Module-16 Ecology PDF

Bansal Classes
BIOLOGY
BANSAL CLASSES
MODULE – 16
For – NEET/AIIMS
Contents Module - 16
Ecology
Chapter Name Page No.
Organism & Environment

Species, Population, Community and
Ecological Interactions
Theory 1 – 42
Exercise – 1 43 – 51
Quick Review Table 66
Eco-System
Ramdeo Misra
Theory 67 – 82 (Father of Indian Ecology)
Exercise – 3 95 – 100
Exercise – 4 101 – 103
Biodiversity & Conservation

Environmental Issues & Natural Resourses
Theory 105 – 156
Exercise – 1 157 – 164
Exercise – 2 165 – 172
Exercise – 3 173 – 180
Exercise – 4 181 – 182
ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION :
(i) The term ecology was coined and described by – E.Haeckel.
(ii) The term ecology was first authentically used by – Reiter
(iii) Father of ecology – Reiter
(iv) The term Ethology for ecology was used by – Geoffroy Hilaire
(v) The term Hexicology for ecology was used by – G.H. Mivart
(vi) Study of ecology was initiated in India by – W. Dudgeon
(vii) Father of Indian Ecology – Prof. Ram Deo Misra
(viii) First of all term ecology was employed for plants by – Warming
(ix) Organism and environment are always interdependent, inter related or mutually reactive.
Branches of Ecology – It is based on organism level
1. Autecology or species ecology – Study of the relation of a species or population with its environment
is known as autecolocy
2. Synecology or Biocoenology or Community ecology – Study of the relation of the group of different
species with their environment
AIMS & SCOPE :

The main aim of ecology is to study the interrelationship between organisms. i.e., Plants, animals and
environment. Studies like pollution, soil conservation, soil erosion, proper use of land, afforestation, control
on deforestation, regulation of overgrazing, flood control, maintenance of soil fertility etc., are also done in
the ecology.
Ecology [1]
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ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY :
Biome
1. ENVIRONMENT :
A. Environment is the sum total of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that surround and
potentially influence an organism. Some components of the environment serve as resources, while other
act as a regulatory factor.
B. The different components of the environment are interlinked and interdependent. The environment can
be understood both at large and global climatic patterns, as well as the local climatic conditions, the
microclimate.
Spatial and Time scale of Environment :
Most organisms interact with their environment at several spatial and time scales. For example a single
bacterium in soil, interacts with air and water within a fraction of a cubic centimeter space.
Ecology [2]

On the other hand, a tree in soil interacts, with a large volume of air, water. The activities of organism
influence the hydrosphere, the lower atmosphere and the near-surface part of the lithosphere, through
exchanges of matter and energy.
Organisms have to cope with the external environment over a range of time scales, varying from few
minutes to days, seasons or over a much longer period of geological time scale. For example, phytoplankton
populations may change within a few days with the change in light conditions in aquatic systems. On the
other hand, the variations in lithosphere occur very slowly over a long period of time.
2. CLIMATE :
A. The short-term properties of the atmosphere (such as temperature, pressure, humidity, rainfall, sun-shine,
cloud cover and wind), at a given place and time, is called as weather. Climate is the average weather
of an area, including general patterns of atmospheric conditions, seasonal variations and weather extremes
averaged over a long period.
B. Weather reflects the hourly, daily or weekly chages in the above properties, climate entails longer periods,
such as seasons or years. Temperature and rainfall are the two most important factors which determine
the climate of an area.
C. Global variations of temperature and rainfall result from differential input of solar radiation in different
region and from the redistribution of heat energy by winds and ocean currents. Variations in temperature,
rainfall and humidity in different regions of the globe form global climate patterns, which govern all life on
earth.
D. On the basis of variation in mean temperature along latitude, the main climatic regions are-
(i) Tropical (0º - 20º latittude)
(ii) Subtropical (20º - 40º latitude)
(iii) Temperate (40º - 60º latitude)
(iv) Arctic and Antarctic (60º - 80º latitude)
E. The mean temperature declines as we move from tropical to arctic region. A similar climatic zonation occurs
with increasing altitude in the mountains. A mountain located in a tropical region will successively have
tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine zones with increasing altitude. Similarly, in temperate zone, the
high altitudes will have alpine climatic conditions.
F. Within each temperature-based climatic zone, the annual precipitation (rainfall and/or snowfall) varies
considerably. These two factors, temperature and precipitation, together determine the vegetation and soil
type.
G. Altitude is height above the sea surface of any place. and Latitude is the distance of any place from the
equator.
North pole
Note : Arctic Zone
60º
The temperature and light values are maximum at Temperate zone
40º
the equator, decreases gradually towards the pole. Sub-tropical zone
Effect of altitude and latitude are almost same on 20º
Tropical zone
temperature. 0º Equator
Tropical zone
The types of vegetation from sea level to increasing 20º
Sub-tropical zone
altitude are similar to increasing latitude (distance 40º
Temperate zone
from equator). 60º
Antarctic Zone
South pole
Ecology [3]

H. Microclimate :- The microclimate represents the climatic conditions that prevail at a local scale, or in
areas of limited size, such as the immediate surroundings of plants and animals. Microclimate generally
differs from the prevailing regional climatic conditions. For example, in a forest, dense foliage reduces the
amount of light reaching the ground. This also results in a changed air temperature profile. The day-time
air temperature inside the forest is lower than outside. Also, the interior of a forest may be more humid
than a nearby non-forested area.
3. HABITAT AND NICHE :
The place where an organism lives is called its habitat. Habitat are characterised by conspicuous physical
features, which may include the dominant forms of plant and animal life. We may also understand that
habitat may refer to the place occupied by an entire bilogical community. For example, a large number of
species are found in a forest habitat.
A. Plants and animals, as influenced by the environmental conditions of a particular habitat, indicate some
specific traits. For example, plants growing on saline soils have several characteristics not found in plants
growing on normal non-saline soils.
B. A habitat can contain many ecological niches and support a variety of species. The ecological niche of an
organism represents the rage of conditions that it can tolerate, the resource it utilises, and its functional
role in the ecological system. Each species has a distinct niche, and no two species are believed to occupy
exactly the same niche.
4. BIOME
Large ecosystem is called biome, mainly large aquatic and terrestrical ecosystem are called biomes. Altitude
and latitude determine the boundary of biome.
Types of world biome : From the poles towards the equators.

