Module 1 Introduction to Research

1. Meaning: Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular

concern or a problem using scientific methods.

Definition:“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the

observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

➢ Characteristics/Features/Nature

1.Reliability: is a subjective term which can not be measured precisely, but today there are
instruments which can estimate the reliability of any research. Reliability is the repeatability of
any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any research yields similar results each
time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to be a
reliable research

2.Validity :is the strength with which we can make research conclusions, assumptions or
propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of the research. Validity of the
research instrument can be defined as the suitability of the research instrument to the research
problem or how accurately the instrument measures the problem. Without validity, research goes
in the wrong direction.

3.Accuracy: is also the degree to which each research process, instrument, and tool is related to
each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected in best possible
manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not. For example if a research has
to be conducted on the trans-gender people, several data collection tools can be used depending
on the research problems but if you find that population less cooperative the best way is to
observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in questionnaire either they will give
biased responses or they will not return the questionnaires at all. So choosing the best data
collection tool improves the accuracy of research.

4.Credibility :comes with the use of the best source of information and best procedures in
research. If you are using second-hand information in your research due to any reason your
research might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake because secondary data
has been manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in research. A
certain percentage of secondary data can be used if the primary source is not available but basing
a research completely on secondary data when primary data can be gathered is least credible.

5.Generalization:is the extent to which a research findings can be applied to larger population.
When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population and from this population
he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is representative of the whole
population so the findings should also be. If research findings can be applied to any sample from
the population, the results of the research are said to be generalizable.

6.Empirical :nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and is
based on real life experiences. Quantitative research is easier to prove scientifically than
qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur.

7:Systematic : approach is the only approach to carry on a research. No research can be

conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have been
tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research, therefore,
should follow a procedure.

8.Controlled :in real life experience there are many factors that affect an outcome. A single
event is often a result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the
broader nature of factors that effect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors while
others are tested for a possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to be
controlled rigorously

➢ Scope of Research:
2: Types of research

There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows.

1. Descriptive Versus Analytical: Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding

enquiries of different types. The main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of
affairs as it prevails at the time of study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for
descriptive research studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing
feature of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to
only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research
projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena,
such as the consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability
of the researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by
them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in
conducting descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and
comparative methods. 6 Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the
already available facts or information, and analyse them to make a critical evaluation of the
subject.

2. Applied Versus Fundamental: Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An

attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business
organisation, or the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such
researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.
On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a
theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning
some natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on
human behaviour also fall under the category of fundamental research. Thus, while the principal
objective of applied research is to find a solution to some pressing practical problem, the
objective of basic research is to find information with a broad base of application and add to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

3.Quantitative Versus Qualitative: Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be

quantified or can be expressed in terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or
amount. Various available statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such
research. Which includes correlation, regressions and time series analysis etc,. On the other hand,
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects
related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research is
‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons for certain human behaviour. The
main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of human
beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed in such research are story
completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective
methods. Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioural sciences,
which aim at discovering the underlying motives of human behaviour. Such research helps to
analyse the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain manner, besides
contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like or dislike a particular thing.
However, it is worth noting that conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a
difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert
researchers is important

4. Conceptual Versus Empirical: The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known
as Conceptual Research. Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts
or for reinterpreting the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies
on the observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is
data based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or
observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is
important to first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the
production of desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first formulates a
working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis.
He/she formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would manipulate the
variables, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus characterized by
the researcher’s control over the variables under study. In simple term, empirical research is most
appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables influence the other variables
in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies are
considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.

5. Other Types Of Research: The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of
the afore-mentioned type of research. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time
required to complete it, or may be based on some 8 other similar factor. On the basis of time,
research may either be in the nature of one-time or longitudinal time series research. While the
research is restricted to a single time-period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-
periods in the latter case. Depending upon the environment in which the research is to be
conducted, it can also be laboratory research or field-setting research, or simulation research,
besides being diagnostic or clinical in nature. Under such research, in-depth approaches or case
study method may be employed to analyse the basic causal relations. These studies usually
undertake a detailed in-depth analysis of the causes of certain events of interest, and use very
small samples and sharp data collection methods. The research may also be explanatory in
nature. Formalized research studies consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be
verified. As regards to historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are
utilized to study past events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups of the
past or any remote point of time. Research has also been classified into decision-oriented and
conclusion-oriented categories. The decision-oriented research is always carried out as per the
need of a decision maker and hence, the researcher has no freedom to conduct the research
according to his/her own desires. On the other hand, in the case of Conclusion-oriented research,
the researcher is free to choose the problem, redesign the enquiry as it progresses and even
change conceptualization as he/she wishes to. Operations research is a kind of decision-oriented
research, where in scientific method is used in providing the departments, a quantitative basis for
decision-making with respect to the activities under their purview.

3:Research Approaches: Quantitative Vs Qualitative

1.Quantitative Research: Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of

generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to
quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from
a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than
Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms
of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and
systematic observations.

Quantitative Research Methods:

• Archival research. Researching through archives: rare books, historical records and other
historical data like school yearbooks.
• Content analysis. Content analysis looks at whether certain words or phrases are present in
texts. Inferences can then be made about the writer, the audience and the culture
surrounding those texts.
• Case study. Case studies are usually performed on an individual or small group of
individuals. A detailed history is taken of some aspect of the participant’s life. For example,
you might make a case study of a group of 12 alcoholics on their drinking habits, personal
history and home life.
• Computer simulation. Computer modeling is one of the research methods gradually
becoming more popular especially, where ethical constraints prevent actual experiments or
observation. For example, instead of watching the effects of a poisonous gas on mice, a
computer simulation can model the effect without the need for live animals.
• Experiment. An experiment is where you deliberately manipulate
one variable (the independent variable) to see what the outcome is on another variable
(the dependent variable). Experiments are typically performed in a closed setting, like a
 laboratory. Field experiments are where the experiment takes place outside of the controlled
setting, in the real world.
• Interview. In an interview, you meet face to face with participants. Taping an interview is
usually preferable, as note-taking can be distracting. Interview questions can be closed–
where participants are given a choice of answers–or open questions, which allow for
thoughtful, in-depth responses. An interview can also be a mixture of both.
• Meta-analysis. A meta-analysis combines the findings from existing research into one,
comprehensive thesis. A meta-analysis can uncover trends or themes that weren’t apparent
in individual pieces of research.
• Observational Study. A type of study where the researcher observes participants without
any kind of interference. Participants are placed into two groups with one control group and
one experimental group (i.e. smokers and non-smokers).
• Survey. Surveys usually involve a representative sample of the population, using a
technique like random sampling. A questionnaire is given to each member of the sample and
used to infer characteristics of the whole population. Surveys are easy in theory but can be
difficult to put into practice, mainly because of a typically low response rate.

2.Qualitative Research: Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to

gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into
the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into
the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured
techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual
interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents
are selected to fulfill a given quota.

Qualitative Research Methods

• Direct observation: With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about
their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown
to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not
have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways
in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
• Open-ended surveys: While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many
are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of
qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political
candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
• Focus group: In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a
conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can
 contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that
examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in
market research too.

• In-depth interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants

in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a
predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve
based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain
topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the
participant to guide it.

• Ethnographic observation: Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth

observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully
immerses herself into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for
anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-
day existence from the viewpoints of those studied in order to develop in-depth and long-
term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.

• Content analysis: This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting
words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media.
The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they
are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture.

➢ Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

BASIS FOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Meaning Qualitative research is a method Quantitative research is a research

of inquiry that develops method that is used to generate
understanding on human and numerical data and hard facts, by
social sciences, to find the way employing statistical, logical and
people think and feel. mathematical technique.

