressure
drop as a function of flow rate are desirable. If the pressure drop at one flow is known, it is
possible to predict the pressure drop at other flow rates. The expression available to straight
tubes, Equation (27), indicates that the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the
velocity and thus the square of the flow rate.
The other contributors to pressure drop resulting from changes in flow area and direction
are also almost exactly proportional to the square of the flow rate, so if the pressure drop and
flow rate p1 and w1 are known, the pressure drop p2 at a different flow rate w2 can be
predicted:
2
w2
Δp 2 =Δp 1
( ) w1
(28)

33
6.3 Liquid in shell: heat transfer and pressure drop.
In shell-and-tube evaporators, where refrigerant boils inside tubes, the liquid being cooled
flows in the shell across bundles of tubes, as shown schematically in Figure 21.

The liquid is directed by baffles so that it flows across the tube bundle many times and does
not short-circuit from the inlet to the outlet. The analytical prediction of the heat-transfer
coefficient of liquid flowing normal to a tube is complicated in itself, and the complex flow
pattern over a bundle of tubes makes the prediction even more difficult. In order to proceed
with the business of designing heat exchangers, engineers resort to correlations that relate tubes
and baffles. Such an equation by Emerson can be modified to the form
0 . 14
hD μ
k ( )
=( terms controlled by geometry ) ( Re0 .6 )( Pr 0 . 3 )
μw
(29)
where  = viscosity of fluid at bulk temperature, Pa.s
w = viscosity of fluid at tube-wal temperature, Pa.s
The Reynolds number in this equation is GD/, where G is the mass velocity or mass rate of flow
divided by a characteristic flow area.
One important realization emerges from a Equation (29), for a given evaporator or
condenser when water flows in the shell outside the tubes
0.6
Water−side heat−transfer coefficient=( const ) ( flow rate ) (30)

The convection coefficient varies as the 0.6 power of the flow rate compared with the 0.8 power
for flow inside tubes.

The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell across tube bundles is also difficult to
predict analytically, but when an experimental point is available for one flow rate, predictions of
the pressure drop at other flow rates can be made quite accurately. Figure 22 shows the water
pressure drop taken from catalog data of a water-chilling evaporator. The application exponent in
the pressure-drop-flow-rate relationship here is 1.9.

34
Example No. 7
A shell-and-tube condenser has a U value of 800 W/m 2.K based on the water-side are and a
water pressure drop of 50 kPa. Under this operating condition 40 percent of the heat-transfer
resistance is on the water side. If the water-flow rate is doubled, what will the new U value and
the new pressure drop be?
Given:
U1 = 800 W.m2.K
p1 = 50 kPa
40% of heat transfer resistance is on the water side
Water-flow rate doubled
Required:
New U value = U2
Solution:
U1 = 800 W/m2.K
h1 = Water-side coefficient
1 1
h1
=0 . 40
( )
U1
1
h1 = =2, 000
1
0. 40( )
800

Water−side heat−transfer coefficient=( const ) ( flow rate )0.6 for evaporator

replace 0.6 by 0.8 for condenser.
0.8
Water−side heat−transfer coefficient=( const ) ( flow rate )
For w2 / w1 = 2

35
 0. 8
h2 w 2
=
h1 w 1( )
h2 =( 2000 ) ( 2 )0. 8 =3482 .2 W /m 2⋅K
Remaining resistance = (0.60)( 1 / 800 ) = 0.00075

New U-Value:
1 1 1
= +0 . 00075= +0. 00075
U 2 h2 3482 .2
2
U 2 =964 W /m ⋅K (answer)

New Pressure Drop:

2
w
Δp 2 =Δp 1 2
w1( )
w2
=2
w1
2
Δp 2 =50 ( 2 ) =200 kPa (answer)

6.4 Extended surface; fins.

The bar fin, shown in Figure 23 is a rudimentary fin whose performance can be predicted
analytically and will be used to illustrate some important characteristics.