(i) Tundra Biome : 60-80ºN latitude.
(ii) Northern coniferous forest : 40-60ºN latitude (Taiga or North wood)
or Needle leaf forest
(iii) Temperate Deciduous forest : 40-60ºN latitude or Temperate broad leaf forest.
(iv) Tropical Rain forest : 20-40ºN latitude.
(v) Tropical deciduous forest : 20-40ºN latitude.
(vi) Chaparral (Mediterranean scrub forest) Biome
(vii) Tropical Savanna Biome
(viii) Grassland Biome
Ecology [4]

(ix) Desert Biome
Major Grasslands are :
Prairies - North America
Pampas - South America
Steppes - Europe and Asia
Tussocks - New zealand
Veldts - Africa
Main desert biomes are :
Sahara - North Africa
Tibet, Gobi, Thar - Asia
Major forest Biomes of India :

(i) Tropical Rain Forest Biome : Western Ghat and North-Eastern Himalaya.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forest : In Northern and Southern parts in plain and hilly areas.
(iii) Temperate Broad leaf forest : Western Himalaya.
(iv) Temperate Needle leaf or Coniferous forest : Himalaya.
Forest type Mean annual Mean annual Dry months
temperature (ºC) rainfall (mm) during the year*
Tropical rain forest 23-27 2000-35000 2-3
Tropical deciduous forest 22-32 900-1600 6-8
Temperate broad-leaf forest 6-20 1000-2500 3-5
Temperate needle-leaf forest 6-15 500-1700 3-5
Month in which rainfall is < 50 mm.
Biome Latitude Altitude Vegetation

1 Tundra Above 60º North 3600 meter Lichen, Moss, Grass
height of Himalaya Note :
* This biome is tree less and also
known as arctic desert or alpine
tundra.
* Timber line - Line beyond which
trees are not found.
* Perma forst - In this region soil is
covered by snow or ice.
2 Northern 40º - 60º 1700 to 3000 meter Pine (Pinus), Deodar (Cedrus),
coniferous or Cypress (Cupressus torulosa),
Needle leaf or Spruce(Picea smithiana), Silverfir
temperate forest (Abies pindrow)
Note :
* Coniferous forest posses needle
like leaves
* This forest also known as Taiga.
3 Temperate 40º - 60º 1500 to 2400 meter Oak (Quercus)
decidous or Note :
broad leaf forest * Trees shed their leaves in autumn
and bear again in spring.
Ecology [5]

4 Tropical Rain Tropical rain forest are found at equational Depterocarpus and Hopea are most
Forest region around the earth. In India tropical rain common tree species in India.
frest are distributed mainly along western Lianas are also found.
Ghat and Eastern Himalaya (Assam,
W.Bengal, Andman, Manipur)
5 Tropical Occur widely in the Northern and Southern Sal (Shorea robusta), Teak
deciduous forest part of our country in plain and low hilly area. (Tectona Grandis), Tendu,
Chiraungi, Khair
Note :
* Leaves of most of the tree fall
before summer.
6 Chaparral These forest are found pacific coast of North Draught resistant and fire resistant
(Mediterranean America and South coast of Australia plant species are found.
scrub forest) eg. Small tree, Shrub (sage)
7 Tropical Tropical Savanna biome are found in South Coase grass - Dichanthium,
Savanna biome America and Aurstralia. Sechima, Phragmites
(Thorn forest) Trees - Acacia, Eucalyptus,
Zizuphus, Capparis
Note :
* In this biome grass are found with
scattered tree.
* This biome also known as tropical
grass land.
8 Grass Land Name of Place
Biome Grasslands
Prairies  North America
Pampas  South America
Steppes  Europe and Asia
Tussocks  Newzealand
Veldts  Africa
9 Desert Biome Note :
* Gobi desert is cold desert.
* Sahara and Thar are hot desert.
Name of Desert Place/Area
Sahara North Africa
Tibbat, Gobi, Thar Asia
5. BIOSPHERE
All the living and non living (Biotic + Abiotic) components of the earth (biomes) combine together to consitute
a big eccosystem called Biospher. Biosphere is also called Ecosphere. The term ecosphere for biosphere
was used by Cok. Biosphere (space ship or earth) is closd system for minerals and biosphere is an open
system for energy. Noo-Sphere (Noo-mind, Sphere-domain) is because of development of human civilisation
biosphere is changed in to human dominating environment called noo sphere.
A. Lithosphere – The living components and non-living components present on the earth surface consititutes
the lithosphere.
B . Hydrosphere – All living components and non living components present in water consitutes the
hydrosphere.
C. Atmosphere – All livign components and non living compoments of air consituted the atmosphere.
Atmosphere may be defined as a transparent gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. The vertical profile
Ecology [6]

of the atmosphere shows several concentric layers. These layers vary in density, temperature, composition
and properties. The density is highest near the earth’s surface and decreases with altitude. The thin layer
from the surface of the earth upwards are :
(i) Troposphere (ii) Stratosphere
(iii) Mesosphere (iv) Thermosphere (v) Exosphere
(i) Troposphere :
A. This is the region up to 8-16 km. height from the earth surface. Therefore wind’s clouds, dust particales,
spores and pollen and more than 90% of gases of atmosphere are present here.
B. Temperature decrease with increasing of height upto tropopause (Top of troposphere).
C. The temperature average 15ºC near the soil surface and lower down to –57ºC at tropopause, which make
transistion to the stratosphere.
(ii) Stratosphere :
A. The region lies up to 16-50 km. from the earth above the trophosphere. There is absence of large convectional
current’s (wind) so it is excellent region for air travel.
B. Ozone layer is present in the stratosphere which protect us from the harmful U.V. radiations from the sun.
C. Stratopause is transist layer between stratosphere and mesosphere.
(iii) Mesosphere :
A. The region lies up to 50-80 km. from the earth above the stratosphere.
B. It show decrease in temperature with height.
(iv) Thermosphere :
This region lies up to 80-150 km. from the earth above the mesosphere is thermosphere, which contains
free electrons and ions. All the communication, satellites are launched only in this layer, because ions and
electrons transmits or reflects radio waves (Signals) from the surface of earth.
(v) Exosphere :
The outer fringe of the atmosphere known as the exosphere is extremely rarefied and gradually merges
with the outer space. So above the thermosphere is exosphere.
Exosphere
150 km
Outer part of Heterosphere Thermosphere
thermosphere above Temp. Increase with height
or
the homosphere. 100 km
Ionosphere
80 km
Mesopause
Temp. Decrease with height