Nature Holistic Particularistic

 BASIS FOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Approach Subjective Objective

Research type Exploratory Conclusive

Reasoning Inductive Deductive

Sampling Purposive Random

Data Verbal Measurable

Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented

Hypothesis Generated Tested

Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data

analysis

Objective To explore and discover ideas To examine cause and effect

used in the ongoing processes. relationship between variables.

Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as surveys,

depth interviews, group questionnaires and observations.
discussions etc.

Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

4: Research Process .
1. Selecting the research area. You are expected to state that you have selected the research
area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. The
importance of this first stage in the research process is often underestimated by many students. If
you find research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that
the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early
to start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.

2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses.

The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses
depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate
research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions and
these need to be mentioned in Methodology chapter. It is critically important to get your research
questions or hypotheses confirmed by your supervisor before moving forward with the work.

3. Conducting the literature review. Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research
process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and
objective; because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed
before. Nevertheless, the main part of the literature review is conducted after the formulation of
research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as
books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.

4. Selecting methods of data collection. Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the
basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative data
collection methods. In studies involving primary data collection, in-depth discussions of
advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) need to be included
in methodology.

5. Collecting the primary data. Primary data collection needs to be preceded by a great level of
preparation and pilot data collection may be required in case of questionnaires. Primary data
collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are
conducting a desk-based research.

6. Data analysis. Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and
objectives. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as,
between qualitative and quantitative studies.
7. Reaching conclusions. Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and
objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have to justify why you think that research
aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and
suggestions for future research.

8. Completing the research. Following all of the stages described above, and organizing separate
chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft. The first draft of your dissertation
needs to be prepared at least one month before the submission deadline. This is because you will
need to have sufficient amount of time to address feedback of your supervisor.

5:Preparation and Contents of Business Research Proposal

1. Title:This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be able to revise your
title during the course of your research if you are accepted for admission.

2. Abstract :The proposal should include a concise statement of your intended research of no
more than 100 words. This may be a couple of sentences setting out the problem that you want to
examine or the central question that you wish to address.

3. Research Context : You should explain the broad background against which you will conduct
your research. You should include a brief overview of the general area of study within which
your proposed research falls, summarising the current state of knowledge and recent debates on
the topic. This will allow you to demonstrate a familiarity with the relevant field as well as the
ability to communicate clearly and concisely.

4. Research Questions :The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will
guide your research. Before writing your proposal, you should take time to reflect on the key
questions that you are seeking to answer. Many research proposals are too broad, so reflecting on
your key research questions is a good way to make sure that your project is sufficiently narrow
and feasible .You might find it helpful to prioritize one or two main questions, from which you
can then derive a number of secondary research questions. The proposal should also explain your
intended approach to answering the questions: will your approach be empirical, doctrinal or
theoretical etc?

5. Research Methods :The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how you
are going to conduct your research. Your methods may include visiting particular libraries or
archives, field work or interviews.
Most research is library-based. If your proposed research is library-based, you should explain
where your key resources are located If you plan to conduct field work or collect empirical data,
you should provide details about this. This section should also explain how you are going to
analyse your research findings.

6. Significance of Research ;The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended
research. You should therefore explain why your research is important (for example, by
explaining how your research builds on and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or
by setting out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed topic).

7. Bibliography :The proposal should include a short bibliography identifying the most relevant
works for your topic.

6: Application of Research in Business

1.Testing of new products. Business research tests the possible success of fresh products.
Businesses need to know what kinds of services and products consumers want before they produce
them. Research will reduce risk – Research can help design a new product or service, figuring out
what is needed and ensure that the development of a product is highly targeted towards demand.

2. Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses can also use research to guarantee sufficient
distribution of their products. For instance, a consumer products’ company might want to speak
with merchants about the various brands they offer. The outcomes of the business research can
help managers decide where they need to increase their product distribution.

3. In-house research is required for professional and self development of the workers
through training and mentoring. Organisational research and analysis would also be needed for
assessment of performance management, process reengineering, departmental assessment and
well-being of staff members.

4. Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure. Carrying out research can
also help a business determine whether now is the right time to expand into another town or
whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small business decide if a process
should be altered or if more needs to be done to meet the requirements of the customer base.

5. Studying the competition. Businesses frequently make use of research to study key rivals in
their markets. Businesses will often begin with secondary research information or information
which is currently accessible. Research is important for any organization to remain competitive in
 the market. The top function of research is to supply a business with an outlet to correctly
determine its customers.

6. It can also help in the recruitment of employees. It’s through proper research that human
resource managers are able to determine and recruit qualified manpower. Recruitment of workers
with the right skills and attitudes aids the company to improve its productivity levels. Research for
the right staff members can be done via the internet, consultancy firms and institutions of higher
learning.

7: Ethics in Business Research

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationship with others. As in other aspects of business, all parties in research should exhibit
ethical behavior. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffered
adverse consequences from research activities. All research should be grounded in ethics, and
business research is no exception.

➢ Ethical Issues in Business Research: When discussing the ethics of business research,
you have three significant areas of responsibility:

• Your Company: You have a responsibility to act professionally, ethically and in a way that
will represent your company well.
• Your Customers: Your customers deserve to be treated with transparency and respect, and
their concerns should be heard and acted upon. It may be helpful to create a chart that outlines
the main themes of customer feedback. There are even recording tools that allow you to
capture any soundbites that you think would be helpful. Your customers also require
protection, and you should ensure that no one gets data about your participants that they do not
need to access as a function of their job.
• Your Community: More and more, companies are considered fixtures in their community.
They put on free help events and they contribute to parks, hospitals and other public works.
While handling your research, you should keep in mind what activities your company supports
and how to leverage that for the betterment of your community.

➢ Ethical Consideration in Business Research

There must be a balance between your research objective and the following considerations:

• Protecting the rights of the participant or subject.

• Ensuring the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research.
• Following ethical standards when designing research.
• Protecting the safety of the researcher and team.
 Module 2 Research Design

1:Definition : Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a

researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the
research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research
using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to
be assessed – this can be done with research design.

2: Features of Research Design

Research design actually does not tell us precisely regarding what to do but it suggests us how to
do and in what should be the flow of activities. Though it is a framework or set of action plan, it
cannot be rigid. It is always open for necessary amendment during the course of action. Good
research design should fulfill the following features:

(a) Objectivity: The findings are said to be objective when they pertain to the method of data
collection and the scoring of the responses. The objectivity in respect of the procedure may be
judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to various persons by more
than one independent observer. The more the agreement among the observers the more objective
are the observation, recording and evaluation of the responses. Therefore, a good research design
should permit fairly objective measuring instruments in which every observer visualizing a
performance comes to the same conclusion.

(b) Reliability: The question of reliability of knowledge is usually raised when the presence of a
problem arouses in the knower a demand, not only for something more than mere conjecture, but
for something for which it shall be useful in a given situation and perhaps in other similar
situations. Reliable knowledge means any claim that is substantiated as trustworthy for a given
purpose.

(c) Validity :Validity implies self-consistency or absence of self-contradiction. It is identified

with formal truth or self-consistency. A valid reasoning conforms to the rules of correct
reasoning. It is that type of reasoning where conclusions automatically follow from the premises
legitimately.

(d) Generalisability: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and
not just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.

