See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/237188543

Fibre optic sensors in civil engineering structures

Article  in  Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering · February 2011

DOI: 10.1139/cjce-27-5-880

CITATIONS READS
29 3,143

9 authors, including:

Rod Tennyson Aftab Mufti

University of Toronto University of Manitoba
127 PUBLICATIONS   1,745 CITATIONS    207 PUBLICATIONS   1,548 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Structural performance from live load analysis View project

Detecting cracks in steel girders of bridges using a distributed binary crack sensor View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Aftab Mufti on 20 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

880

Fibre optic sensors in civil engineering structures

R.C. Tennyson, T. Coroy, G. Duck, G. Manuelpillai, P. Mulvihill, David J.F. Cooper,
P.W.E. Smith, A.A. Mufti, and S.J. Jalali

Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the development and application of ISIS fibre optic sensor (FOS) tech-
nology by the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies and Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering. The primary focus of this technology has involved the use of fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs) to measure strain
and temperature in concrete structures and fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) overwraps applied to concrete structures. A
brief review of existing fibre optic sensor configurations and the advantages of using FOS compared to other strain
sensors is first presented. Subsequently, the development of new sensor concepts such as a long gauge of arbitrary
length, a distributed gauge for measuring local strain gradients, and multiple FBGs on a single fibre optic cable are
discussed, with examples of their application to civil engineering structures. In addition, the specialized instruments un-
der development that are essential for obtaining strain information from these sensors are also described. Finally, the is-
sue of wireless remote monitoring of FOS systems is addressed.

Key words: fibre optic sensors, Bragg gratings, civil engineering structures, instrumentation.

Résumé : Cet article présente un sommaire du développement et de l’application de la technologie des senseurs à fi-
bres optiques (SFO) d’ISIS, par l’institut des études aérospatiales et le département de génie électrique de l’Université
de Toronto. Le but premier de cette technologie a impliqué l’utilisation de grilles de fibres de Bragg (GFB) pour mesu-
rer la déformation et la température de structures en béton et de recouvrements de plastique renforcé de fibres (PRF)
appliqués sur des structures en béton. Une brève revue des configurations de senseurs à fibres optiques et les avantages
de l’utilisation des SFO comparés à d’autres senseurs de déformations sont premièrement présentés. Par la suite, le dé-
veloppement de concepts nouveaux pour senseurs tel qu’une longue jauge de longueur arbitraire, une jauge distribué
pour mesurer des gradients de déformations locaux, et des GFB multiples sur un seul câble de fibres optiques sont dis-
cutés, avec des exemples de leur application à des structures de génie civil. En plus, les instruments spécialisés, tou-
jours en développement, et qui sont essentiels pour l’obtention de données de déformations provenant de ces senseurs,
sont aussi décrits. Finalement, le problème de l’observation à distance sans fil de systèmes de SFO est abordé.

Mots clés : senseurs à fibres optiques, grilles de Bragg, structures de génie civil, instrumentation.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Tennyson et al. 889

Fibre optic sensors
The application of fibre optic sensors (FOS) in civil engi-
neering structures has been growing over the past decade to
the point that they are considered as a serious alternative to
conventional strain gauges (see Measures 1995, 1997;
Merzbacher et al. 1996; Schulz et al. 1998). Many new sys-
tems are emerging in the marketplace to provide the user
with a selection of different sensors to satisfy specific appli-
cations, a number of which are under development by ISIS.
Fibre optic sensors are manufactured from optical fibres
having a typical core diameter of ~0.007 mm, encased in
various jackets to protect the fibre, as shown in Fig. 1. There
are two different types of FOS currently used in civil engi-
neering structures: the Fabry–Perot gauge and Bragg grating.
The Fabry–Perot sensor provides a measure of the change in
a gap or cavity length between two facing fibre ends con-
tained in a glass capillary, as depicted in Fig. 2. This gauge
is based on the interferometric measurement of a dimen-
sional gap change (i.e., strain) and uses a white light broad-
band source (Belleville et al. 1993; Choquet et al. 1997).
The other type of sensor is the Bragg grating (FBG), which
is fabricated by creating a modulation in the glass fibre in-
dex of refraction over a local region (i.e., the gauge length)
using UV radiation. The grating reflects the incoming broad-
band light in a very narrow spectrum centred about the