Mesosphere
50 km
It extends upto Stratopause
100 km. Homosphere
from the earth surface. Temp. Increase with height
Stratosphere
O3
16 km
Tropopause
Traposphere Temp. Decrease with height
Earth surface
Ecology [7]

Lapse rate : In troposphere, temperature decreases with increase in altitude. The vertical temperature
gradient over earths surface is called lapse rate, it is 6.5ºC per 1000m.
Exosphere
150 km
Thermosphere
80 km
Mesopause
Mesosphere
50 km
Stratopause
Stratosphere
16 km
Tropopause
Traposphere
–200ºC –100ºC 0ºC 100ºC 200ºC
6. ATMOSPHERIC AIR – Atmospheric air contain these gases -

a. N2  78.8% b. O2  20.92%
c. CO2  0.033% d. Argon  0.93% e. Trace components  0.04%
7. LIGHT – Atmosphere get enosmous sun light in the form of electro megnetic speater
400nm 700nm
Visible light
X-Rays Ultraviolet Infrared
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,00

nm nm nm nm nm nm nm
Wavelength, nanometers
(1 nm = 10–9 m)
Diagram-I : Showing the electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation

(i) Solar Constant : Light is measured by luxmeter or photometer. Solar radiation before entering the
atmosphere carries energy at a constant rate i.e., 2 cal cm–2 min–1 known as the solar constant. In solar
radiation wavelength () of light or visible spectrum is 400-700 nm, it is also called photosynthetically
active radiation (PAR) -
Ecology [8]

The U.V. radiation distinguished in
U.V. - C  100 to 280 nm (Lethial)
U.V. - B  280 to 320 nm (Quite harmful)
U.V. - A  320 to 400 nm (Moderatialy harmful)
(ii) Albido value -
The ability of a surface to reflect the incoming radiation is called albido value (AV) it is 80% for fresh
snow, 20-30% for sand, 5-10% for the forest.
Out of the total sun light only 1-5% is utilised in photosynthesis.
Only 2-10% of PAR is utilised by plant in photosynthesis.
(iii) Effect of light -
(a) Photokinesis - Regulation of speed of locomotion due to light is called photokinesis. eg., Larvae of mussel
crab move faster if light intensity increases.
(b) Photomorphogenesis in plants. Photoperiodism, seed germination, plant movements and distribution of plants.
(c) Distribution of plants as heliophytes and sciophytes.
(d) Phenology - Timing of seasonal activities of plants in relation to change in environmental condition
(Flowering in particular season, leaf abscission etc.) Distribution of animals in aquatic ecosystem - Lake,
Pond, Ocean. Light also affects the seasonal and diurenal activities of animals like foraging, reproductive
and migratory activities. Light affects distribution of plants and animals in aquatic ecosystem. Light is limiting
factor for plants in deep water. The different stratification is observed in lake, pond, oceanic ecosystems
due to distribution of light.
(iv) Stratification in lake on the basic of light :
In deep lake, zonation or stratification may be according to the need of light. There are three types of
zones differentiated in a deep lake.
A. Littoral Zone - This zone is found at bank of lake with very shallow water or marshy bank is present.
Rooted vegetation is found in this zone.
B . Limnetic zone - This is the zone of lake water, where light reaches in sufficient amount to entire surface
area. It means this is not too deep. In this region different types of floating plants (phytoplanktons),
suspended and submerged plants are present.
C. Profundal zone - It is very deep area of the lake where light does not reach properly up to the bottom.
Only heterotrophs are present in this zone.
Littoral
Limnetic zone High
zone
Light and
oxygen
levels
Profundal zone
Benthic zone
Low
Ecology [9]

(v) Stratification in Ocean on the basic of light :
All the ocean basins are roughly of the shape of a wash basin or an inverted hat.
(a) Type-I – On the basis of structure :
From the coast line a gradually sloping region extends for about 160 km into the sea. This zone is called
continental shelf and has a depth of 8-200 meters. The angle of the slopes then abruptly steepens to
form the continental slope. The continental slope levels off into a more or less horizontal ocean floor.
The depth of the ocean floor is in the range of several thousand meters.
(b) Type-II – On the basis of availability of light :
The vertical zones of the ocean are determined by the availability or penetration of light for photosynthesis
that is-
1. Photic or Euphotic zone - It is upper lighted zone up to a depth of about 200 meters.
2. Aphotic zone - Middle region where diffused light penetrate which is insufficient for photosynthesis. It
extends up to the depth of 200-2000 meters.
3. Abyssal zone - It is deeper part where light do not reach below 2000 meter, is the area of perpetual
darkness.
Photic Zone
Aphotic Zone
Abyssal Zone
(c) Type -III – On the basis of environment :

Three major environment may be recognised in the ocean basin.
1. The Littoral zone - Comprising the sea floor from the shore to the edge of the continental shelf.
2. The benthonic zone - Formed of sea floor along with the continental slope and the aphotic and abyssal
zone.
3. The pelagic zone - Constituting the water of the ocean basin.
Note :
(A) The shallow shore region of a marine area is called neritic zone.
(B) The part have been cut off from river is called ox-bow-lake.
(C) Estuaries - The region where, river enter the ocean are known as estuaries.
8. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. Factors which affects the temperature
are latitude, altitude, topography, vegetation and slope. The vertical temperature gradient over earth's surface
is called lapse rate. And it's value is 6.5ºC per 1000m elevation. Temperature has significant effect on
climatic conditions, growth responces of plants, activities of organisms. Plants are affected by temperature
like vernalization, thermoperiodism (effect of day-night temperature on various activities) etc. Temperature
also affects plant, animal distribution in aquatic ecosystems like in lake.
(i) Thermal stratification in lakes :
Thermal stratification occurs in deep water body because of difference in temperature of water at different
depth. Mainly three layer or zone occurs in water-
1. Epiliminion - The top layer gains warmth.
Ecology [10]