(e) other features:

• Good research design must be realistic, workable, appropriate and able to give us intended
information.
• Design must be flexible, efficient, thrift and parsimonious to economy.
• Design should be consistent with the research capability of the researcher or feasible for the
research.
• Research design must be based on and synchronize with the purpose of the research problem.
• It must be flexible so that it can be changed as per the situation changed.
• Good research design should be formulated after the crucial study of the nature of the problem.
• Design should provide well developed guidelines for entire research steps.
• Research design should cover the data collection and analysis technique properly.
• Design should able to recommend appropriate methods for hypothesis formulation and testing.

3: Contents of Research Design:

The most common aspects involved in research design include at least followings:

1. Statement of research objectives, i.e., why the research project is to be conducted

2. Type of data needed

3. Definition of population and sampling procedures to be followed

4. Time, costs, and responsibility specification

5. Methods, ways, and procedures used for collection of data

6. Data analysis – tools or methods used to analyze data

7. Probable output or research outcomes and possible actions to be taken based on those
outcomes

4 : Types of Research Designs:

(i): Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory research is defined as a research used to

investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding
of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher
starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the
focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to
change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is
usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded
theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how.
 ➢ Features of Exploratory research

• They are not structured studies

• It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
• It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of
the study? And what topics could be studied?
• To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing
ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.
• It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
• The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he
is doing.
• There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and
scattered.
• The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry
the research carried out is ineffective.
• The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make
it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
• Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative data
can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

➢ Advantages of Exploratory research

• The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.
• It is usually low cost.
• It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
• It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time
and resources and if it is worth pursuing.
• It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further
studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem.

➢ Disadvantages of Exploratory research

• Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually
inconclusive.
• The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data.
Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
• Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results cannot be
accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
• Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance
of that data being old and is not updated

➢ Methods of Exploratory Research

1.Literature Search: It is one of the fastest and least expensive means to discover hypotheses.
There is enormous quantity of information available in libraries, via internet sources, in
commercial data bases, and so on. The literature search may include newspapers, magazines, trade
literature, academic literature, or published statistics from research organizations or governmental
agencies Census Bureau. Example: Assume an issue is “Why are product sales lower?” This can
easily be evaluated with the aid of published data which should indicate “whether the issue is an
“industry problem” or a “firm problem”.

2.Depth Interviews: It’s important to start with a good literature search, but at some point it is
desirable to talk to persons who are well informed in the area being investigated. These people
could be professionals or persons outside the organisation. Here, we don’t need questionnaire. The
approach adopted should be highly unstructured, so that the participant can give divergent views.
Depth interviews are widely used to tap the knowledge and experience of individuals with
information strongly related the situation or opportunity at hand. Anybody with related information
is a potential candidate for a depth interview, such as existing clients, members of the target
market, executives and supervisors of the client organization, sales representatives, suppliers,
retailers, and so on.

3.Focus Group: In a focus group, only a few people are brought together to study and talk over
some theme of interest. The discussion is directed by a moderator who is in the room with the
focus group participants. The group usually is of 8-12 persons. While choosing these individuals,
care must be taken to see that they should have a common background and have comparable
experiences in buying. This is certainly needed since there should not be a conflict among the
group members on the common problems that are being talked about.

4. Case Analyses: Researchers can understand a lot in regards to a problem by studying carefully
selected examples or cases of the phenomenon. Case histories of businesses that have gone through
an identical problem may be available. These case studies are suitable to undertake exploratory
research. A researcher must examine carefully the previously published case studies with regard
to variables like price, advertisement, changes in the trend, etc.

(ii) Descriptive Research : Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes
the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology
focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.
Descriptive research design is typically concerned with describing problem and its solution. It is
 more specific and purposive study. Before rigorous attempts are made for descriptive study, the
well-defined problem must be on hand. Descriptive study rests on one or more hypotheses.

➢ Characteristics of Descriptive Research

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It
is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the
demographic segment.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can
then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point
towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research

➢ Types of descriptive research

.
1.: Cross sectional studies: Cross sectional research is the most frequently used descriptive
research design in marketing. It involves a sample of elements from the population of interest.
The sample elements are measured on a number of characteristics. There are two types of cross
sectional studies.(i) field studies (ii) surveys.

2.longitudinal studies : Longitudinal studies relies on panel data and panel method. It involves
fixing a panel consisting of fixed sample of subjects that are measured repeatedly. The panel
members are those who have agreed to provide information at specific intervals over an extended
period. For example data obtained from panels formed to provide information on market shares
are based on an extended period of time , but also allows the researcher to examine changes in
market share over time .New members may be included in the panel as and when there is a drop
out of existing members or to maintain representativeness.

Module 3 Sampling & Data Collection

1. Characteristics of good sample design

• Goal-oriented: A sample design should be goal oriented. It is means and should be oriented
to the research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions
• Accurate representative of the universe: A sample should be an accurate representative of
the universe from which it is taken. There are different methods for selecting a sample. It will
be truly representative only when it represents all types of units or groups in the total
population in fair proportions. In brief sample should be selected carefully as improper
sampling is a source of error in the survey.

• Proportional: A sample should be proportional. It should be large enough to represent the

universe properly. The sample size should be sufficiently large to provide statistical stability
or reliability. The sample size should give accuracy required for the purpose of particular
study.

• Random selection: A sample should be selected at random. This means that any item in the
group has a full and equal chance of being selected and included in the sample. This makes
the selected sample truly representative in character.

• Economical: A sample should be economical. The objectives of the survey should be

achieved with minimum cost and effort.

• Practical: A sample design should be practical. The sample design should be simple i.e. it
should be capable of being understood and followed in the fieldwork.

• Actual information provider: A sample should be designed so as to provide actual

information required for the study and also provide an adequate basis for the measurement of
its own reliability

2.Determination of Sample Size

Meaning: In statistics, a sample refers to the observations drawn from a population. Sample size
is used in market research and defines the number of subjects that should be included within a
sample. Having the right sample size is crucial in finding a statistically significant result.

➢ Criteria for determining the sample size:

1.The Level Of Precision :The level of precision, sometimes called sampling error, is the range
in which the true value of the population is estimated to be. This range is often expressed in
percentage points,. Thus, if a researcher finds that 60% of farmers in the sample have adopted a
recommended practice with a precision rate of ±5%, then he or she can conclude that between
55% and 65% of farmers in the population have adopted the practice

2.The Confidence Level : The confidence or risk level is based on ideas encompassed under the
Central Limit Theorem. The key idea encompassed in the Central Limit Theorem is that when a
population is repeatedly sampled, the average value of the attribute obtained by those samples is
equal to the true population value. This means that, if a 95% confidence level is selected, 95 out
of 100 samples will have the true population value within the range of precision specified earlier.

3:Degree Of Variability: The third criterion, the degree of variability in the attributes being
measured refers to the distribution of attributes in the population. The more heterogeneous a
population, the larger the sample size required to obtain a given level of precision. The less
variable (more homogeneous) a population, the smaller the sample size. Because a proportion of
.5 indicates the maximum variability in a population, it is often used in determining a more
conservative sample size, that is, the sample size may be larger than if the true variability of the
population attribute were used.

➢ Strategies for determining Sample:

1.Using A Census For Small Populations: One approach is to use the entire population as the
sample. Although cost considerations make this impossible for large populations, a census is
attractive for small populations (e.g., 200 or less). A census eliminates sampling error and
provides data on all the individuals in the population. In addition, some costs such as
questionnaire design and developing the sampling frame are "fixed," that is, they will be the
same for samples of 50 or 200.

2.Using A Sample Size Of A Similar Study :Another approach is to use the same sample size
as those of studies similar to the one you plan. Without reviewing the procedures employed in
these studies you may run the risk of repeating errors that were made in determining the sample
size for another study. However, a review of the literature in your discipline can provide
guidance about "typical" sample sizes which are used.

