ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 20 · Number 4 · 2002 325

Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric

development projects in Turkey
Ayhan Demirbaş
P. K. 216, TR-61035 Trabzon, Turkey

ABSTRACT
The aim of biomass development projects is to identify whether it is possible to
utilize biomass in the energy production sector, by substituting a portion of
conventional fuel by biomass, to perform combined combustion. Electricity
production from biomass has been found to be a promising method in the
nearest future. Turkey’s annual biomass potential is 117 million tons or 32 Mtoe.
The future of biomass electricity generation lies in biomass integrated
gasification/gas turbine technology, which offers high-energy conversion
efficiencies. The major research and developments of the biomass power
industry are focusing on gasifier scale-up, system analysis and site-specific
commercial feasibility studies. Turkey has a total gross hydropower potential of
433 GW, but only 125 GW of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkey can be
economically used. By the commissioning of new hydropower plants, which are
under construction, 36% of the economically usable potential of the country
would be tapped.

INTRODUCTION
The energy demand of Turkey will be doubled between the years 2000–2010 and will
be fivefold between 2000–2025. This rapid increase in demand is due to high
economic development rate of Turkey. The estimated amount of investments for the
production facilities by the year 2010 is around 55 billion dollars. In recent years, the
average increase in electricity consumption has been 8 to 10 per cent per year, and it
is projected to maintain a similar rate in the coming years. This would require
investments of $4–$4.5 billion per year for new energy projects, much of which would
need to come from the private sector. Since the 1980s, there have been tremendous
efforts to maintain cooperation between the state and the private sector, and to attract
foreign capital to help realize the development targets. Within this framework,
necessary legal arrangements have been made and an increase in the number of private
investments in the energy sector has been achieved. The models such as Build,
Operate and Transfer (BOT), Build and Operate (BO), Build, Own and Operate
(BOO) and Transfer of Operating Right (TOR), developed by Turkey to facilitate
private investments in the energy sector, have created considerable interest in the
international circles of investors and financiers.
Energy is a vital and key priority in Turkey for sustainable development. The
326 Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric development projects in Turkey

Government has plans to meet the energy deficit in the country, considering all the
alternatives including natural gas, solar and wind power plants. There is no question
that Turkey has an urgent need for additional sources of electricity to support a
growing economy. It is presently obliged to import electric power from neighboring
Georgia, Bulgaria, and Iran to make up for the electricity deficit. Economic, technical,
and environmental considerations must enter in this planning strategy.
The renewable energy resources that hold the most promise are the following: solar
in its various forms, wind, biomass, hydro and geothermal. Solar energy, which is
quite abundant in Turkey, can first be used to provide hot water for domestic and
commercial use at competitive prices as shown in the rapid development of this
technology in other countries in the region. Acceleration of this development through
a more intensive investment program can substitute much of the electricity load and
reduce the need for imported fossil fuels.
The main indigenous energy resources are hydro, mainly in the eastern part of the
country, lignite and biomass. Turkey has no big oil and gas reserves. Almost all oil and
natural gas is imported, as is high quality coal. Turkey has to adopt new long-term
energy strategies to reduce the share of fossil fuels in the primary energy consumption.
The amount of primary energy sources and primary energy consumption of Turkey
between 2000–2025 is given in Table 1. Primary energy consumption is expected to
increase from 91 Mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent) in 2000 to 167 Mtoe by 2010
and to 535 Mtoe by 2025.
According to 1999 data, Turkey produces 28 Mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent)
per year from its own primary sources and consumes 75 Mtoe a year of primary
energy. It is expected that by the year 2020, the primary energy production will be 78
Mtoe, while primary energy consumption will be 310 Mtoe. Based on an evaluation of
its fossil fuel reserves, which total 2,454 Mtoe, it is expected that Turkey will be
forced to import energy in increasing proportions. However, the country has the
potential for 122.3 TWh/year of hydropower, 32 Mtoe/year of biomass energy, 1.8

Table 1. Primary energy consumption of Turkey between 2000–2025

in kilo tons of oil equivalent (Ktoe)

Energy source 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Coal (h. coal + lignite) 20256 30474 50311 83258 129106 296997
Oil and natural gas 59250 73256 92637 112993 136365 179765
Wood and Waste 6963 6760 6446 6029 5681 5393
Hydropower 3763 5845 7520 8873 9454 10445
Geothermal 432 1380 3760 4860 4860 5400
Nuclear 0 0 3657 9143 18286 29200
Solar 204 459 907 1508 2294 3248
Central heating 253 495 884 1336 2018 2748
Wind 55 250 620 980 1440 2134
Source: WECTNC, 1999
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 20 · Number 4 · 2002 327

