PHYSICAL SCIENCE 1.

Formation of Elements in the Universe

Nuclear Fission
- One heavy nucleus splitting into two lighter ones
- Occurs in heavier elements
Nuclear Fusion
- Two light nuclei joining to form a heavier one
- Occurs in lighter elements
Hydrogen Fusion
- Deuterium, not a stable isotope

Binding Energy
- Is the energy required to disassemble a system into separate parts

Isotopes
- Same element, different number of neutrons
Big Bang Theory
- Is a model and is not an explosion
- Expansion and cooling down
- Proposed by George Lamaitre
● Fireworks Theory
- Matter scattered from the point of explosion
- Velocity caused by the explosion = expanding universe
​ ​s
1. 10​-43​
- Expansion from the singularity in a tiny fraction of a second
- Quantum, not physical laws
​ ​s
2. 10​-32​
- Inflation, rapid expansion, hot soup of electrons, quarks (fundamental elementary
particles that form the subatomic particles), and other particles
-6​​
3. 10​​ s
- Rapid cooling permits quarks to clump into protons and neutrons
4. 3 Mins
- Formation of electrons, protons, and neutrons
- Super hot fog of subatomic particles
5. 300,000 Years
- Subatomic particles from atoms
- Nucleosynthesis = the forming of heavier elements from Hydrogen Fusion
- Light finally shines
6. 1 Billion Years
- Nebula, stars, galaxies
- Gravity makes hydrogen and helium coalesce to form giant clouds that will
become galaxies
- Smaller clumps of gas will form the first stars
7. 15 Billion Years
- Galaxies cluster together under gravity
- First stars die and discharge heavy elements that would eventually turn into new
stars and planets
Other Theories
● Steady State Theory
- The universe has no beginning and ending
● Oscillating Universe Theory
- Combines the big bang and big crunch theory
The Quantum Bubble
- There was a quantum bubble before the singularity
- In this bubble, there is vacuum fluctuation
- Very high density and collapsed = singularity
Redshift Interpretation
- We should observe redshifts at all distances along the light spectrum (big bang model)
- ↑ wavelength, ↓ energy, ↓ frequency
- ROYGBIV ⟵ wavelength
Cosmic Microwave Background
- The universe is expanding and cooling at the same time
- CMB tries to prove the cooling process especially since the universe is getting less
green
Nucleosynthesis
- The process by which elements are created within stars by combining the protons and
neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter elements
● Nuclear Fusion
- Exothermic reaction and burning phases
- High and low mass stars
➔ Exothermic Reactions: H to He
- p-p chain = Hydrogen Fusion, H Burning (nuclear fusion of 4 mol H-1
nuclei → He, Neutrino
- High and low mass stars undergo exothermic reactions
➔ CNO Cycle
- Carbon acts a nuclear catalyst to synthesize 4​​ He from 1​​ H
● Neutron Capture
- High mass stars
➔ S Process
- Slow addition of neutrons producing a stable isotope of Pb (lead)
- Occurs before a supernova
➔ R Process
- Rapid addition of neutrons producing elements beyond Pb (Lead)
- Occurs before beta decay, during supernova
● Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
- Takes place when the universe is a few minutes old
- Makes 2​​ H, 3​​ He, 4​​ He, and ​7​Li
- As the universe cools, protons and neutrons can fuse to form heavier atomic
nuclei
● Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- In stars like the Sun, makes 4​​ He and 12​
​ C, ​14​N, 16​
​ O (low & high mass stars)
- In massive stars, makes elements up to 56​
​ Fe (high mass stars only)
Stellar Evolution

1. Stellar Nebula / Molecular Cloud

- Very high in temperature and density
- Due to its high density, it condenses after sometime
- After it condenses, it forms the protostar and it spins at a high temperature
- Then, at a low mass = average star, high mass = massive star, are called the
main sequence stars
- The start and end of a star
2. Main Sequence Stars
- Both undergo nuclear fusion forming H to He
- Average = Red giant
- Massive = Red supergiant
3. Giants
- Red supergiant = C, N, O until Fe
- Red giant = C, N, O
- N & O are unstable so it goes back to Carbon and leads to the outer layer of the
star collapsing = Planetary Nebula
4. Nebula & Supernova
- Planetary Nebula continues to collapse completely until the inner core remains
and forms the white dwarf which can then form into a black dwarf when the
temperature is low and there is no more light
- The outer layer of the red supergiant collapses fast and explodes because it is so
heavy
- Forms the inner core which can then form either a black hole or a neutron star
depending on the supernova’s mass
5. Black Hole & Neutron Star
- Black hole = if mass >20x the sun
- Neutron star = 8-20x the sun’s mass
- Pulsars are blinking shining lights and are formed depending on the neutron
star’s wavelength
- Not all neutron stars are pulsars