3 Using Published Tables : A third way to determine sample size is to rely on published tables
which provide the sample size for a given set of criteria.

4.Using Formulas To Calculate A Sample Size: Although tables can provide a useful guide for
determining the sample size, you may need to calculate the necessary sample size for a different
combination of levels of precision, confidence, and variability. The fourth approach to
determining sample size is the application of one of several formulas.

3: Probability Vs Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

1.Probability Sampling This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every
element of the population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. It’s alternatively
known as random sampling.
➢ Types of Probability Sampling

1.Simple Random Sampling: Every element has an equal chance of getting selected to be the
part sample. It is used when we don’t have any kind of prior information about the target
population. This technique provides the unbiased and better estimate of the parameters if the
population is homogeneous. For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50
student. Each student has equal chance of getting selected. Here probability of selection is 1/50

2.Stratified Sampling :This technique divides the elements of the population into small
subgroups (strata) based on the similarity, in such a way, that the elements within the group are
homogeneous and heterogeneous among the other subgroups formed. And then the elements are
randomly selected from each of these strata. We need to have prior information about the
population to create subgroups.

3.Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a sampling method where the entire population is
divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All
observations in the selected clusters are included in the sample. Cluster sampling is a sampling
technique used when "natural" but relatively homogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical
population. Cluster sampling is generally used when the researcher cannot get a complete list of
the units of a population they wish to study but can get a complete list of groups or 'clusters' of
the population.

4: Multi-Stage Sampling : Multistage Random Sampling In Multistage random sampling, units

are selected at various stages. The sampling designs may be either same or different at each
stage. Multistage sampling technique is also referred to as cluster sampling, it involves the use of
samples that are to some extent of clustered. The principle advantage of this sampling technique
is that it permits the available resources to be concentrated on a limited number of units of the
frame, but in this sampling technique the sampling error will be increased.

5: Systematic Random Sampling In this method of sampling, the first unit of the sample
selected at random and the subsequent units are selected in a systematic way. If there are N units
in the population and n units are to be selected, then R = N/n (the R is known as the sampling
interval). The first number is selected at random out of the remainder of this R (Sampling
Interval) to the previous selected number.

2.Non-Pr obability Sampling :It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant
on the researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling might be biased
and makes difficult for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This type
of sampling is also known as non-random sampling.

➢ Types of Non Probability Sampling

1.Convenience Sampling: Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This method is
used when the availability of sample is rare and also costly. So based on the convenience samples
are selected. For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research, as
it’s quick and easy to deliver results.

2.Purposive Sampling: This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those
elements will be selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our
study.For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing master’s degree then the selection criteria would be “Are you interested for
Masters in..?”All the people who respond with a “No” will be excluded from our sample.

3.Quota Sampling :This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects the
representative sample from the population. Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample should be
same as population. Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain types of data is
obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.For example: If our population has
45% females and 55% males then our sample should reflect the same percentage of males and
females.

4:Referral /Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small
population size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another
potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball
sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.

4: Differentiate between probability and Non probability sampling:

 BASIS FOR NON-PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
COMPARISON SAMPLING

Meaning Probability sampling is a sampling Nonprobability sampling is a

technique, in which the subjects of method of sampling wherein, it is
the population get an equal not known that which individual
opportunity to be selected as a from the population will be selected
representative sample. as a sample.

Alternately known Random sampling Non-random sampling

as

Basis of selection Randomly Arbitrarily

Opportunity of Fixed and known Not specified and unknown

selection

Research Conclusive Exploratory

Result Unbiased Biased

Method Objective Subjective

Inferences Statistical Analytical

Hypothesis Tested Generated

5: Sampling Error
Meaning: A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a
sample that represents the entire population of data and the results found in the sample do not
represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population.

➢ Types of Sampling Errors

• Population Specification Error—This error occurs when the researcher does not understand
who they should survey. For example, imagine a survey about breakfast cereal consumption.
Who to survey? It might be the entire family, the mother, or the children. The mother might
make the purchase decision, but the children influence her choice.

• Sample Frame Error—A frame error occurs when the wrong sub-population is used to
select a sample. A classic frame error occurred in the 1936 presidential election between
Roosevelt and Landon. The sample frame was from car registrations and telephone
directories. In 1936, many Americans did not own cars or telephones, and those who did
were largely Republicans. The results wrongly predicted a Republican victory.

• Selection Error—This occurs when respondents self-select their participation in the study –
only those that are interested respond. Selection error can be controlled by going extra
lengths to get participation. A typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact
requesting cooperation, actual surveying, and post-survey follow-up. If a response is not
received, a second survey request follows, and perhaps interviews using alternate modes such
as telephone or person-to-person.

• Non-Response—Non-response errors occur when respondents are different than those who
do not respond. This may occur because either the potential respondent was not contacted or
they refused to respond. The extent of this non-response error can be checked through
follow-up surveys using alternate modes.

• Sampling Errors—These errors occur because of variation in the number or

representativeness of the sample that responds. Sampling errors can be controlled by (1)
careful sample designs, (2) large samples (check out our online sample size calculator), and
(3) multiple contacts to assure representative response.

➢ Measures To reduce sampling errors

1). Minimize the selection of the bias through random sampling:

2). Increase the sample size
3). Partition variability through stratification:
4). Sampling bias.
5). Replicate the study by taking the same measurement repeatedly, use more than one group or
multiple studies. Replication swamps out sampling errors.

6: Data Collection

Definition: The Data Collection is a process by which the researcher collects the information
from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and
evaluate the outcomes.
While collecting the data, the researcher must identify the type of data to be collected, source of
data, and the method to be used to collect the data. Also, the answers to the questions that who,
when and where the data is to be collected should be well addressed by the researcher.

7:Primary & Secondary Sources of Data:

➢ Primary VS Secondary Data

 BASIS FOR
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
COMPARISON

Meaning Primary data refers to the first Secondary data means data
hand data gathered by the collected by someone else earlier.
researcher himself.

Data Real time data Past data

Process Very involved Quick and easy

Source Surveys, observations, Government publications, websites,

experiments, questionnaire, books, journal articles, internal
personal interview, etc. records etc.

Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical

Collection time Long Short

Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to the

researcher's needs. researcher's need.

Available in Crude form Refined form

Accuracy and More Relatively less

Reliability

8: Primary Data Collection Methods

The primary data are the first-hand data, collected by the researcher for the first time and is
original in nature. The researcher collects the fresh data when the research problem is unique,
and no related research work is done by any other person. The results of the research are more
accurate when the data is collected directly by the researcher but however it is costly and time-
consuming.

(i). Observation Method: In observation method, the information is sought by way of investi-
gator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this
method is that it is free from subjective biasness, as it is free from respondent’s willingness. It is,
however, an expensive and time consuming method. Moreover, the information provided by this
method is very limited and some of the more busy people like executives may not be accessible
to direct observation.

➢ Types of Observation:

1.Controlled and Non Controlled observation: Controlled observations are the observations
made under the influence of some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to
improvement in the precision of the research results.. Non controlled observations are made in
the natural environment and reverse to the controlled observation these observations involve no
influence or guidance of any type of external force.

2.Structured and Unstructured observation – Structured observation works according to a

plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and also about the
information that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various features
that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance.. But in the case of the unstructured
observation, the observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and
relevant to the point of study and also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of
exploratory research.

3.Subjective and Objective observation – All the observations consist of the two main
components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers
to the activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the
observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer
as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective observation.
Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.

4. Direct and Indirect observation – With the help of the direct method of observation, one
comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he present and
then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves
studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like photographic or
electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect
observation.