2. Metalimnion/thermocline - Middle region where steady decline in temperature or a gradual change in
temperature.
3. Hypolimnion - Bottom which is not affected by temperature.
Epilimnion
Metalimnion
Hypolimnion
4. During summer, temperature is higher on the surface water, whereas in lower layer temperature is low.
During winter in a temprate lake, water is at freezing temperature on the surface, whereas in the lower
layer temperature is about 4ºC. The surface water is cooled during autumn, and warmed in spring. This
results in a free mixing of water in the whole water body, also known as autumn and spring turnover.
During spring and autumn due to turnover of water oxygen and nutrients are redistributed, resulting in a
bloom of phytoplankton growth while during winter and summer, growth of phytoplankon is low due to
low nutrients and oxygen availability.
Summer stratification Autumn turnover

Warm layer Water mixing
Thermocline
Cool layer
Soil Soil
Spring turnover Winter stratification

Water mixing Ice 0ºC
4ºC
Soil Soil
(ii) Type of plants and animals on the basis of temperature :

(a) On the basis of temperature vegetation is divided into four groups
1. Megatherms : The plants growings in high temperature througout the year eg., Tropical rain forest.
2. Mesotherms : The plants growing in alternate high and low temperature. eg., Deciduous tropical forest.
3. Microtherms : Plants growing in low temperature. eg., Coniferous forest
4. Hekistotherms : Plant growing in very low temperature. eg., alpine vegetation
(b) On the basis of temperature animals divide into two groups
1. Eurythermous or Homeothermal/endothermal/warm blooded - Animals which are able to tolerate
wide variation of temperature. eg., Birds, Man, etc.
They regulates their internal body temperature by physiological mean, even the outside temperature fluctuates
Maintainance of relatively constant internal environment under variable environment is called Homeostasis.
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2. Stenothermous or Poikilothermal/ectothermal/cold blooded - Animals which are unable to tolerate
wide variation in temperature. eg., Arctic fishes, Reptiles, Amphibians.
Their body temperature tends to match with environment in which they live. So they control their body
temperature by physical mean like move in shade. Some ectotherms are nocturnal and feed during night.
Effect of Temperature on animal :
Temperature affect the absolute size of an animal and its body parts.
1. Bergman rule - Birds and mammals attain greater body size in cold region and lesser in warm region.
2. Allens rule - The tail, ears, limbs, eyes, snout and hair of mammals are smaller in colder region and larger
in warm region.
3. Jorden's rule - Fishes in cold water posses more vertebrae than those living in warm water.
4. Gloger rule - Warm blooded animals in hot and humid area (tropical region) are more darker in colour
(heavily pigmented) than cold area.
5. Renschs rule - Birds in cold region have narrow wings and in warm region have broader wings.
9. WATER
The only inorganic liquid occuring on earth which can functions as a resource, condition and habitat.
Water regulates the climate through it's role in rainfall distribution and temperature modification. It
also affects vegetation type and it's composition. Water presence in soil is of various kinds.
(a) Holard – The total amount of water present in the soil is called holard.
(b) Hygroscopic water : A thin layer of water attached tightly to soil particles due to forces of cohesion or
adhesion. This is not available to plants.
(c) Gravitational water : The water that moves downwards due to gravity, it is non available to plants.
(d) Capillary water : Inter particle spaces or porous spaces act as minute capillaries and some amount of
water is present in these capillaries due to surface tension. This is capillary water. It is the only form of
soil water which is available to plant.
(e) Chemically Combined water - The water which is present as hydroxides of iron, aluminium, silicon, etc.
is called combined water.
Some Terminology :
(a) Field capacity - When soil hold all the water except gravitational water, it is known as field capacity. It
is upper limit of water availability.
Field capacity = Holard – Gravitational water,
or
Field capacity = Capillary water + Hygroscopic water + Chemically combined water.
(b) Water holding capacity (Storage capacity) - Amount of capillary water retained by any soil. W.H.C. =
Holard – (Hygroscopic water + Combined water + Gravitational water)
(c) Permanant Wilting Percent (PWP)/Wilting point : The lower limit of water availability of a soil is
called wilting point. It is generally hygroscopic and combined water.
Note :
(i) The water potential of soil water at field capacity is (–0.01 Mpa) [Mpa = Mega pascal]
(ii) The water potential of soil water at wilting point is (–1.5 Mpa)
(iii) Amount of water in soil measured by tensiometer.
Ecology [12]

10. SOIL
Soil is the upper most weathered layer of earth's crust. It composed on minerals and partially decomposed
organic matter. Soil is formed when rock are weathered are deposited by water and wind erosion. It is
formed due to interaction among parent rock, climate, living organism, time and topography.
Soil Profile :
(a) O - layer - This is made up of litter.
(b) A - layer / Top soil - This layer consists of mainly humus. Minerals are also found here. Most of microfauna
and micro flora are present in this layer of soil. Four feet thick top soil is essential for growth of plants.
The destruction of 'A' layer is called soil erosion. A-layer is divided in two parts - A1, A2
1. A1 - The upper part of A layer (A1) is also called humic or melanized zone because dark black humus is
present.
2. A2 - The lower part of A layer (A2) is known, as podosolic or eluvial zone or zone of leaching. It is light
coloured region because of little amount of organic matter.
(c) B - layer or subsoil - This layer is made up of big soil particles or minerals. This layer has less amount
of humus, it contains compounds of iron, aluminium and maganese in higher amount, it is also known as
illuvial zone. It is second mineral layer in which the material leached from A2 zone accumulate. So also
called as zone of illuviation or accumulation.
(d) C - layer - This layer is composed of incompletely weathered rock materials.
(e) R - layer - This layer is present in unweathered parental rocks.
A Horizon + B Horizon = Solum
Soil Profile
Type of soil on the basis of the mode of their formation -
(a) Residual soil - The soil in which soil formation i.e., weathering and pedogenesis, occurs at same place.
(b) Transported soil - Soil in which weathering process occurs at one place and pedogenesis occurs at another
place.
1. Colluvial soil  It is brought by gravity.
2. Alluvial soil  It is brought through water, it is highly fertile soil.
3. Glacial soil  Soil is brought by ice.
4. Eolian soil  This soil is brought through wind.
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Some Terminology Related to soil
(a) Literization :
In the tropical area due to high temperature, high rainfall, litter is decomposed very rapidly in
A-layer. Due to mineralization of Al and Fe are liberated in the upper layer (A-layer) of soil, colour of this
soil becomes redish-brown, this process is known as laterization and soil is literite.
(b) Podsolization :
In temperate area temperature is low and high humidity occurs. Humus and minerals contents dissolve
and percolate with water and are leached from A layer to B layer. Due to loss of chemicals the colour of
soil of A-layer (horizon) turns to light ash colour. This process is known as podosolization and soil is known
as podosols.
(c) Gleization :
In tundra region due to low temperature and humid condition humus is formed in less quantity and moves
slowly in B-layer. So colour of B-layer becomes blue-grey due to deposition of Fe salt. This process is
known as gleization and soil is known as gleys.
O-Horizon, Litter layer