The fins are of length L and thickness 2y m. The conductivity of the metal is k W/m.K, and
the air-side coefficient is hf W/m2.K. To solve for the temperature distribution through the fin, a
heat balance can be written about an element of thickness dx m. The heat balance states that
the rate of heat flow entering the element at position 1 from the end of the fin plus that
transferred to the element from the air equals the rate of heat transferred out of the element at

36
position 2 toward the base. For one-half a fin width and a fin depth of Z m, the heat balance in
symbols is
dt dt
kyZ ( )
dx 1
+ Zdxh f ( t a −t )=kyZ ( )
dx 2 (31)
where ta = temperature of air
t = temperature of fin
Canceling Z and factoring gives

ky
[( ) ( ) ]
dt
−
dt
dx 2 dx 1
=dxh f ( t a −t )
(32)
For the differential length dx the change in the temperature gradient is
2
dt dt d dt d t
( ) ( ) ( )
− =
dx 2 dx 1 dx dx
dx= 2 dx
dx (33)
Substituting into Equation (32), we get
d 2 t h f ( t a −t )
2
=
dx ky (34)
By solving the second-order differential equation (34) the temperature distribution throughout
the fin can be shown to be
t−t b cosh M ( L−x )
=
t a −t b cosh ML (35)
where tb = temperature of base of fin, C

M=
√ hf
ky
When a finned coil cools air, points in the fin farther away from the base are higher in
temperature than points close to the base. The net result of the higher temperature of most of
the fin is that less heat is transferred than if the entire fin were at temperature tb. The ratio of
the actual rate of heat transfer to that which would be transferred if the fin were at temperature
tb is called the fin effectiveness.
actual q
Fin effectiveness=η=
q if fin were at base temperature (36)

Sharper and Brown found that the fin effectiveness for the bar film at Figure 23 can be
represented by
tanh ML
η=
ML
The bar fin is not a common shape but the dominant type of finned surface is the rectangular
plate mounted on cylindrical tubes. The net result is a rectangular or square fin mounted on a
circular base, one section of which is shown in Figure 24a.

37
The fin effectiveness of the rectangular plate fin is often calculated by using properties of the
corresponding annular fin (Figure 24b), for which a graph of the fin effectiveness is available, as
in Figure 25. The corresponding annular fin has the same area and thickness as the plate fin it
represents.

Example No. 8
Compute the fin effectiveness of an aluminum rectangular plate fin of a finned air-cooling
evaporator if the fins are 0.18 mm thick and mounted on a 16-mm-OD tubes. The tube spacing is
40 mm in the direction of air flow and 45 mm vertically. The air-side coefficient is 55 W/m 2.K.
Given:
0.18 mm thick, 16-mm OD tubes

38
 Tube spacing 40 mm in the direction of air flow
45 mm vertically
Air-side coefficient = 55 W/m2.K = hf
Required:
Fin effectiveness
Solution:
hf = 55 W/m2.K
Alumimum Fins, k = 202 W/m.K
2y = 0.00018 mm
y = 0.00009 mm

M=
√ √hf
ky
=
55
( 202 ) ( 0 .00009 )
Equivalent external radius.
=55 m−1

[ ( )]
2 2
16 16
π ( r e ) 2−
2
=( 40 ) ( 45 )−π ( )
2
re = 23.94 mm = 0.02394 m
ri = 8 mm = 0.008 m
(re - ri)M = (0.02394 - 0.008)(55) - 0.88
re/ri = 23.94 mm / 8 mm = 3
From Fig. 25:
Fin Effectiveness = 0.68 - - - Ans.

The air-side area of a finned condenser or evaporator is composed of two portions, the
prime area and the extended area. The prime area Ap is that of the tube between the fins, and
the extended area Ae is that of the fin. Since the prime area is at the base temperature, it has a
fin effectiveness of 1.0. It is to the extended surface that the fin effectiveness less than 1.0
applies. Equation for the overall heat-transfer coefficient can be revised to read
1 1 1 x 1
= = + +
U o Ao U i A i hf ( A p +ηA e ) kA m hi A i

6.5 Gas flowing over finned tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop
A precise prediction of the air-side heat-transfer coefficient when the air flows over finned
tubes is complicated because the values is a function of geometric factors, e.g., the fin spacing,
the spacing and diameter of the tubes, and the number of rows of tubes deep. Usually the
coefficient varies approximately as the square root of the face velocity of the air. A rough
estimate of the air-side coefficient hf can be computed from the equation derived from
illustrative data in the ARI standard.
0.5
h f =38V (37)
where V is the face velocity in meters per second.

The drop in pressure of the air flowing through a finned coil is also dependent upon the
geometry of the coil. Figure 26 shows the pressure drop of a commercial cooling coil when the
finned surfaces are dry.

39
 As expected, the pressure drop is higher for coils with a larger number of fins per meter of
tube length. The ordinate is the pressure drop per number of rows of tubes deep, so the values
would be multiplied by 6 for a six-row coil, for example.
For the coil series whose pressure drops are shown in Figure 26 the pressure drop for a given
coil varies as the face velocity to the 1.56 power. That exponent is fairly typical of commercial
plate-fin coils.