5.Casual and Scientific observation – An observation can be sometimes casual in nature or

sometimes it may act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the
right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a
scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement, but a very important point
to be kept in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in nature.

6. Natural Observation – Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal

setting and in this type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the
behavior of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the information and improvement in
the environment of making an observation can be done with the help of natural observations.

7.Participant and Non Participant observation – Participation by the observers with the
various types of operations of the group under study refers to the participant type of observation.
In participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by the nature of the
study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands. But in the non
participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group
takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.

(ii). Interview Method: Primary data may be collected either through personal interviews or
through telephonic interviews:
(a) In the personal interviews the interviewer asks questions generally in a face to face contact.
Through interview method more and reliable information may be obtained. Personal
information can be obtained easily under this method. It is, however, a very expensive and
time consuming method, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is
taken.
(b) In telephonic interviews contact is made with the respondents through telephone.

➢ Types of Interview:

1.Structured Interviews: Structured interviews are kind of verbally presented questionnaire. In

structured interviews, a list of pre-determined questions is asked to the respondent. The questions
are not altered during the interview and no follow-up questions are asked to get an explanation on
a given answer. These interviews can be conducted fast because there is almost no chance for both
interviewer and respondent to get deviated from the topic. The responses can be compared and
analyzed easily because of the uniformity of the questions asked.However, preparing questions for
structured interviews is a long and difficult process. only a limited number of respondents can be
interviewed by the use of structured interview method.

2. Unstructured Interviews: Unstructured interviews are conducted with a little or no

preparation. Unstructured interviews are kind of regular conversation between two people. These
interviews also require the skills to form questions in such a way so that they will get you a detailed
response. A person who conducts unstructured interviews must know how to ask questions so that
they will get him a detailed response. Unstructured interviews are very time-consuming and they
usually last for long hours and they are difficult to participate in and manage, because of the lack
of pre-determined questions list. Unstructured interviews are suitable for those researches where
the interviewer has little or almost no-knowledge about the research topic or researcher want to
get information about a topic from a different perspective.

3.Semi-Structured Interviews :Semi-structured interviews are a combination of both structured

and unstructured interviews such as, a researcher will come up with a list of questions to be asked
in the interview, but he can also ask follow-up questions to get deeper detail or explanation from
the respondent on the basis of his response. This type of interviews is mostly used for research in
the health care industry, where interviewer provide guidance to participants on what they should
talk about. This helps the participant to provide accurate information.

(iii) Questionnaire Method: Questionnaire is the most evident method of data collection, which
is comprised of a set of questions related to the research problem. This method is very
convenient in case the data are to be collected from the diverse population. It mainly includes the
printed set of questions, either open-ended or closed-ended, which the respondents are required
to answer on the basis of their knowledge and experience with the issue concerned.

(iv). Schedule Method:This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaires, with little difference that lies in the fact that schedules (proforma
containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed
for this purpose. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove
the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular
question.
This method is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is,
however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental
agencies or by some organizations. Population census all over the world is conducted through
this method.
 9:Qualitative Data Collection Methods:

Meaning: Exploratory in nature, these methods are mainly concerned at gaining insights and
understanding on underlying reasons and motivations, so they tend to dig deeper. Since they
cannot be quantified, measurability becomes an issue. This lack of measurability leads to the
preference for methods or tools that are largely unstructured or, in some cases, maybe structured
but only to a very small, limited extent.

Generally, qualitative methods are time-consuming and expensive to conduct, and so researchers
try to lower the costs incurred by decreasing the sample size or number of respondents.

It includes the following types:

(1.)Case Study Method: “The case study method of data collection is a technique by which
individual factor whether it be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a
group is analysed in its relationship to any other in the group.” The case study places more
emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.
The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study
is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of
the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given
unit as an integrated totality.

Characteristics of Case Study method

1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his
study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the
study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to
obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences.
3. In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets.
Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a
social unit as an integrated totality.
4. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere
quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information
concerning all aspects of life. As such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear
insight into life. For instance, under this method we not only study how many crimes a man
has done but shall peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making
a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to
reform the criminal.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of
causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning unit is studied directly and
not by an indirect and abstract approach.
7. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in
testing them, and thus it enables the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer. In its
absence, generalised social science may get handicapped.

➢ Advantages:

1.Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand
fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit.

2.Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal
experiences which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to
action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.

3.This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its
relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.

4.It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing
them.

5.The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if we use
either the observation method or the method of collecting information through schedules

6.The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study
method depending upon the prevalent circumstances
7.Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his
analysing ability and skill.

➢ Limitations

1.Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is
often not comparable.

2.The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are followed
in collection of the information and only few units are studied.

3.It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under case study
method since one studies the natural history cycles of social units and that too minutely.
4.Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times,
and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.

5.Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of
a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method.

6.Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He often
thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it. In case the same
is not true, then consequences follow.

(2)Content analysis: Content analysis is a research technique used to make replicable and valid
inferences by interpreting and coding textual material. By systematically evaluating texts (e.g.,
documents, oral communication, and graphics), qualitative data can be converted into
quantitative data. Although the method has been used frequently in the social sciences, only
recently has it become more prevalent among organizational scholars.

Module 4 Measurement Scales & Data Analysis

1: Measurement Scales

Meaning: Measurement scales in Research Methodology are used to categorize and/or quantify
variables. Scales of measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical properties.
The most widely used classification of measurement scales are:

➢ Basic measurement scales :

1.Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players
in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered
scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the
particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide
convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the
numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group
of football players and come up with a meaningful value.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance
relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between
things by assigning them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data
2.Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale
equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in
research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the
use of an ordinal scale. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest.
Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may
not be equal. Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’
without being able to state how much greater or less.

3.Interval: A scale which represents quantity and has equal units but for which zero represents
simply an additional point of measurement is an interval scale. The Fahrenheit scale is a clear
example of the interval scale of measurement. Thus, 60 degree Fahrenheit or -10 degrees
Fahrenheit are interval data. With each of these scales there is direct, measurable quantity with
equality of units. In addition, zero does not represent the absolute lowest value. Rather, it is point
on the scale with numbers both above and below it (for example, -10 degrees Fahrenheit) .

4:Ratio: The ratio scale of measurement is similar to the interval scale in that it also represents
quantity and has equality of units. However, this scale also has an absolute zero (no numbers
exist below the zero). Very often, physical measures will represent ratio data (for example,
height and weight). If one is measuring the length of a piece of wood in centimeters, there is
quantity, equal units, and that measure can not go below zero centimeters. A negative length is
not possible.

2: Attitude measurement

Meaning: An attitude measurement survey is a study, on a properly drawn sample, of a specified

population to find out what people in that population feel about a specified issue.

Scaling of attitude: Appropriateness of a statistical method depends upon the type of scale used
in data collection

l. Nominal Scale :

2.Ordinal scale

3.Interval scale
3:Preparation of data

1.Editing of Data: The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct them, if possible, so as to ensure legibility, completeness, consistency
and accuracy. The recorded data must be legible so that it could he coded later. Completeness
involves that all the items in the questionnaire must be fully completed. It is very important to
check whether or not respondent is consistent in answering the questions. For example there
could a respondent claiming that he makes purchases by credit card may not have one. The
inaccuracy of the survey data may be due to interviewer bi as or cheating.

The editing can be done at two stages: 1. Field Editing, and 2. Central Editing.

Field Editing : The field editing consists of review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing or translating what the latter has written in abbreviated form at the time of
interviewing the respondent.

Central Editing: Central editing should be carried out when all the forms of schedules have been
completed and returned to the headquarters.