O-Horizon, Litter layer
A-Horizon (Top soil), A-Horizon (Top soil),
Humus-mineral mixture Shallow light coloured
B-Horizon, Loam and Silt
Sub soil B-Horizon, Dense clay mixed
with iron-aluminium compound
B-Horizon, Dark brown clay
C-Horizon, Glacial diposits C-Horizon
(A) (B)
Fig.: Comparison of soil profile (A) temperate deciduous forests, (B) tropical rain-forest.
(d) Soil Organic Matter :

The dead organic matter present in soil is called humus, which is formed by decomposition of plant and
animal remains. Freshly fallen plant and animal material called detritus or litter, partially decomposed
litter is called duff. Fully decomposed litter is called Humus.
Detritus/Litter  Duff  Humus
(e) Soil mineral matter :
Minerals 45% + Water 25% + Air 25% + Organic matter (Living + Non living) 5%
Soil formation is slow process 1 inch soil is formed in 500-1000 years.
Pedogenesis – Development of soil or soil formation.
Pedology (Edaphology) – Study of soil.
Type of Soil
(a) As a result of weathering the mineral particles of different size are formed. The soil is divided into
five types on the basis of size of soil particles.
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(b) Loam soil is the best soil for growing of crops, it has high water holding capacity, high aeration and
high root penetration.
(c) On the basis of the soil condition there are seven ecological group of plant.
Halophytes – Plants grow in saline soils.
Psamophytes – Plants grow in sand.
Lithophytes – Plants grown on rock surface.
Chasmophytes – Plants grow in rock crevices.
Chersophytes – Plant grow in waste land.
Eremophytes – Plant grow in dry area.
Cryophytes or Psychrophytes – Plant grow in low temperature or cold soil.
11. OTHER ABIOTIC COMPONENT

(i) Precipitation - It is a source of soil water. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water between
earth, air and atmosphere.
Forms of precipitation -
(1) Drizzle – Minute drops of water floating in air.
(2) Rain – Large drops of water.
(3) Snow – Water in solid form.
(4) Sleet – Ice in minute granular form.
(5) Hails – Large balls of ice.
(ii) Humidity – Atmospheric moisture in the form of invisible vapour is known as humidity. It is expressed in
terms of relative humidity (RH) and it is the amount of moisture in air as percentage of the amount which
the air can hold at saturation at the existing temperature.
If temperature  RH 
R.H. is measured by Psychrometer and Wind speed is measured with the help of anemometer.
(iii) Topography –
It includes the physical features of the earth like altitude, slope, exposure, mountain chains, valleys,
plants. It affects distribution of organism by influencing the climatic factor like light, wind, rainfall etc.
Ecology [15]

RESPONCE TO ABIOTIC FACTORS :
(i) Adaptations :
The environmental conditions of a habitat are not always constant but change with time. The organisms
show various kinds of Adaptations to cope with changed abiotic or environmental conditions. Acclimatisation
is a gradual physiological adjustment of the organism to the slowly changing new environmental condition.
If there is a shift in some environmental factor beyond the tolerance range of an organism the latter can
come to the resting stage or migrate or can undergo acclimatisation.
(ii) Shelford law of tolerance -
(a) Every organism has minimum and maximum limit of tolerance (ecological amplitude) with respect to
the environmental factor like temperature, sunlight or nutrient concentration. In between these limits the
central optimum range is found in which organisms are abundant this is known as optimum zone of
tolerance.
Lower limit of tolerance Upper limit of tolerance

Intolerance
Intolerance
Zone of
Zone of
Stress
Stress
Zone
Zone
Optimum tolerance range
High
Organism abundant
Population size
Few organisms
Few organisms
Organisms absent
Organisms absent
Fitness and growth maximum
Low
Low Environmental gradient High
The response of an organism to a range or gradient of an environmental factor
(temperature, light, nutrient)
(b) The organisms have ability to maintain the internal body environment suitable for all biochemical and
physiological function to proceed with maximal effeciency and increase the fitness of the species.
(c) It could be in terms of optional body temperature and osmotic concentration of body fluid.
(d) Organisms are of four types on the basis of regulation of internal body environment with changing external
environment.
1. Regulators / Regulates 2. Conformers/Conforms 3. Migration 4. Suspend
1. Regulators / Regulates :
(a) Organims which can maintains homeostatasis by physiological (Sometime behavioral/physical also) means
and maintains constant body temperature.
(b) All birds and mammals, some lower invertebrates and vertebrates. For example, human beings or
mammals maintains their constant body temperature 37ºC in summer by sweat results in cooling and in
winter by shivering. Which produce heat and raise body temperature.
Ecology [16]