6.6 Required condensing capacity

The required rate of heat transfer in the condenser is predominantly a function of the
refrigerating capacity and the temperatures of evaporation and condensation. The condenser
must reject both the energy absorbed by the evaporator and the heat of compression added by
the compressor. A term often used to relate the rate of heat flow at the condenser to that of the
evaporator is the heat-rejection ratio
rate of heat rejected at condenser ,kW
Heat−rejection ratio=
rate of heat absorbed at evaporator ,kW (38)

40
 A graph of typical values of heat-rejection ratios is shown in Figure 27.

When the motor driving the compressor is hermetically sealed, some of the heat associated
with inefficiencies of the electric motor is added to the refrigerant stream and must ultimately
be removed at the condenser. The heat-rejection ratios of the hermetically sealed compressors
are usually slightly higher than those of the open-type compressor.

6.7 Condensing coefficient

The basic equation for calculating the local coefficient of heat transfer of vapor condensing
on a vertical plate (Figure 28) was developed by Nusselt by pure physical analysis.

41
 The equation for the local condensing coefficient is
1/4
hcv x gρ2 h fg x 3
k
= (
4 μkΔt ) (39)

Where hcv = local condensing coefficient on vertical plate, W/m 2.K

x = vertical distance measured from top of plate, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
 = density of condensate, kg/m 3
hfg = latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
 = viscosity of condensate, Pa.s
t = temperature difference between vapor and the plate, K

The mean condensing coefficient over the total height of the plate L is
L
∫0 hcv dx gρ2 hfg k 3
1/4
h̄cv =
L
=0.943 (
μΔtL (40)
) W /m2⋅K

The equation for the mean condensing coefficient for vapor condensing on the outside of
horizontal tubes is
1 /4
gρ 2 hfg k 3
hct =0. 725
μΔtND ( ) W /m2⋅K
(41)
where N = number of tubes in vertical row
D = OD of tube, m

Example No. 9
Calculate the mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient when refrigerant 12 condenses on the
outside of the horizontal tubes in a shell-and-tube condenser. The outside diameter of the tubes
is 19 mm, and in the vertical rows of tubes there are respectively, two, three, four, three, and
two tubes. The refrigerant is condensing at a temperature of 52 C and the temperature of the
tubes is 44 C.

42
 Given:
Refrigerant 12.
OD = 19 mm
Vertical rows of tubes = 2, 3, 4, 3, and 2 tubes
Condensing temperature = 52 C
Temperature of tubes = 44 C
Required:
Mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient – hcond
Solution:
Condensing Coefficient:
1/ 4
gρ2 h fg k 3
hcond =0 .725 (
μΔtND )
Table A-5 at 52 C. (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - Stoecker and Jones)
hfg = 370.997 - 251.004 kJ/kg = 119.993 kJ/kg
hfg = 119,993 J/kg
= 1 / (0.83179 L/kg) = 1202 kg/m3
Table 15-5, Liquid Refrigerant 12. (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - Stoecker and Jones)
 = 0.000179 PA.s
k = 0.05932 W/m.K
N = (2 + 3 + 4 + 3 +2) / 5 = 2.8
t = 52 C - 44 C = 8 K
g = 9.81 m/s2
D = 19 mm = 0.019 m

1/ 4

hcond =0 . 725
[
( 9 . 81 ) (1202 )2 ( 119 , 993 )( 0. 05931 )3
( 0 . 000174 ) ( 8 ) ( 2. 8 ) ( 0 . 019 ) ]
hcond =1065 W /m2⋅K (answer)

6.8 Fouling factor

After a water-cooled condenser has been in service for some time its U value usually
degrades somewhat because of the increased resistance to heat transfer on the water side due
to fouling by the impurities in the water from the cooling tower. The new condenser must
therefore have a higher U value in anticipation of the reduction that will occur in service. The
higher capacity with new equipment is provided by specifying a fouling factor 1/hff m2.K/W. This
term expands for the U value into
1 1 xA o A o A
= + + + o
U o h o kAm hff A i hi Ai (42)
Several different agencies have established standards for the fouling factor to be used. One
trade association specifies 0.000176 m2.K/W, which means that the condenser should leave the
factory with a 1/Uo value of 0.000176 Ao/Ai less than the minimum required to meet the quoted
capacity of the condenser.

43
 6.9 Desuperheating
Even when the refrigerant condenses at a constant pressure, its temperature is constant only
in the condensing portion. Because the vapor coming from the compressor is usually
superheated, the distribution of temperature will be as shown in Figure 29.