Mtoe/year of geothermal power, and 50 TWh/year of wind power, in usable and/or

economic quantities. For this reason, Turkey attaches considerable importance to
renewable energies.
In the longer term, biomass could yield valuable substitutes to liquid fuels
(Akdeniz, 2003). Forest wastes or wastes from wood-processing industries, such as
lumber and furniture factories, could be used profitably in local boilers. Geothermal
should be available in Turkey, since it lies astride deep geologic faults, and could be
utilized, in selected locations, to cover a share of electricity demand. Hydro potential
should be very large in Turkey and could offer an opportunity for quick installation of
many hydro plants under regional control, to cover local needs. Wind power should be
quite feasible and attractive to Turkey because of its near-competitive price, probable
good wind resources in the country and the existence of hydro dams and water
reservoirs, which provide a natural means of energy storage.

PRESENT STATUS OF ELECTRIC POWER

In Turkey, electricity is produced by thermal power plants (TPPs) consuming coal,
lignite, natural gas, fuel oil, and geothermal energy and hydropower plants (HPPs).
Table 2 shows that in 1970 total installation capacity was 2.234 GW, 68% TPPs and
32% HPPs. By the end of 1995 it reached 20.951 GW, an annual average increase of
9.4%; the share of thermal has fallen to 53%, 32% lignite and hard coal, 7% fuel-oil
and diesel oil, and 14% natural gas, while that of hydro had increased to 47%. In 1996,
installed capacity rose to 21.164 GW of which only 19 GW was available due to aging
plants, fuel and seasonal conditions and repairs and maintenance. Figure 1 gives
Turkey’s electricity demand from 1998 to 2020.
Projections by The Turkish Electricity Generation and Transmission Corporation
(TEAS in Turkish initials), a public company which owns and operates 15 thermal and
30 hydroelectric plants generating 91% of Turkey’s electricity, indicate that rapid
growth (8% annual) in electricity consumption will continue over the next 15 years.
With electricity shortages and blackouts already common, increasing the country’s
electricity generation capacity therefore is a top priority for Turkish energy officials.

Table 2. Installed capacity of electric power in Turkey (GW)

Years TPPs HPPs Nuclear Total

1970 1.509 0.725 0 2.234
1975 2.407 1.725 0 4.186
1980 2.987 2.130 0 5.118
1985 5.244 3.874 0 9.119
1990 9.550 6.764 0 16.315
1995 11.086 9.864 0 20.951
2000 17.875 12.281 0 30.156
2010 38.921 25.836 2.000 66.757
Source: DGXVII, 1997
328 Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric development projects in Turkey

If forecasts prove correct, Turkey may need to triple its total electric power generating
capacity, to around 64 gigawatts (GW), by 2010. This would require investments of
$4–$4.5 billion per year.

Turkey’s total electricity-production in 1999: 116.5 billion kWh

The electricity-production by source in 1999:
fossil fuel: 69.4%
hydro: 30.5%
other: 0.1%
nuclear: 0%
Electricity–consumption: 118.6 billion kWh
Electricity–imports: 2.3 billion kWh
Electricity–exports: 0.2 billion kWh

300
) h WG

250
Electricity demand (GWh)
( d na emd yt i ci rt cel E

200

150

100

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

Figure 1. Electricity demand in Turkey over the years

ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 20 · Number 4 · 2002 329

Turkey has extensive plans to increase natural gas use for electric power
production. The country is attempting to attract enough foreign investment to install
4.2 GW of gas-fired capacity. Proposed gas fired plants include two 700 MW plants
in Gebze, one 700 MW plant in Adapazari, one 700 MW plant in Ankara, and 1,400
MW plant on the west coast in Izmir. Several pipeline projects have been proposed to
supply gas to these facilities, as well as several LNG terminals.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOMASS ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY FROM