Received July 30, 1999. Revised manuscript accepted January 11, 2000.
R.C. Tennyson,1 T. Coroy, G. Duck, G. Manuelpillai, and P. Mulvihill. Institute for Aerospace Studies, University of Toronto,
4925 Dufferin Street, Toronto, ON M3H 5T6, Canada.
DJ.F. Cooper and P.W.E. Smith. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto,
ON M5S 1A4, Canada.
A.A. Mufti and S.J. Jalali. Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3J 2X4, Canada.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be received by the Editor until February 28, 2001.
1
Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed (e-mail: rod.tennyson@utoronto.ca).

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 27: 880–889 (2000) © 2000 NRC Canada

Tennyson et al.
Fig. 1. Typical fibre optic cable.
Bragg wavelength (lB), while the remainder of the spectrum
is transmitted (see Fig. 3). This Bragg wavelength is accu-
rately defined by the refractive index of the grating material
and the pitch length of the grating, as given by the equation:
[1] lB = 2n 0 L
where lB is the Bragg reflected wavelength, n0 is the average
effective refractive index of the grating, and L is the pitch
length or spacing of the grating. Thus the FBG is based on
measuring a wavelength shift due to straining of the grating
(l – lB), not the amplitude of the reflected signal (see Mea-
sures 1997). The corresponding strain associated with this
wavelength shift is given by
[2] Dl/lB = (GF)e + bDT
where Dl = l - lB, GF is the “gauge factor” (i.e., the cali-
bration factor for the FBG), b is the thermal-optic coefficient
for the FBG, and DT is the temperature change relative to a
calibration reference temperature for the FBG sensor.
The advantages associated with FOS include immunity to
electromagnetic interference, no signal drift (since the sen-
sors do not measure signal amplitude), no connector line re-
sistance, small size and light weight, electrical passivity
(safe to use in a flammable environment), low creep, and
long-term stability. In addition, the FBG sensors can be seri-
ally multiplexed along a single optical fibre, which also
serves as the data transmission line. Low line losses permit
many sensors (either in serial or parallel arrays) to be incor-
porated in a structure, thus requiring only a single light
source. The remainder of this paper will focus primarily on
the development and application of FBG sensor systems.
At the outset, it is instructive to compare the response of
FBGs with that of conventional resistance strain gauges un-
der simple load conditions. Since the mandate of ISIS is to
employ FOS systems in conjunction with FRP materials in
civil engineering structures, consider first the application of
FBGs to a concrete cylinder with a FRP overwrap, as shown
in Fig. 4. Figure 5 presents a comparison of the FBG axial
compressive strain with a bonded strain gauge response,
where reasonable agreement is evident. In Fig. 6, the FBGs
are used to measure the effectiveness of the FRP overwrap
on increasing the compressive strength of a concrete cylin-
der relative to the unwrapped state. It is clear that the FRP
does reinforce the cylinder significantly.
Both FBGs and Fabry–Perot gauges have been used ex-
tensively in many bridge structures across Canada to mea-
sure local strain distributions. Figure 7a is a photograph
showing the installation of FBGs on steel rebar reinforce-
ments on the Taylor Bridge in Manitoba. This is one of the
longest span bridges employing FRP materials in the girders,
881
Fig. 2. Schematic of Fabry–Perot fibre optic sensor: (a) self-
compensated and (b) non-compensated.
bridge deck, and barrier walls (Canadian Civil Engineer
1999) and contains 63 bonded FOS (Rizkalla et al. 1998).
Other FOS applications include the Crowchild Bridge in Al-
berta, the Chatham Bridge in Ontario, the Joffre Bridge in
Quebec (with 34 bonded FOS), and the Confederation
Bridge joining Prince Edward Island to the mainland
(Doncaster 1997). The use of carbon reinforced composite
grids (Fig. 7b) and bars with embedded FOS has also been
implemented in many bridges (Doncaster et al. 1996).
These particular applications of FOS provide a measure of
the local strains, similar to that obtained from conventional
resistance foil gauges. However, if one wants to monitor the
general integrity and behaviour of a structure, where local
strains may not be of concern, then a longer gauge sensor
may be required that can provide an average overall measure
of structural deformation.
Long gauge fibre optic sensor
A new long gauge system that measures the displacement
between two points on a structure was developed. The long
gauge consists of two mirrors formed on a fibre optic cable
of any arbitrary length — their separation distance defining
the effective gauge length. Typical gauge lengths range from
centimetres to metres. For example, consider the application
to a concrete column to measure hoop strain (ez ), as illus-
trated in Fig. 8. Here, the gauge length is denoted by L and
the hoop strain due to compressive loading (or swelling from
internal corrosion, for example) is given by DL/L, for con-
stant radial strain. To obtain DL, light from a LED source is
first directed to a bonded sensor (S) containing two partial
mirrors (or two FBGs, which act like partial mirrors because
of their selective wavelength reflection, see Fig. 9). In the
unstrained state, the reflected signals from the sensor mirrors
have a path length difference of 2L. After straining, this path
length changes by 2DLs. Both light beams return to a refer-
ence optical fibre (R), also containing partial mirrors, which
can be actuated (i.e., strained) to create a path difference of
DLR. The reflected signals from these reference mirrors then
proceed to a photodetector, which creates an interference
signal between the active (S) and reference (R) sensors. The
structural deformation is then measured by the amount that
© 2000 NRC Canada
882 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000