(c) Plants can not show homeostasis so in different climatic zones different plants species are successfully
survive.
2. Conforms :
(a) Organisms which are not able to maintains their internal environment (Temperature, osmotic concentration).
It means their body temperature change with change in temperature.
(b) About 99% of animals and plants are conforms. For example in small animals like shrews and humming
birds, the heat loss or heat gain is function of surface area. So they have to expand much energy to generate
body heat through metabolism. Thats why small animals are rarely found in polar region or animals are
large in size, in polar region.
(c) Some species have evolved the ability to regulate, but over a limited range at environmental conditions,
beyond which they are conform and they are called partial regulaters.
s
er
Internal level 
o rm
f
on Regulators
C
Partial regulators
External level 
3. Migration :
(a) If stressfull external conditions are localized or remain only for a short duration then some organisms show
migration and suspension.
(b) The organisms can move away temporarily from stressful habitat to more suitable area and returns when
streessful period is over.
(c) For example, birds migration. Keoladev National Park of Bharatpur Rajasthan hosts thousands of migratory
birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.
Some Examples of Migration
Note : Thermal Migration - Thermal migration has been seen in birds (siberian cranes, arctic tern), mammals
(Bison, caribou), fishes (salmon) etc.
4. Suspend ;
(a) In bacteria, fungi, lower plants, various kind of thick walled spores are formed which helps them to survive
unfavorable condition and germinate on return of favorable condition.
Ecology [17]

(b) In higher plants seeds show suspended stage of plant life.
(c) In animals hibernation (winter sleep) shown by bears, frogs, during winter. While aestivation (summer
sleep) shown by some fishes & snails in summer which is mode of time escape or suspension.
(d) In unfavorable conditions many zooplanktons species in lakes and ponds enter in stage of suspended
development called diapause.
ADAPTATIONS IN ANIMALS :
In the polar sea aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their skin that acts
as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat. Some organisms posses adaptations that are physiological
which allow them to respond quickly to a stressul situation. If you had ever been go any high altitude place
you must have experienced what is called altitude sickness. Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue and
heart palpitation. This due to the low atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, body does not get proper oxygen.
In human beings the body compensates low oxygen availability by increasing red blood cells (RBC) production,
decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin and by increasing breathing rate.
(i) Aestivation and Hibernation
In very cold or dry environments, animals incapable of migration shift to a physiological dormant state.
Spending winter in dormant condition is called hibernation. On the other hand, spending the dry-hot period
in an inactive state is known as aestivation. (Examples are shown in table)
Type Examples Processes and activities

Hibernation Northern ground True hibernators go into sleep during winter; body
squirrels temperature drops; breathing and heartbeat become slow.
Aestivation Ground squirrels in Avoids heat by spending dry-hot period in a torpid state into
south-west deserts burrows.
Cryptic Leaf-like grasshopper Grasshopper resembles the complete leaf or appears to be a
appearance (Arantia rectifolia ) part of leaf.
(camouflage) Paraying mantis Mimics a dead leaf and resembles background vegetation.
(Phyllocrania paradoxa )
Batesian Monarch butterfly and Monarch butterfly (contains toxins in the body) and
mimicry the mimic viceroy mimicked by viceroy butterfly (contains no toxins).
butterfly
Mullerian Monarch butterfly and Both butterfly species look similar and are also distasteful.
mimicry the mimic queen
butterfly
Echolocation Horseshoe bat Produce high frequency sounds; detect the presence of the
echoes produced from the objects on the same principle of
sonar.
(ii) Camouflage
In some animals, the capcity to blend with surroundings or camouflage is a common adaptation. Some of
them change their bodies, which make difficult to distinguish them from shadows and branches, or from
other members of the group.
(iii) Mimicry
Two species resemble each other closely, one speceis, called mimic, is palatable to its predator, but resembles
Ecology [18]

another species, called the model, which is distasteful to the predator. In Batesian mimicry, the mimic is
defenseless, but has anti-predatory marks, like the model which has a defense against predators; hence,
the mimic is able to protect itself from the attack of the predator. Similarly, the monarch butterfly (containing
poison, toxic to predator) is mimicked by the vicerory butterfly (containing no poison). Mullerian mimicry
is the process when the mimic shares the same defensive mechanism as the model.
(iv) Adaptations to Water Scarcity :
(a) Two types of adaptations are prominent in animals living in arid regions. viz. lowering of water loss as
much as possible and adapting to arid conditions.
(b) For example, the kangaroo rat conserves water by excreting solid urin, and can live from birth to death
without even drinking water. The camels show unique adjustments to desert conditions, being very economical
in water use, tolerant to wide fluctuations in body temperature, and are able to maintain blood stream
moisture even during extreme heat stress.
(v) Adaptations of Cold :
(a) Sessile animals, such as barnacles and molluscs, living in very cold inter-tidal zones of northern shores,
and several insects and spiders resist the effect of cold spells by a process known as cold hardening.
(b) The freeze tolerant organisms have ice nucleating proteins, which induce ice formation in the extracellular
spaces at very low sub zero temperatures.
(c) Some freeze-avoiding animals can tolerate environmental temperatures below 0ºC by accumulating glycerol
or antifreeze proteins that lower freezing point of their body fluids. Presence of such antifreeze compounds
allows the fish in Antarctica region to remain active in sea water.
ADAPTATIONS IN PLANTS :
The plants which are found on the earth, posses some specific characters in order to survive, successfully.
Plant develops various types adaptation to protect itself from these adverse factors. Warming, classified
plants into three groups on the basis of availability of water.
1. Hydrophytes : Plants found in places where excess of water is present are called hydrophyte.
2. Xerophyte : Plants found in places where very insignificant amount of water is present are called xerophyte.
3. Mesophyte : Places where is neither too much water nor less availability of water. Their habitats is having
relative amount of sufficient water.
Note : Ecological adaptations are found in xerophyte and hydrophytes.
1. Hydrophytes : Hydrophytes are divided into five groups
(a) Free floating hydrophyte :
This group includes such type of plants which remains floating at water surface which are not in contact
with soil of water reservoir from their roots. e.g. Lemna, Wolffia, Salvinia, Eichhornia
Eichhornia is "water hyacinth" and sorrow/terror of Bengal. It is aquatic weed, inhabitant of America.
(b) Suspended hydrophyte :
These plants are suspended in water but not fixed with their root. This do not have contact with the
substratum of water body. e.g. Najas, Utricularia, Hydrilla
Utricultria is also known as 'Bladder wort'. This is root less insectivorous plant. The apparatus for catching
the insect is formed by the modification of leaf in plant.
(c) Submerged hydrophytes :
These plants entirely submerged under the water and into the mud with their roots. e.g. Potamogeton,
Vallisneria, Ceratophyllum, Eloidea
Ecology [19]