BIOMASS
Biomass is the term used to describe all biological produced matter. These include
wood and woody wastes, agricultural crops and their waste byproducts, municipal
solid waste, animal wastes, waste from food processing, and aquatic plants and algae.
Traditionally, biomass has been utilized through direct combustion, and this process is
still widely used in many parts of the world. World production of biomass is estimated
at 146 billion metric tons a year, mostly wild plant growth (Cuff and Young, 1980).
Biomass fuel is a renewable energy source and its importance will increase as national
energy policy and strategy focuses more heavily on renewables and conservation.
Biomass power plants have advantages over fossil-fuel plants, beceause their pollution
emissions are less (Demirbaş, 2002a).
Biomass, mainly now represent only 3% of primary energy consumption in
industrialized countries. However, much of the rural population in developing
countries, which represents about 50% of the world’s population, is reliant on
biomass, mainly in the form of wood, for fuel. Biomass accounts for 35% of primary
energy consumption in developing countries, raising the world total to 14% of primary
energy consumption. In the future, biomass has the potential to provide a cost-
effective and sustainable supply of energy, while at the same time aiding countries in
meeting their greenhouse gas reduction targets. By the year 2050, it is estimated that
90% of the world population will live in developing countries.
The biomass power industry in the United States has grown from less than 200 MW
in 1979 to more than 6000 MW in 1990. The United States Department of Energy
(USDOE) is projecting installed capacity will grow to about 22 GW by the year 2010
(Bain, 1993). USDOE estimates the present and future impact of biomass-power
production of the US economy (Meridian and Antares, 1992). In 1992, electrical
production from biomass, primarily wood, had a net impact of $1.7 billion and
biomass electrical-generating capacity will have grown to approximately 22 GW in
2010. At this capacity level, the economic benefits are estimated to be $6.2 billion in
personal and corporate income and 238 000 jobs.
The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 6.2 GW. The
electrical production from usable biomass has a net impact of $1.8 billion. Turkey’s
annual biomass potential is given in Table 3.
In industrialized countries, the main biomass processes utilized in the future are
expected to be the direct combustion of residues and wastes for electricity generation.
In the short to medium term, biomass waste and residues are expected to dominate
biomass supply, to be substituted by energy crops in the longer term. The future of
biomass electricity generation lies in biomass integrated gasification/gas turbine
330 Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric development projects in Turkey

technology, which offers high-energy conversion efficiencies. Biomass power plants

(BPPs) use technology that is very similar to that used in coal-fired power plants. For
example, biomass plants use similar steam-turbine generators and fuel delivery
systems. BPP efficiencies of about 25%. Electricity costs are in the 6–8 c/kWh range.
The average BPP is about 20 MW in size, with a few dedicated wood-fired plants in
the 40–50 MW capacity, with gas turbine/steam combined cycle, as shown in Figure
2. The feasibility of combining gas and steam expansion in a power cycle has been
extensively explored (Sorensen, 1983). Biomass is burned to produce steam, the steam
turns a turbine and drives a generator, producing electricity.
The electricity is produced by direct combustion of biomass, advanced gasification
and pyrolysis technologies are almost ready for commercial scale use. Biomass can be
used as a primary energy source or as a secondary energy source to power gas turbines.
As a secondary energy source, biomass is used to make a fuel, which can be used to
fire a gas turbine.

Table 3. Turkey’s annual biomass potential

Biomass Annual potential (million tons) Energy value (Mtoe)a

Annual crops 55 14.9
Perennial crops 16 4.1
Forest residues 18 5.4
Residues from agro-industry 10 3.0
Residues from wood industry 6 1.8
Animal wastes 7 1.5
Other 5 1.3
Total 117 32.0
aMtoe: Million tons of oil equivalent

Stack
Biomass
Steam
Turbine Generator
Hot gas
cleanup Steam
Gasifier boiler

Condenser
Water

Exhaust
Pump

Combination Turbine Generator

Compressor

Air

Figure 2. Integrated biomass gas turbine/steam combined-cycle power plant

ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 20 · Number 4 · 2002 331

Direct Combustion of Biomass

Direct combustion in Turkey for many years has used fuelwood, animal wastes,
agricultural crop residues, and logging wastes. These sources are often called
noncommercial energy sources, but in Turkey, fuelwood is a tradable commodity,
since it the primary fuel or rural and urban poor district (TasdemirogÏ olu, 1986).
One alternative for producing electricity from biomass in a gas turbine is direct
combustion of biomass as a primary energy source. Biomass is burned by direct
combustion to produce steam, the steam turns a turbine and the turbine drives a
generator, producing electricity. Because of potential ash build-up (which fouls
boilers, reduces efficiency and increases costs), only certain types of biomass
materials are used for direct combustion. Direct combustion usually involves reducing
the biomass into fine pieces for fueling a close-coupled turbine system. In a close-
coupled system, biomass is burned in a combustion chamber separated from the
turbine by a filter.
Three main determinants of the costs of operating and constructing a biomass-fired
power plant of a given size exist. They are (1) the availability of the required fuel, (2)
the delivered fuel prices, and (3) the financing and construction of the desired power
plant (Joutz, 1992). The availability and cost of the fuel is almost zero for a Turkish
type black tea factory. In such a factory, 37% of electricity consumption can be
generated from the tea waste:

Annual production capacity of the tea waste factory: 1000 metric ton
Fuel oil consumption: 970 metric ton/year
Electricity consumption: 1.35 MWh
Tea waste: 550 ton/year
Electricity from tea waste: 0.5 MWh

Biomass Gasifier and Pyrolysis Technologies

Another alternative is to produce a fuel from biomass as a secondary energy source.
Gasifiers are used to convert biomass into a combustible gas (biogas). The biogas is
than used to drive a high efficiency, combined cycle gas turbine. Gaseous fuels consist
of low- and medium-calorific-value gases; the liquid is a primary-pyrolysis oil called
biocrude. A number of gasifiers have been developed to produce biogases from
biomass and peat. The biogas is then used to drive a high-efficiency, combined-cycle
gas turbine.
Heat is used to thermochemically convert biomass into a pyrolysis oil and biocrude.
The oil, which is easier to store and transport than solid biomass material, is then
burned like petroleum to generate electricity (Demirbaş, 2000). Biocrude produced at
about 775 K and 1-s residence time and containing water have about the same oxygen
and energy content as the original feed. Entrained-flow and fluid-bed pyrolysis
processes were developed.

HYDROELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

A water power plant is in general a highly effective energy conversion system. There
is no pollution of the environment, but objections are raised relative to the flooding of
332 Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric development projects in Turkey

valuable real estate and scenic areas. Whether a particular hydroelectric installation is
economically competitive with a fossil fuel power plant will depend upon a number of
factors, in particular, fuel and construction costs. In numerous instances, a hydroelectric
power plant is clearly economically superior to a comparable thermal power plant.
Turkey has a gross annual hydro potential of 433,000 GWh, which is almost 1% of
world total potential. Water and energy potential of selected river basins in Turkey is
given in Table 5. Of the total hydropower capacity in Europe, Turkey’s share is about
14%. Almost half of the gross potential is technically exploitable, and 28% is
economically exploitable. As of November 2000, there were 120 hydroelectric plants in
operation. These have a total installed capacity of 11.6 GW and an annual average
generation capacity of 42,015 GWh, amounting to almost 34% of the total exploitable
potential, which is at present meeting about 35% of the electricity demand. Thirty-four
hydroelectric plants with an installed capacity of 3.3 GW and an annual generation
capacity of 10,981 GWh, which is almost 9% of the total potential, are under construction.
Up to the year 2010, Turkey is planning to develop two-thirds of its hydro potential,
just aiming to increase hydroelectric production to around 85,000 GWh. The first aim
is the complete the Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP in Turkish initials), which is
one of the most ambitious regional development projects ever attempted. With the
completion of this vast project, which comprises 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric plants,
a total generation of 27, 350 GWh/year will be realized.
Turkey has an enormous task ahead to complete its full hydropower development
program. About 180 hydro projects with a total annual power generation capacity of
about 39,000 GWh are now at various stages of planning on this basis. Already 10
hydroelectric plants with an installed capacity of 4,069 MW have been realized (Table
4). In the future, 329 more hydro power plants will be constructed, to exploit the
remaining potential of 69,326 GWh/year, bringing the total number of hydro plants to
483 with a total installed capacity of 34.6 GW.

Small Hydroelectric Plants

The total hydropower capacity of Turkey is estimated at 432 TWH per year. Some of
this potential can be achieved with small hydroelectric plants (SHEPs) having
individual capacities of 10 MW or less. Many adverse effects of large hydroelectric
projects on the environment and local people can be prevented or reduced if SHEPs
are used. The use of SHEPs causes minimal changes in natural habitats. Protection
against floods and droughts can be achieved easily. On the other hand, SHEPs not only
provide electricity and water for both irrigation and drinking purposes but they also
create job opportunities in rural areas and thus can prevent migration to cities. They
provide significant forward and backward linkages. Increasing demand for power
generating turbines and other equipment will benefit the industrial sector and reduce
import demand. Therefore, the use of SHEPs is important for sustainable development
and economic growth for Turkey.
SHEP development in Turkey was initiated in 1900. Since then, municipalities in
rural areas have installed many decentralized plants by private entrepreneurs, and by
some government organizations. Temelsu is a well-known Turkish consulting
engineering company, which provides multi-disciplinary engineering services, locally
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 20 · Number 4 · 2002 333