Fig. 3. Schematic of fibre Bragg grating sensor.

Fig. 4. Instrumentation of GRE-wrapped concrete column with Fig. 6. Compressive loading of concrete cylinder — hoop and
Bragg sensors. axial strain readings for both wrapped and unwrapped cases.

Fig. 5. Compressive loading of GRE-wrapped cylinder — axial

Bragg and strain gauge readings. (1 lb = 0.454 kg.)
the reference sensor must be strained to obtain a maximum
interference signal.
This long gauge sensor system has been used in both lab-
oratory and field tests. For example, Fig. 10 is a plot of hoop
strains recorded over a period of ~125 days for concrete col-
umns subject to corrosion (Lee 1998), where it is evident
that the internal corrosion is causing the columns to swell.
Figure 11 is a photograph of hoop gauges applied to a RFP
reinforcement on a concrete column for the Leslie Street
Bridge in Toronto. These long gauges are being used as a
monitoring system and have been in service for over 2 years.

Distributed FOS strain gauge

Distributed sensing using a bonded FBG permits one to
measure the strain profile along the gauge length. Typical

© 2000 NRC Canada

Tennyson et al. 883

Fig. 7. (a) Installation of fibre optic sensors on Taylor Bridge structure; (b) carbon Nefmec grid instrumented with fibre optic sensors.

Fig. 8. Application of long gauge (length L) around column sub- Fig. 9. Photonic circuit for measuring long gauge strain.
jected to compressive loading.

gauge lengths vary from 5 to 200 mm. Spatial strain profiles

are useful in determining stress concentrations associated
with structural discontinuities (such as holes, joints, etc.)
and the presence of cracks that might occur in critical loca-
tions. Such a system has recently been developed for both
static and dynamic loading.
The principle of operation is as follows. A grating that is
bonded in the presence of a strain distribution can be
thought of as a series of smaller gratings, each with a differ-
ent centre wavelength. Thus the reflected spectrum covers a
range of wavelengths, each associated with a different strain
value. To obtain the actual “intra” grating strain profile, one
also needs to determine the order in which these sub-
gratings are sequenced. Hence it is also necessary to obtain
the phase associated with each wavelength. Figure 12 pres-
ents a schematic of the instrumentation design that was de-
veloped for making these measurements. A scanning laser