(d) Fixed floating hydrophyte :
This group include such type of plants in which their root are fixed in the mud and leaves are floating on
the surface of the water. e.g. Nymphaea, Nelumbium (Lotus), Victoria regia, Trapa
(e) Emergent hydrophyte :
The basal part of such plants are embedded in water and remaining part floats upon the surface of water
such plants grows both type of characteristic as aquatic and terrestrial. So, they are known as amphibious
plants. e.g. Typha, Juncus, Jussiaea, Sagittaria, Ranunculus aquatlis and Cryptostegia etc.
Adaptation of hydrophytic plants :
(a) Osmotic Pressure - The osmotic pressure of cells of aquatic plants is very less, so plants do not absorption
unwanted water due to low osmotic pressure.
Note : But, osmotic pressure of cells is high in those plants which live in salty water as in sea and sambhar
of Rajasthan because it can reduce the loss of water.
(b) Mucilage - Mucilage is found on the surface of aquatic plants. Mucilage protects the plants from the
action of bacteria and fungus.
(c) Cuticle - Cuticle is absent on the surface of aquatic plants. These plants exchanged gases through the
general body surface. But cuticle and wax is present on the floating leaves, so it become hydrophobic.
(d) Aerenchyma - Aerenchyma is present in hydrophytes which provide buoyancy to the plants and store
oxygen which is produce in photosynthesis.
(e) Chlorenchyma - The chlorenchyma tissue of these plants in well developed. The intensity of light is the
limiting factor in photosynthesis of aquatic plants. The intensity of light decreases in the deep water so,
absorption of more light takes place through well developed chlorenchyma. The whole plant is green excluding
roots.
Note : Photosynthetic green roots are present in Trapa.
(f) Epidermis - The epidermis of aquatic plants bear chloroplast.
(g) Mechanical tissue - Mechanical tissue is less developed in hydrophytes. Sclerechyma is either absent or
reduced. So, aquatic plants are soft.
(h) Conducting tissues - Conducting tissues [xylem & phloem are poorly developed in hydrophytes]
Xylem of these plants is not differentiated completely. Tracheids and vessels less devoleped. Water is
absorbed by the whole surface of aquatic plants so the need of conducting tissue is less.
Phloem is also less developed because whole plants prepare its own food.
(i) Roots - The root system of hydrophytes are either absent [Wolffia and Utricularia] or reduced [Trapa
and Eichhornia].
Note : Root cap is absent in Eichhornia. In place of root cap, root pocket is present which is filled by air.
(j) Leaf - The leaves of suspended and submerged hydrophytes are either dissected [Hydrilla and
Ceratophyllum] or long, soft and ribbon like [Vallisnaria]. Dissected and ribbon's like leaves do not produce
resistance to current so that, protected from destruction.
Usually heterophylly is present in emergent hydrophytes. Two types of leaves are found in these plants.
The emerged leaves are dissected and aerial leaves are large and complete. But leaves of floating hydrophyte
are long, broad and strong, astrosclereids and trichosclereids are present in these leaves. The leaves becomes
solid due to presence of these sclereids. The leaves of Victoria are strongest and highest in diameter. Their
diameter is approximately 1 meter.
Astomatic - The leaves of suspended and submerged plants are astomatic. In their leaves stomata are
either absent or reduced. These plants exchange gases through the general surface of the body.
Ecology [20]

Epistomatic - Floating leaves are epistomatic, it means stomata are present only on upper surface of the
leaf the lower surface remains in contact of water, therefore stomata are absent on the lower surface.
(k) Reproduction : Hydrophytes reproduce vegatatively and sexual reproduction is found less. Sexual
reproduction only takes place in adverse climatic conditions.
Note : The vegetative reproduction takes place vigorously so that these plants becomes a weeds.
2. Xerophytes :
These plants live in deficiency of water. This deficiency of water may be of two types.
(a) Physical dryness - In desert and the slopes of hills where only 20 cm rain fall or less than this condition
are present called physical dryness. These plants grow in that region which have very less amount of water
is called physical dryness.
(b) Physiological dryness - Sometimes water is present in the habitat but due to some reasons plant can not
absorb this water, is called physiological dryness. High concentration of salt water, and low temperature
habitat is a type of physiological dryness habitat.
Xerophytic plants are of many types on the basis of Habitat

1. Halophyte - Those plant which grow in saline habitat known as halophyte. Such soil is called marshy
soil. Such type of land is unfertile and barren.
2. Epiphyte - Such type of autotrophic plant which grows on other plants are called epiphytes.
3. Psychrophyte - Those plants which grow in cold soil such as plants grown on high range of Himalaya.
4. Chasmophyte - These plants are grow in the crevices of rocks.
5. Psamophyte - Such plants which grow in sandy soil are called psamophyte.
6. Lithophyte - These plants are grown on either rocks or sedimentary soil. Plants grown on the slope of
Aravali hill.
1. Xerophytes are divided into three groups by Kerney and Shantz on the basis of their habit -
(a) Drought Escapers or Ephermerals - Such type of plants usually grown in desert. These plants
complete their life cycle in favourable moisture (humid) season. They leave their mature seed and degenerates
before unfavourable condition. These plants are not facing the scarcity of water, so they are not true
(real) xerophytic plants.
Adapatation : These plants do not have xerophytic adaptation. Spines are found on the surface
of these plant, which protect them from the grazing animals. e.g. Argemone mexicana (Yellow kanteli)
Solanum xanthocarpum (Blue or violet kanteli)
(b) Drought Resistant or Succulent Xerophytes - These plants absorb water in moist season and
stored in plant organs. They stored maximum amount of water and they continue their life processes on
this stored water during the drought, so, these plants are not facing the drought. Therefore, they are also
not true xerophytes. They are the most successful plants in places where deficient water supply. The
most of the plants of this group are lithophytes.
Adapatation : The specific type of adaptation are found on these plants for absorption of higher
amount of water and to avoid the loss of water.
(i) Mucilage - Mucilage is present in the plant organs. It is a colloidal substance. Colloids have a great capacity
of imbibition of water. Colloids can absorb more water than its weight. These plants becomes succelent
due to presence of mucilage and absorption of water.
Ecology [21]