Because of the distortion in the temperature profile caused by the desuperheating process,
the temperature difference between the refrigerant and the cooling fluid is no longer correctly
represented by the LMTD
( t c −t i ) −( t c −t o)
LMTD=
t c−t i
ln
( ) t c −t o
(43)
It is common practice to use Equation (43) anyway with the following justification. Although
the temperature difference between the refrigerant and cooling fluid is higher in the
desuperheating section than calculated from Equation (43), the convection coefficient in this
section is normally lower than the condensing coefficient. The two errors compensate somewhat
for each other, and the application of Equation (43) along with the condensing coefficient over
the entire condenser area usually provides reasonably accurate results.

6.10 Evaporators
In most refrigerating evaporators the refrigerant boils in the tubes and cools the fluid that
passes over the outside of the tubes. Evaporators that boil refrigerant in the tubes are often
called direct-expansion evaporators, and Figure 30 shows an air-cooling evaporator and Figure
31 a liquid cooler.

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6.11 Boiling in the shell
It is difficult to predict the boiling coefficient accurately because of the complexities of the
mechanisms. Furthermore, the coefficients follow some different rules when the boiling takes
place in the shell outside the tubes, in contrast to boiling inside the tubes. Some trends that
usually occur will be presented.
The classic prediction for the heat-transfer coefficient for pool boiling of water at
atmospheric pressure is shown in Figure 32.

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 The tests were conducted by immersing a heated wire in a container of water. In the boiling
regime AB the boiling is called nucleate boiling, where bubbles form on the surface and rise
through the pool. The equation of the curve is approximately
q
=CΔt 3 to 4
A
where q = rate of heat transfer, W
A = heat-transfer area, m2
C = constant
t = difference in temperature between metal surface and boiling fluid, K
To write the equation in another form divide both sides by t
q
=h =CΔt 2 to 3
AΔt r
where hr is the boiling coefficient, W/(m 2.K). The value of hr increases as the temperature
difference increases, which physically are due to the greater agitation. The disturbance frees the
bubbles of vapor from the metal surface sooner and allows the liquid to come into contact with
the metal.
The rate of evaporation can increase to a peak, point B, where so much vapor cover the
metal surface that the liquid can no longer intimately contact the metal. A further increase in the
temperature difference decreases the rate of heat transfer.
The graph in Figure 32 is useful in predicting the trends for heat transfer coefficients for
boiling outside tube bundles. Hoffmann summarized the work of several investigators to provide
the band shown in Figure 33.

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6.12 Boiling inside tubes
When refrigerant boils inside the tubes, the heat-transfer coefficient changes progressively
as the refrigerant flows through the tube. The refrigerant enters the evaporator tube with a low
fraction of vapor. As the refrigerant proceeds through the tube, the fraction of vapor increases,
intensify the agitation and increasing the heat-transfer coefficient. When the refrigerant is nearly
all vaporized, the coefficient drops off to the magnitude applicable to vapor transferring heat by
forced convection. Figure 34 shows local coefficients throughout a tube for three different levels
of temperature.

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 The heat-transfer coefficient is highest for the high evaporating temperature, probably
because at high evaporating temperatures and pressures the vapor density is high, permitting a
greater fraction of the metal to be wetted with liquid.

6.13 Pressure drop in tubes

The pressure of the refrigerant drops as it flows through tube-type evaporators. The effect of
pressure drop on system performance is that the compressor must pump from a lower suction
pressure, which increases the power requirement. On the other hand a high refrigerant velocity
can be achieved if more pressure drop is permitted, and this high velocity improves the heat-
transfer coefficient. Typical pressure drops for air-conditioning evaporators are 15 to 30 kPa.

7. Expansion Devices
The last of the basic elements in the vapor-compression cycle, after the compressor, condenser,
and evaporator, is the expansion device. The purpose of the expansion device is twofold: it must
reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant, and it must regulate the flow of refrigerant to the
evaporator.

7.1 Capillary tubes

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 The capillary tube serves almost all small refrigerant systems and its application extends up
to refrigerating capacities of the order of 10 kW. A capillary tube is 1 to 6 m long with an inside
diameter generally from 0.5 to 0.2 mm. The name is a misnomer, since the bore is too large to
permit capillary action. Liquid refrigerant enters the capillary tube, and as it flow through the
tube, the pressure drops because of friction and acceleration of the refrigerant. Some of the
liquid flashes into vapor as the refrigerant flows through the tube.
Numerous combinations of bore and length are available to obtain the desired restriction.
Once the capillary tube has been selected and installed, however, the tube cannot adjust to
variations in discharge pressure, suction pressure, or load. The compressor and expansion device
must arrive at suction and discharge conditions which allow the compressor to pump from the
evaporator the same flow rate of refrigerant that the expansion device feeds to the evaporator. A
condition of unbalanced flow between these two components must necessarily be temporary.