© 2000 NRC Canada

884
Fig. 10. Column expansion strain from fibre optic sensors (Lee 1998).
Fig. 11. Photograph of installation of fibre optic long gauge hoop sensors on a Leslie Street Bridge column.
outputs a known spectrum of light (say from 1536 to
1545 nm). At every wavelength increment over this range,
the reflectivity and phase are measured by photodetectors.
If, for example, a strain range of 500 me is required, then this
corresponds to a wavelength range of ~0.6 nm output from
the laser. Hence, as the laser scans through its known wave-
length range, both the reflectivity and phase photodetectors
record their spectra as a function of wavelength, as shown
schematically.The reference power photodetector informa-
tion is required to maintain a calibration of the laser output.
Mathematical processing of these signals is required to ex-
tract the actual strain profiles.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
To demonstrate this new sensor system, consider the case
of a homogeneous isotropic plate of finite width containing a
circular hole (Fig. 13). An FBG was bonded to the plate in
the axial direction at a known distance away from the hole.
The plate was loaded in tension and the measured strain pro-
files compared to elasticity theory (Fig.14). Excellent agree-
ment was obtained. In addition, this plate was subjected to
dynamic sinusoidal tip loading and, again, the peak strain re-
sults compared to theory (Fig. 15). Similar profiles at other
locations along the FBG were also obtained. Once again,
theory and experiment are in good agreement. The ability to
obtain continuous strain distribution profiles over an ex-
© 2000 NRC Canada
Tennyson et al.
Fig. 12. Photonic circuit for measuring distributed strain profiles along a FBG sensor.
Fig. 13. Fibre Bragg grating (4 cm long) bonded to aluminum
plate with circular hole subjected to tensile loading.
Fig. 14. Comparison of FBG strain profiles with theory.
tended distance represents a major breakthrough in sensor
technology.
Multiplexing of FBGs
In practical field applications, the use of many sensors is
required to provide a reasonable structural monitoring sys-
885
Fig. 15. Comparison of FBG peak strain frequency response
analysis.
tem. In general, the most common configuration involves
parallel gauges, each having its own fibre optic cable for
transmitting the light signals to and from the gauge and back
to a detector and demodulation system for interrogation and
data storage. Since the same fibre optic cable contains the
sensor and also acts as the signal transmission line, with
wide bandwidth capacity and low line losses, generally a
single light source can be used to service as many as 32 sen-
sors (Wu et al. 1997). Currently, a tunable distributed feed-
back laser chip with a wavelength range of 6–10 nm that can
provide this capability is under development. When this chip
is packaged with its requisite optoelectronics (power supply,
temperature control, etc.) and appropriate connectors, its
small size (~2 cm square) can be incorporated into a single
instrument that serves as a power source and a demodulation
© 2000 NRC Canada
886
Fig. 16. Schematic operation of multichannel fibre Bragg grating demodulation system.
Fig. 17. Two methods for serial multiplexing of Bragg gratings: (a) wavelength division multiplexing and (b) time division
multiplexing.
instrument. This unit also contains photodetectors, an optical
splitter for distributing the light simultaneously to each
channel, data storage, and a central processing unit for con-
verting the information to engineering strain. A schematic il-
lustration of this multichannel instrument is shown in
Fig. 16. Note that the laser is pulsed over the desired optical
bandwidth, which in this case defines a strain range of
approx. ±5000 me per channel. Each sensor requires its own
photodetector to permit separation of the channels.
A prototype version of this system was first developed to
investigate both serial and parallel multiplexing of FBG sen-
sors. One of the advantages of FBG sensors is that several
gauges can be incorporated on a single optical cable to mea-
sure the strain at different locations along a single string,
thus minimizing the number of sensing fibres in a structure.
Two methods can be employed: wavelength division
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
multiplexing (WDM) and time division multiplexing
(TDM), both of which are illustrated in Fig. 17.
The WDM method was first employed to study the strain
distributions along three beams subjected to static and dy-
namic bending loads (Fig. 18). Three FBGs were mounted
on each beam, thus providing 12 channels of data. Note that