2.Coding of Data: Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or
numerals or (both) to the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of
classes or categories. The classes should be appropriate to the research problem being studied.
They must be exhaustive and must be mutually exclusive so that the answer can be placed in one
and only one cell in a given category. Further, every class must be defined in terms of only one
concept. The coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of data. The coding decisions should
usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire itself so that the likely responses to
questions are pre-coded. This simplifies computer tabulation of the data for further analysis. Any
errors in coding should be eliminated altogether or at least be reduced to the minimum possible
level.

3:Data classification/distribution: Classification of data is the process of arranging data in

groups or classes on the basis of some characteristics. Classification condenses the data,
facilitates comparisons, helps to study the relationships and facilitates in statistical treatment of
data. The classification should be unambiguous and mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive. Further, it should not only be flexible but also suitable for the purpose for which it is
sought. ‘Classification can either be according to attributes or numerical characteristics.

(i)Classification According to Attributes: To classify the data according to attributes we use

descriptive characteristics like age, caste, education, user of a product etc. The descriptive
characters are the one which can not be measured quantitatively. One can only talk in terms of its
presence or absence. The classification according to attributes may be of two types. i) Simple
Classification: ii) Manifold Classification
(ii)Classification According to Numerical Characteristic: When the observations possesses
numerical characteristics such as sales, profits, height, weight, income, marks, they are classified
according to class intervals. For example, persons whose monthly income is between Rs. 2001
and Rs. 3500 may-form one group, those whose income is within Rs. 3501 and Rs. 7000 may
form another group, and so on. In this manner, the entire data may be divided into a number of
groins or classes, which are usually called class intervals.

4: Tabulation of data: After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together in some kinds of tables and
may also undergo some other forms of statistical analysis.

Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers. For a small study of 100 to 200 persons,
there may be little point in tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards. But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and requiring
cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand tabulation will be inappropriate and
time consuming.

5: Data validation: Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and clear data
to the programs, applications and services using it. It checks for the integrity and validity of data
that is being inputted to different software and its components. Data validation ensures that the
data complies with the requirements and quality benchmarks.Data validation is also known as
input validation.

Some of the types of data validation include:

• Code validation
• Data type validation
• Data range validation
• Constraint validation
• Structured validation

6. Formulation of Hypotheses: A hypothesis is used to explain a phenomenon or predict a

relationship in communication research. There are four evaluation criteria that a hypothesis must
meet. First, it must state an expected relationship between variables. Second, it must be testable
and falsifiable; researchers must be able to test whether a hypothesis is truth or false. Third, it
should be consistent with the existing body of knowledge. Finally, it should be stated as simply
and concisely as possible.

Formulating a hypothesis requires a specific, testable, and predictable statement driven by

theoretical guidance and/or prior evidence. A hypothesis can be formulated in various research
 designs. In experimental settings, researchers compare two or more groups of research
participants to investigate the differences of the research outcomes.

4:Parametric & Non-Parametric Tests

Introduction: In statistics, parametric and nonparametric methodologies refer to those in

which a set of data has a normal vs. a non-normal distribution, respectively. Parametric tests
make certain assumptions about a data set; namely, that the data are drawn from a population
with a specific (normal) distribution. Non-parametric tests make fewer assumptions about the
data set. The majority of elementary statistical methods are parametric, and parametric tests
generally have higher statistical power. If the necessary assumptions cannot be made about a
data set, non-parametric tests can be used.

➢ Types of parametric tests are:

1. z-test;
2. t-test;
3. χ2-test, and
4. F-test.

➢ Types of Nonparametric Tests

1. Mann-Whitney U Test :The Mann-Whitney U Test is a nonparametric version of the

independent samples t-test. The test primarily deals with two independent samples that contain
ordinal data.

2. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test :The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is a nonparametric counterpart
of the paired samples t-test. The test compares two dependent samples with ordinal data.

3. The Kruskal-Wallis Test :The Kruskal-Wallis Test is a nonparametric alternative to the one-
way ANOVA. The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to compare more than two independent groups
with ordinal data.

4. Chi-squared (x2) Test :The Chi-squared Test is a parametric test that determines the
significance of the difference between the expected and observed frequencies in one or more
categories. The test is applied to categorical data.
 ➢ Difference Between Parametric and Nonparametric Test

BASIS FOR
PARAMETRIC TEST NONPARAMETRIC TEST
COMPARISON

Meaning A statistical test, in which specific A statistical test used in the case of
assumptions are made about the non-metric independent variables, is
population parameter is known as called non-parametric test.
parametric test.

Basis of test Distribution Arbitrary

statistic

Measurement level Interval or ratio Nominal or ordinal

Measure of central Mean Median

tendency

Information about Completely known Unavailable

population

Applicability Variables Variables and Attributes

Correlation test Pearson Spearman

5:Basics of Multivariate Analysis

Multivariate analysis is a set of techniques used for analysis of data sets that contain more than
one variable, and the techniques are especially valuable when working with correlated variables.
The techniques provide an empirical method for information extraction, regression, or
classification; some of these techniques have been developed quite recently because they require
the computational capacity of modern computers.
Techniques of Multivariate Data Analyses

1.Factor analysis: Reduces the structure to relevant data and individual variables. Factor studies
focus on different variables, so they are further subdivided into main component analysis and
correspondence analysis. For example: Which website elements have the greatest influence on
purchasing behavior?

2.Cluster analysis: Observations are graphically assigned to individual variable groups and
classified on the basis of these. The results are clusters and segments, such as the number of
buyers of a particular product, who are between 35 and 47 years old and have a high income.

3.Regression Analysis: Investigates the influence of two types of variables on each other.
Dependent and nondependent variables are spoken of. The former are so-called explanatory
variables, while the latter are explanatory variables. The first describes the actual state on the
basis of data, the second explains this data by means of dependency relationships between the
two variables. In practice, several changes of web page elements correspond to independent
variables, while the effects on the conversion rate would be the dependent variable.

4.Variance analysis: Determines the influence of several or individual variables on groups by

calculating statistical averages. Here you can compare variables within a group as well as
different groups, depending on where deviations are to be assumed. For example: Which groups
most often click on the' Buy Now' button in your shopping cart?

5.Discriminant analysis: Used in the context of variance analysis to differentiate between

groups that can be described by similar or identical characteristics. For example, by which
variables do different groups of buyers differ?

6: Factor Analysis & Discriminant Analysis

1.Factor analysis :is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer
numbers of factors. This technique extracts maximum common variance from all variables and
puts them into a common score

➢ Types of factoring:

1. Principal component analysis: This is the most common method used by researchers. PCA
starts extracting the maximum variance and puts them into the first factor. After that, it removes
that variance explained by the first factors and then starts extracting maximum variance for the
second factor. This process goes to the last factor.
2. Common factor analysis: The second most preferred method by researchers, it extracts the
common variance and puts them into factors. This method does not include the unique variance
of all variables. This method is used in SEM.
3. Image factoring: This method is based on correlation matrix. OLS Regression method is
used to predict the factor in image factoring.
4. Maximum likelihood method: This method also works on correlation metric but it uses
maximum likelihood method to factor.
5. Other methods of factor analysis: Alfa factoring outweighs least squares. Weight square is
another regression based method which is used for factoring.

2.Discriminate analysis :is a technique that is used by the researcher to analyze the
research data when the criterion or the dependent variable is categorical and the
predictor or the independent variable is interval in nature. The term categorical
variable means that the dependent variable is divided into a number of categories.
For example, three brands of computers, Computer A, Computer B and Computer C
can be the categorical dependent variable.The objective of discriminant analysis is
to develop discriminant functions that are nothing but the linear combination of
independent variables that will discriminate between the categories of the
dependent variable in a perfect manner.