7.2 Selection of a capillary tube

The designer of a new refrigeration unit employing a capillary tube must select the bore and
length of the tube so that the compressor and tube fix a balance point at the desired
evaporating temperature. Final adjustment of the length is most often “cut and try.” A longer
tube than desired is first installed in the system with the probable result that the balance point
will occur at too low an evaporating temperature. The tube is shortened until the desired
balance point is reached.

7.3 Graphical method of capillary tube selection

Graphs to facilitate the selection of capillary tubes are based on data by Hopkins and revised
with data by Whitesel. The first graph (Figure 35) presents the refrigerant flow rate as a function
of the entering pressure to the capillary tube for a tube that is 1.63 mm in diameter and 2.03 m
long.

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 The various curves in Figure 36 represent performance at a variety of inlet conditions-
magnitudes of subcooling and fraction of vapor.

The companion graph to Figure 35 is the one in Figure 36, presenting correction factors to
the flow rate of Figure 35 for other lengths and diameters.
7.4 Constant-pressure expansion valve
The constant-pressure expansion valve maintains a constant pressure at its outlet, the
entrance to the evaporator. It senses the evaporator pressure, and when that pressure drops
below the control point, the valve opens wider. When the evaporator pressure rises above the
control point, the valve partially closes.

7.5 Float Valves

The float valve is a type of expansion valve which maintains the liquid at a constant level in a
vessel or an evaporator. A float switch which opens completely when the liquid level drops
below the control point and closes completely when the level reaches the control point will give
the same net performance as a modulating type of float control.

7.6 Superheat-controlled (thermostatic ) expansion valve

The most popular type of expansion device for moderate-sized refrigeration systems is the
superheat-controlled valve, usually called a thermostatic expansion valve. The name may be
misleading because control is actuated not by the temperature in the evaporator but the
magnitude of superheat of the suction gas leaving the evaporator. The superheat expansion
valve regulates the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant in proportion to the rate of evaporation in
the evaporator. Figure 37 is a photograph of a thermostatic expansion valve.

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7.7 Manufacturers’ ratings to thermostatic expansion valves.
The catalogs of manufacturers of expansion valves usually show the refrigerating capacity
associated with the flow rate of which the valve is capable. In order to provide some reserve
capacity, most manufacturers show the refrigerating capacity at perhaps 75 percent of the full
flow rate of the valve. The flow rate through the valve is a function of the pressure difference
across the valve, and the velocity through the fully opened valve can be computed from the
hydraulic formula
Velocity=C √ 2 ( pressure difference ) m/s (44)

where C is an experimentally determined constant and the pressure difference is in kPa.

Although the refrigerant following the throttling process in the valve is a mixture of vapor and
liquid. Equation (44) applies to liquid because the vaporization does not occur until after the
fluid has passed through the valve. The liquid is momentarily in a metastable condition.

Example No. 10
The catalog of an expansion valve manufacturer specifies a refrigerating capacity of 45 kW for a
certain valve when the pressure difference across the valve is 500 kPa. The catalog ratings apply
when vapor-free liquid at 37.8 C enters the expansion valve and the evaporator temperature is
4.4 C. What is the expected rating of the valve when the pressure difference across it is 1200
kPa?
Given:
Refrigerating capacity = 45 kW
Pressure difference = 500 kPa
At 37.8 C entering expansion valve.

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 Evaporator temperature is 4.4 C
Required:
Expected rating when pressure difference is 1200 kPa.
Solution:
Velocity=C √ 2 ( pressure difference ) m/s
With all other data as constant except for pressure difference and refrigerating capacity.
Re frigerating Capacity∝ √2 ( pressure difference ) m/s
Then:
New Refrigerating Capacity

=( 45 kW )
√
= 69.7 kW (answer)
1200 kPa
500 kPa

7.8 Electric expansion valve

The electric expansion valve, shown schematically in Figure 38, uses a thermistor to sense
the presence of liquid in the outlet stream of the evaporator.

When no liquid is present, the temperature of the thermistor increases, which drops its
resistance and permits a greater current flow through the heater at the valve. The valve is
thereby opened, allowing an increased refrigerant flow rate. One of the applications of the
electric expansion valve is for heat pumps, where the flow rate of refrigerant is reversed in order
to change from heating to cooling. Since its control is independent of refrigerant pressures, the
electric expansion valve can function with flow through the valve in either direction.

END

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