in the WDM method, each FBG on a single cable must have
a different Bragg wavelength and corresponding optical
bandwidth (depending on the total strain expected at that lo-
cation) to discriminate the gauge signals. Again,
photodetectors (PDs) are used to separate each optical fibre
in this parallel array. The output from these tests is also
shown in Fig. 18. In these experiments, a Nortel DFB laser
was used. This same technique was used for measuring
strains along extruded polymer tendons (Kalamkarov 1998).
The challenge here was to embed the FBGs in the tendons
© 2000 NRC Canada
Tennyson et al.
Fig. 18. Wavelength division multiplexing of FBGs: (a) 12-channel Bragg grating demodulation system and (b) demodulated signals
from the system in (a).
during the extrusion process. The gauges survived and pro-
vided data for both static and dynamic bending loads on the
tendons, as shown in Fig. 19.
The second approach to serial multiplexing of FBG sen-
sors is to use the TDM method. This technique has the dis-
tinct advantage over the WDM method in that all FBG
sensors can have the same wavelength, thus removing the
extra cost of fabricating a variety of different gratings. A
TDM method has been developed that is capable of address-
ing 20–50 FBG sensors with microstrain resolution while
maintaining a large strain range. A schematic of the sensor
interrogation and read-out system is given in Fig. 20. The
light source is a mode-locked fibre laser operating near a
wavelength of 1.55 mm, with time discrimination of the
strain encoded sensor signals provided by an electro-optic
modulator. The FBGs must have low reflectivity to minimize
power depletion and to reduce interference between gratings
(Kersey et al. 1997). Although the signal power returned
from the FBGs will be low, the fibre laser source does pro-
vide a high peak-power pulses and narrow pulse widths re-
sulting in high sensor spatial resolution (Dennis et al. 1997).
This particular source provides a train of pulses with a repe-
tition rate of 6 MHz, which must be less than the round trip
propagation time from the first to the last sensor in the array.
Demultiplexing of the signals in order to uniquely identify
887
each sensor is accomplished by the Mach–Zender interfer-
ometer gated to a 1 ns pulse generator. To test this system,
three FBGs were mounted on a cantilever beam and loaded
in bending. The strain response is shown in Fig. 21 and was
obtained using a 50 Hz measurement bandwidth.
The spatial resolution limit between sensors was also in-
vestigated by analysing the spectrum of reflected signals for
adjacent gauges. Figure 22 presents a plot in which one sen-
sor was strained (~1000 me) while the other two sensors were
held constant. It was found that for this particular TDM sys-
tem, the spatial limit between FBGs is ~0.5 m, with the iso-
lation being >20 dB, and a resolution of ~0.14 me/ Hz.
Wireless remote monitoring
One of the prime requirements for the installation of any
structural sensing system is for remote monitoring, particu-
larly for civil engineering structures such as bridges, dams,
and roads. In many cases, the availability of power and tele-
phone lines make direct monitoring at a remote site possible.
There are, however, applications where these amenities are
not accessible, thus necessitating the need for battery power
and wireless remote monitoring. Two factors that must be
considered are the range of wireless coverage and data trans-
mission rates. For this reason, a decision was made to de-
© 2000 NRC Canada
888
Fig. 19. Smart reinforcements with embedded FBG sensors: (a) monitoring system for fibre optic sensors embedded in putruded beams
and (b) demodulated signals from the system in (a).
Fig. 20. TDM system for FBG sensors.
velop a modem and software that were compatible with the
demodulation systems described above and a commercially
available, nationwide wireless broadband network. Such sys-
tems provide a network of relay stations that ensure signal
strength and quality are maintained over long distances.
The FOS detection instrument, which must be resident on
site, requires custom electronics to interface with commer-
cial radio modems located at the transmission site and an-
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000
other hooked up to a personal computer at the central con-
trol/monitoring station. This interface unit, designed and
constructed at the University of Toronto Institute for Aero-
space Studies, possesses a 8088 CPU, several modules of
RAM, and an A/D conversion module to convert the instru-
ment analog signals to digital format that can be accessed by
the transmitter modem. This system can also shut off the
transmitter modem (to save power) while monitoring the