Module 5 Research Report Writing

1: Research reports -

Report is a self-explanatory statement of facts relating to a specific subject and serves the
purpose of providing information for decision making and follow up actions. It is a systematic
presentations of ascertained facts about a specific event / subject. Report is a summary of
findings and recommendations about a particular matter / problem. Report is for the guidance of
higher authorities including company executives and directors. Report facilitates timely
decisions and follow up measures.

➢ Characteristics/Essentials of a Good Report

1.Precision :In a good report, the report writer is very clear about the exact and definite purpose
of writing the report. His investigation, analysis, recommendations and others are directed by
this central purpose. Precision of a report provides the unity to the report and makes it a valuable
document for best usage.

2. Accuracy of Facts :Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact. Since
decisions are taken on the basis of report information, any inaccurate information or statistics
will lead to wrong decision. It will hamper to achieve the organizational goal.

3. Relevancy: The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant.
Irrelevant facts make a report confusing and likely to be misleading to make proper decision.

4. Reader-Orientation :While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about the
person who is going to read it. That's why a good report is always reader oriented. Readers
knowledge and level of understanding should be considered by the writer of report. Well reader-
oriented information qualify a report to be a good one.

5. Simple Language :This is just another essential features of a good report. A good report is
written in a simple language avoiding vague and unclear words. The language of the report
should not be influenced by the writer's emotion or goal. The message of a good report should be
self-explanatory.

6. Conciseness :A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never be
long. Rather it means that a good report or a business report is one that transmits maximum
information with minimum words. It avoids unnecessary detail and includes everything which
are significant and necessary to present proper information.

7. Grammatical Accuracy :A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of a
sentence may make its meaning different to the reader's mind. And sometimes it may become
confusing or ambiguous.

8. Unbiased Recommendation :Recommendation on report usually make effect on the reader

mind. So if recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and
objective. They should come as logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.

9. Clarity :Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely clear.
Reporter should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and finally make
necessary recommendation. To be an effective communication through report, A report must be
clear to understand for making communication success.

10. Attractive Presentation: Presentation of a report is also a factor which should be consider
for a good report. A good report provides a catchy and smart look and creates attention of the
reader. Structure, content, language, typing and presentation style of a good report should be
attractive to make a clear impression in the mind of its reader.
2: Different types of reports

Type # 1. Formal or Informal Reports:Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress
objectivity and organization, contain much detail, and are written in a style that tends to
eliminate such elements as personal pronouns. Informal reports are usually short messages with
natural, casual use of language. The internal memorandum can generally be described as an
informal report.

Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum

is obviously short, and a twenty page report is clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear
in mind that as a report becomes longer (or what you determine as long), it takes on more
characteristics of formal reports.

Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:Informational reports (annual reports, monthly

financial reports, and reports on personnel absenteeism) carry objective information from one
area of an organization to another. Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and
real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve problems.

Type # 4. Proposal Report:The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is

a document prepared to describe how one organization can meet the needs of another. Most
governmental agencies advertise their needs by issuing “requests for proposal” or RFPs. The
RFP specifies a need and potential suppliers prepare proposal reports telling how they can meet
that need.

Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:This classification refers to the direction a report travels.
Reports that more upward or downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such
reports contribute to management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in
coordination in the organization. A report traveling between units of the same organization level
(production and finance departments) is lateral.

Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:Internal reports travel within the organization. External
reports, such as annual reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside the
organization.

Type # 7. Periodic Reports:Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are
generally upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted forms and computer-
generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.
Type # 8. Functional Reports: This classification includes accounting reports, marketing
reports, financial reports, and a variety of other reports that take their designation from the
ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of these categories. And a
single report could be included in several classifications.

3: Formats of research reports:

Research report is divided into three parts as:

I. First Part (Formality Part):

(i) Cover page

(ii) Title page

(iii) Certificate or statement

(iv) Index (brief contents)

(v) Table of contents (detailed index)

(vi) Acknowledgement

(vii) List of tables and figures used

(viii) Preface/forwarding/introduction

(ix) Summary report

II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):

(i) Statement of objectives

(ii) Methodology and research design

(iii) Types of data and its sources

(iv) Sampling decisions

(v) Data collection methods

(vi) Data collection tools

(vii) Fieldwork

(viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, etc.)

(ix) Findings

(x) Limitations

(xi) Conclusions and recommendations

(xii) Any other relevant detail

III. Appendix (Additional Details):

(i) Copies of forms used

(ii) Tables not included in findings

(iii) A copy of questionnaire

(iv) Detail of sampling and rate of response

(v) Statement of expenses

(vi) Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other reports

(vii) Any other relevant information

4 : Research Citation

A citation is a formal reference to a published or unpublished source that you consulted and
obtained information from while writing your research paper.

➢ Importance of Research Citation

1. Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used. Citations to other sources
helps readers expand their knowledge on a topic. In most social sciences disciplines, one of
the most effective strategies for locating authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to
follow footnotes or references from known sources
2. Citing other people's words and ideas indicates that you have conducted a thorough
review of the literature on your topic and, therefore, you are reporting your research from
an informed and critically engaged perspective. This increases your credibility as the author of
the work.
3. Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments. In many cases, another
researcher's arguments can act as the primary context from which you can emphasize the
significance of your study and to provide supporting evidence about how you addressed the
"So What?" question.
4. The ideas of other researchers can be used to explain reasons for alternative
approaches. If you disagree with a researcher's ideas or you believe there is a gap in
understanding the research problem, your citations can serve as sources from which to argue
an alternative viewpoint or the need to pursue a different course of action.
5. Just as the ideas of other researchers can bolster your arguments, they can also detract
from your credibility if their research is challenged. Properly citing sources prevents your
reputation from being tarnished if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be inaccurate
or off-base. It prevents readers from concluding that you ignored or dismissed the findings of
others, even if they are disputed.
6. Ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious repercussions if you
fail to cite where you got an idea from. In the professional world, failure to cite other people's
intellectual property ruins careers and reputations and can result in legal action. Citing sources
during college will help get you in the habit of acknowledging and properly citing the work of
others.

5: Citation styles

There are many different citation styles, and the preferred style often depends on your discipline.

• MLA is commonly used in the humanities.

• APA is commonly used in psychology and education.
• Chicago A (notes and bibliography) is commonly used in history.
• Chicago B (author-date) is commonly used in the sciences.

6;Oral presentations ofreports.

Oral presentations are often used to communicate the findings of a geographical inquiry.
Informal oral reports are generally characterized by small-group settings with a high degree
of audience interaction and a relaxed manner of delivery and dress. An informal oral report
might be an impromptu presentation. Informal oral presentations can foster the free exchange of
ideas and be important for producing action items.

A formal oral report is distinguished by its adherence to an agreed-upon format or outline.

Formal oral reports are usually prepared well in advance of presentation and are therefore
well rehearsed. Your manner of delivery is extremely important in a formal oral report situation.
Audience interaction is generally limited to the question and answer period at the conclusion of
your report.
Preparation of the Oral Report

The oral report should comprise the following:

1. (1). Title transparency

(2). Introduction
(3). Materials and Methods
(4). Results and Discussion
(5). Conclusions

➢ A guide to presenting an oral report:

1. Know the purpose: Make sure that you understand clearly the purpose of the report you are
presenting. The most common purpose of an oral report is to inform an audience.

2. Know your audience: The more you know about your audience the better. It will allow you to
prepare a more appropriate and focused oral report. For example, if your audience already has a
good knowledge of the topic you may elect to leave out information they are already familiar
with.