and internationally, since its foundation in 1969. The major hydropower projects
undertaken by Temelsu in Turkey are given in Table 6 (Demirbaş, 2002b).
It is estimated that, theoretically, Turkey has SHEP resources of 710 GW for project
generation and 300 MW for total installed capacity. Annual increases of SHP capacity
during the past 25 years average 8–12%. By the end of 1998, the total number of SHP
stations in operation throughout the country was 59 with a total installed capacity
156.73 MW, about 1.6% of the total hydropower potential (9497.85 MW) in Turkey
(TEAS, 1999).

Table 4. Turkey’s hydroelectric plants are under construction

Hydroelectric plant Installed capacity (MW) Generation capacity (GWh/year)

Birecik 672 2,516
Borçka 300 1,039
Deriner 670 2,118
Dilek-Güroluk 180 593
Ilõ su 1,200 3,833
Karkamõ 189 652
Muratlõ 115 444
Torul 103 322
Yamula 100 422
Yusufeli 540 1,705

Table 5. Water and energy potential of selected river basins in Turkey

Name Land area Average Number Stored Installed Average

of (km2) rainfall of water capacity generation
basin (mm/yr) dam (hm3) (MW) (GWh)
Susurluk 22,399 712 25 3,509 537 1,697
Gediz 18,000 603 14 3,369 250 425
B.Menderes 24,976 664 19 2,722 215 848
B.Akdeniz 20,953 876 24 1,837 675 2,495
Antalya 19,577 1,000 15 2,885 1,252 4,411
Sakarya 58,160 525 45 6,920 1,063 2,362
B.Karaden. 29,598 811 24 2,519 593 2,110
Yeilõ rmak 36,114 497 45 6,302 1,658 6,468
Kõ zõ lõ rmak 78,180 446 82 21,260 2,007 6,512
D.Akdeniz 22,048 745 11 9,122 1,496 5,176
Seyhan 20,450 624 18 6,125 1,886 7,117
Ceyhan 21,982 732 25 7,720 1,409 4,634
Fõ rat 127,304 540 83 112,792 9,845 38,939
D.Karaden. 24,077 1,198 43 1,523 3,323 10,927
Çoruh 19,872 629 20 7,544 3,227 10,614
Aras 27,548 432 20 4,085 585 2,291
Dicle 57,614 807 36 30,295 5,082 16,876
334 Electricity from biomass and hydroelectric development projects in Turkey

Table 6. Major hydroelectric plant projects undertaken by Temelsu in Turkey

Name of basin Rated head (m) Installed capacity (MW) Number/Type of Turbines
Esen-1 695 60 2 Pelton
Kokluce 440 97 2 Francis
Camlica-1 330 130 3 Francis
Duzkesme 285 150 3 Francis
Deriner 210 670 4 Francis
Ozluce 113 160 4 Francis
Beskonak 112 152 3 Francis
Sir 110 261 3 Francis
Karacaoren-II 95 37 2 Francis
Yedigoze 94 300 2 Francis
Gursogut 91 242 2 Francis
Karacaoren-I 82 30 2 Francis
Borcka 80 300 2 Francis
Muratli 37 115 2 Kaplan
Catalan 61 150 3 Francis
Birecik 44 672 6 Francis
Manavgat 23 48 2 Francis
Karkamis 12 189 6 Bulb
Hasanlar 50 9 2 Francis
Kepez-II 13 3 2 Bulb

CONCLUSION
Foreign investors are showing a growing interest in the development of the energy
sector in Turkey. It is very important that investors have the ability to finance energy
sector projects through international financial markets. Financial institutions, both
public and private, have established set of conditions that must be met before projects
can be considered eligible for financing. such issues can be resolved, for example,
BOT electric power projects with American investment are already in operation. Over
the next there decades, it is expected that many foreign investors and financiers will
be interested in the Turkish hydropower market.
The future of biomass electricity generation lies in biomass integrated
gasification/gas turbine technology, which offers high-energy conversion efficiencies.
The electricity is produced by direct combustion of biomass, advanced gasification
and pyrolysis technologies are almost ready for commercial scale use. A
supplementary firing of biomass in steam-electric power plants may under certain
circumstances prove to be economically feasible.

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