structural strains continuously. When the strain exceeds a
preset level, the system will activate the modem and data
will be transmitted to the remote control centre. In addition,
this unit can be remotely activated with programming capa-
bilities for such activities as calibration, power status
checks, and network monitoring. Once this information is
received and processed at the control site, the data will be
accessible on the internet for other users.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial assistance
provided for this research from ISIS Canada, which is a fed-
eral Centre of Excellence funded by the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Collaboration
with other ISIS researchers was critical to the development
and application of the fibre optic sensors and instruments.
These include Prof. J. Simmons of McMaster University for
the DFB laser chips, Prof. A. Kalamkarov of Dalhousie Uni-
versity for embedding the FOS in extruded polymer tendons,
and Prof. J. Bonacci of University of Toronto for the corro-
sion tests on concrete cylinders. Our corporate and govern-
© 2000 NRC Canada
 Tennyson et al.
Fig. 21. Optical spectrum of demultiplexed FBG sensors:
(a) spectrum when the first grating is addressed in the
demultiplexer and (b) selection of the second grating.
Fig. 22. Strain measurement of three grating sensors.
View publication stats
889
ment partners contributed extensively to these programs and
include Electrophotonics Corp. for the supply of FBG strain
gauges and measuring instruments, Oprel Inc. for the pack-
aging of the DFB chips, and the Ontario Ministry of Trans-
portation for allowing us to instrument the Leslie Street
Bridge.
References
Belleville, C., and Duplain, G. 1993. White light interferometric
multimode fiber-optic strain sensor. Optics Letters, 18(1): 78–80.
Canadian Civil Engineer. 1999. 16(2): 9–20.
Choquet, P., Leroux, R., and Juneau, F. 1997. New Fabry–Perot fi-
bre-optic sensors for structural and geotechnical monitoring ap-
plications. Proceedings of the 76th Annual Meeting of the NRC
Transportation Research Board, Structural and Geotechnical Ap-
plications for Fiber-Optic Sensors, Washington, D.C., Paper 97-
0645.
Dennis, M.L., Putnam, M.A., Kang, J.U., Tsai, T.E., Duling, I.N.,
and Frieble, E.J. 1997. Grating sensor array demodulation by
use of a passively mode-locked fibre laser. Optical Letters, 22:
1362–1364.
Doncaster, A.M. 1997. An evaluation of fibre optic sensors for
monitoring of civil engineering structures. M.A.Sc. thesis, De-
partment of Civil Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
N.S.
Doncaster, A.M., Newhook, J.P., and Mufti, A.A. 1996. An evalua-
tion of fibre optic sensors. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures,
Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Edmonton, Alta.,
pp. 215–226.
Kalamkarov, A. 1998. Pultruded smart composites incorporating fi-
bre optic sensors. Proceedings of the CIMTEC ‘98, World Ce-
ramic Congress and Forum on New Materials, Florence, Italy.
Kersey, A.D., Davis, M.A., Patrick, H.J., LeBlanc, M., Koo, K.P.,
Askins, C.G., Putnam, M.A., and Frieble, J.E. 1997. Fiber grating
sensors. Journal of Lightwave Technology, 15(8): 1442–1463.
Lee, C. 1998. Accelerated corrosion and repair of reinforced con-
crete columns using CFRP sheets. M.Sc. thesis, Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont.
Measures, R.M. 1995. Fibre optic strain sensing. In Fibre optic
smart structures. Edited by E. Udd. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, N.Y., pp. 171–247.
Measures, R.M. 1997. Structural monitoring with fibre optic Bragg
gratings. In Intelligent civil engineering materials and structures.
Edited by F. Ansari, A. Maji, and C. Leung. American Society
of Civil Engineers, New York, N.Y., pp. 180–201.
Merzbacher, C.I., Kersey, A.D., and Friebele, E.J. 1996. Fiber optic
sensors in concrete structures: a review. In Smart materials and
structures. IOP Publishers, Vol. 15, pp. 196–208.
Rizkalla, S., Shehata, E., Abdelrahman, A., and Tadros, G. 1998.
Design and construction of highway bridge with CFRP. Con-
crete International, 20(6): 35–38.
Schulz, W.L., Udd, E., Seim, J.M., and McGill, G.E. 1998. Ad-
vanced fiber grating strain sensor systems for bridges, structures
and highways. Proceedings of the SPIE International Society for
Optical Engineering, Smart Structures and Materials 1998, San
Diego, Calif., Vol. 3325, pp. 212–221.
Wu, X., Bruce, D.M., Jessop, P.E., Coroy, T., and Measures, R.M.
1997. Wavelength monitoring in fibre optic sensors using a tun-
able optical wavelength filter. Proceedings of the Conference on
Lasers and Electro Optics, Anaheim, Calif., Vol. 9, pp. 246–247.
© 2000 NRC Canada