3. Be organised :Ensure your information is well organised. The most successful oral reports
have a structure similar to an extended piece of writing – that is, they have an introduction, a
body and a conclusion:

• Introduction: The first part of your presentation tells the audience what the topic is. Try to•
do this in a way that captures the audience’s attention. The best way to do this may be to
make a formal opening statement accompanied by some visual representations (such as a
series of photographic images, a relevant cartoon or a video extract). You could also use
humour to gain the audience’s attention but make sure it is done in a way that will not offend
anyone.
• Body: The body of the oral report should be the focus of your presentation. Develop your•
main ideas one by one, and support them with examples, quotes, photographs, data presented
in the form of graphs and diagrams. These will make your presentation more interesting and
memorable.
• Conclusion: Let your audience know when you are nearing the end of your presentation by •
using words such as ‘in conclusion’ or ‘to sum up’. In your final statement, briefly highlight
the main points you have made during your presentation.
4.Use speaker’s notes :Rather than simply reading a prepared speech, it is often more effective
to use cards featuring a series of words or phrases that act as 'cues' for your presentation. Make
sure, however, that the words and phrases are written in large print and that there are not too
many points on any one card. It is also a good idea to number the cards so that you do not get out
of sequence. It is often a good idea to use different colours (or highlighter pens) to highlight key
points.

5.Check your preparation :To avoid 'stage fright', go through the following checklist before
delivering your report:

5. • Be well prepared. Know your topic thoroughly.

6. • Use numbered points on speaking cards.
7. • Practise your speech several times
8. .• Visualise yourself as relaxed and calm.
9. • Do not rush your presentation. Speak slowly and clearly.
10. • Use appropriate gestures and maintain good posture.
11. • Use a range of visual aids but don't overdo it.
12. • Make eye contact with members of the audience
13. • Vary your voice throughout your presentation.
14. • Stand still.
15. • Reinforce the key message throughout your presentation
16. .• Ask the audience if they have any questions.
17. • Thank your audience.

7; Research applications in functional areas of management

1.Human Resource (HR) Research: Research is used to evaluate HR practices and performance.
Research is a systematic and scientific process of collecting information, analyzing the information
and drawing conclusions for decision-making. At times the research may be advanced, relying on
sophisticated designs and statistics. But whether information is rigorous or not, research seeks to
improve the performance. There are two kinds of research – academic and applied. Academic
research seeks answers to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. Application – oriented
research efforts are called applied research. For evaluating the HR performance applied research
is conducted. There are following five kinds of applied research.

a) Comparative Approach: The research team compares its organisation (or division) with another
organisation (or division) to uncover areas of poor performance. This approach commonly is used
to compare the results of specific activities or programs. It helps detect areas of needed
improvement.
b) Outside Authority Approach: The research team relies on the expertise of a consultant or
published research findings as a standard against which activities or programs are evaluated. The
consultant or research findings may help diagnose the causes of problems.

c) Statistical Approach: From existing records, the research team generates statistical standards
against which activities and programs are evaluated. With these mathematical standards, the team
may uncover errors while they are still minor.

d) Compliance Approach: By sampling elements of the human resource information system, the
research team looks for deviations from laws and company policies or procedures. Through its fact
– finding efforts, the team can determine whether there is compliance with company policies and
legal regulations.

e) MbO Approach: When an MbO approach is applied to the human resources area, the research
team can compare actual results with stated objectives. Areas of poor performance can be detected
and reported.

Objectives of Human Resource Research:

• It seeks to evaluate the present position in the concerned area of research.

• It facilitates prediction of future events and behavioural patterns.

• Evaluation of current programmes, practices and policies is possible through HR

research.

• It prepares objective base for revision of current organisational programmes, practices

and policies.

• It paves ways and means for building up of capabilities and attitudes of employees
regularly.

• It facilitates evaluation of proposed HR policies and programmes.

• It facilitates change, enables management to replace old techniques with the new ones.

Process of HR Research:
Organisation comprise of human beings working there. At the workplace they have several
grievances or problems which lead to process of HR research to find out solutions for their
prevention.

HR research passes through several steps listed below:

(1) Formulation of problem
(2) Formulation of Hypothesis

(3) Setting of Objectives

(4) Design of enquiry

(5) Methodology of research

(6) Collection of data

(7) Analysis and interpretation of data

(8) Preparation of report

2.Production management ( Operations Research): Operation research is concerned with

scientifically deciding how best to design and operate man machine systems usually under
conditions requiring the allocation of & care resources.

➢ Applications of Operation Research:

1. Allocation and Distribution in Projects:.

2. Production and Facilities Planning:
3. Programmes Decisions:
4. Marketing:
5. Organization Behaviour:
6. Finance:
7. Research and Development:

➢ Methodology of Operation Research:

1. Formulating the Problem:

2. Constructing a Model to Represent the System under Study:
3. Deriving Solution from the Model:
4. Testing the Model and the Solution Derived from it:
.5. Establishing Controls over the Solution:

6. Implementation of the Solution:

 ➢ Tools of Operation Research:
:
• Linear programming

• Waiting line theory or queuing theory.

• Inventory control models.

• Replacement problems.

• Network Analysis.

• Sequencing.

• Dynamic programming.

• Assignment problems.

• .Decision theory.

• .Integer Programming.

3: Marketing management: Marketing research is the gathering, recording, and analyzing of

data that relates to a specific problem in marketing products or services. While this definition
implies a systematic approach to marketing, marketing research is often performed as a reaction
to a problem that occurs. Marketing research efforts, therefore, often are undertaken for specific
projects that have set beginning and ending points.

➢ Applications of Marketing Research:

1. Product Research :Marketing research may be used in the area of product planning and
development like, to evaluate new product ideas, to evaluate the need to change existing
product mix, for testing the new product acceptance, testing product positioning, package
testing in terms of aesthetic appeal, protection for the product, and Ability to withstand
transportation and stocking.

2.Distribution Research :The broad areas of distribution research includes identification of

existing and potential distributionchannels, selection of appropriate intermediaries,
determination of channel Expectations, reduction of distribution cost, motivation
for channels of distribution, measuring and evaluating the performance of thechannels and
 different intermediaries, measuring relative effectiveness of different channels, assessment of
dealer support and reason of conflict.

3.Pricing Research :The objective of this research is to find out the price Expectations of
consumers and their reactions and responses to different price levels of product to ascertain
elasticity of demand. It also includes determining the price expectations of consumers in
different market segments, testing the alternative price strategies, the evolution of competitors
pricing strategies, the study of the factors affecting pricing decisions, to know consumer
psychology on pricing and evolution of firms pricing policies and strategies.

4.Consumer Research :Consumer research deals with a variety of questions about

consumer characteristics and behavior.The basic purpose of this research is to develop a better
understanding of its customers by the company.Consumer research may be conducted by the
company to determine the composition of the product’s customers, to find out the locations of
customers, to determine demographic characteristics of present and potential customers, to
determine psychographic characteristics of consumers, to identify buying motives, to know
consumption pattern of consumers, reasons of consumers dissatisfaction, shifting consumption
pattern, brand preferences and for preparing consumer profile.

5.Sales Research :The basic purpose of sales research is to find out the sales potential of the
company’s products and the evolution of the company’s sales performance. Proper investigation
may be conducted for many subjects in sales research.

These subject May cover formulation of sales territories; measurement of sales performance of
personnel in terms of volume and profits; revision of sales territories; evolution of sales methods;
determination of sales quotes

6.Marketing Environment Research :This is a very important area of marketing research. The
basic purpose of this is to assess environment fitness of the firm.Keeping in view the changes
taking place in macro environment factors such as demography, economic conditions,
government policies, legal factors, Technology, social and cultural factors, it is assessed that
what changes are required in corporate goals, objectives, product mix, pricing, and business
strategies etc.