(ii) Stomata - Scotoactive stomata are found in these plants. Such type of stomats remains close during the
days and opens at night. The possibility of transpiration is more during the day. They mainly exchange
gases during the night.
All the plants of Cactaceae and Crassulaceae families are succulent plants. Most of the plants of
Eurphobiaceae family are succulent.
(c) Drought Endurers or Non Succulent Xerophytes -
Psamophytes are included in it. The plants which are found in desert are perennial. They do not store
water in their plants organs. However the plant continues to be alive during the drought. Therefore, they
are true xerophytes.
Adapatation :
(a) Root System - The root system is very long and penetrate the soil to great depth and is well developed.
The shoot is less developed (Hight root-shoot ratio) as compared to the root, so that it reduces the
transpiration.
(b) Leaves - The maximum adaptations are related with the leaves. The leaves are pinnately compound in
most of the plant of this group. A thick layer of the cuticle and wax is present on the upper surface of
leaf.
(c) Rolling leaves : Rolling leaves are found in some of the xerophytic plants. The leaves of these plant fold
during the mid day. For example : Ammophila, Emptera, Poa etc.
(d) Stipules - The stipules of xerophytic plants are modified into spines. These spines protect the plant from
the grazing animals e.g. Acacia (Babool).
(e) Stomata - The stomata are present only on the lower surface of the leaf i.e. leaves are hypostomatic.
Stomata are sunken type. A cavity is present out side the stomata which is called hypostomatic cavity.
These stomata are surrounded by hairs. Such type of stomata prevent the loss of water. The presence of
hair on the leaves are called trichophilly.
(f) Mechanical tissue and vascular tissue - The mechanical tissue and vascular tissue are well developed
in these plants. The intercellular spaces are absent, so that cells are tightly arranged. e.g.
(i) Calotropis - This plant is most successful in the desert. This is a sand-bounded plant and prevent soil
erosion. The leaves of calotropis are simple, but maximum amount of wax is present on it.
(ii) Caparis aphylla - The leaves are completely absent in this plant.
(iii) Nerium is a typical xerophytic plant. The maximum adaptation are found in this plant such as follows.
(a) The epidermis of the both surfaces are multilayered. A sclerenchymatous hypodermis is
present below the epidermis.
(b) Palisade tissue is found on both the surfaces. Vascular bundles are surrounded by
sclerenchymatous endodermis.
(c) All the adaptations are only to check the transpiration. Thick cuticle is found in Nerium
and wax is present on it.
STUDY OF SOME SPECIAL XEROPHYTES
(i) Halophytes : The plants which grow in salty soils or saline soils are called halophyte. Physiological
dryness is found in halophytes.
Adaptation :
1. Osmotic Pressure :The osmotic pressure of cell sap is highest of these plants. The osmotic pressure of cell
sap reaches 30 mm of Hg - (atmosphere pressure).
Ecology [22]

2. Chalk Glands : Chalk glands are found on the leaves and roots in some plants of halophytes, which secretes
lime. e.g. Atriplex, (maximum)
3. Mangrove Vegetation : This is a special group of halophyte. They are found in saline marshy areas of sea-
shores and near estuaries. Mangrove vegetation is found in Sunder-bans [W. Bengal] in India. Marshy
places are physiologically dry due to the presence of salts. Specially, seed of these plants can not geminates
in swampy land.
The following adaptations are found in mangrove plants.
(i) Pneumatophores : Some special type of respiratory roots are found in Magrove vegetation called the
pneumatophore, they are negative geotropic. Pores are present at the apex of the pneumatophore, they
exchange gases through the pores from the atmosphere.
(ii) Vivipary : The germination of seed takes place inside the fruit while it is attached to the parent plant that
juvenile plant is present in fruit, falls on the marshy soil.
e.g. Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Avisinia, Salicornia, Salsola, Heritiera
(ii) Epipihytes :
Epiphytes are extensively distributed in trophical rain forest. Such type of rain forest lies on the equatorial
region around that earth. The main feature of this biome is the good amount of annual rain fall which is
more than at lest 140 cm. per year. Such type of forests are found in Assam, W.Bengal, Meghalaya and
Andaman Nicobar in India.
Epiphyte are those autotrophic plants which grows on other plants. They do not get water and food from
them. Their roots are not present in soil. They absorb atmospheric moisture. Therefore epiphytes are only
growing in moistened places. Epiphyte never grows in Rajasthan.
Adaptations
Heterorhizy : These plants are heterorhizomous ie., two type, of roots are found in these plants.
(i) Clasping Roots : Their function is only to provide support (fix) the plant.
(ii) Hanging Roots : These roots hang in the air these roots have special epidermis which is multilayered
and made up of thick walled cells, this type of epidermis of root is known as velamen. So velamen is an
epidermal tissue Velamen tissue is is hygroscopic in nature. It adsorbs atmospheric moisture.
Note :
1. The plants of Orchidaceae family are known as orchids.
Orchids are epiphytes. e.g. Vanda.
2. Dischidia is known as pitcher plant. The leaves modified
into a pitcher in this plants. Rainy water is collected in the pitcher.
Ecology [23]

(iii) Physchrophytes :
They are also known as hekistotherms. These plants are grown in cold soil (land). Psychrophytes are found
in north and south polar regions. The plants grown at 11000 feet or above are only psychrophytes. They
known as Alpines. Such plants are grown on Himalaya.
Cold lands are represent physiologically dry condition. Plants are unable to absorb water because temperature
of soil is very less, other reasons are as follows -
1. The viscosity of the water increase due to decrease in temperature.
2. Water potential of water decreases due to low temperature.
3. The permeability of plasma membrane decreases at low temperature.
4. The true characters of xerophytes are found in these plants, such as small leaves, thick cuticle
and very deep root system. e.g. Rhododendron, Delphinium, Anemone, Primula, Sexifraga.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HYDROPHYTES, MESOPHYTES, XEROPHYTES & HALOPHYTES

S.No Hydrophytes Mesophytes Xerophytes Halophytes
1. Roots absent or poorly Fibrous as well as tap Long, dense & well Roots not completely
developed. root present. Root hair developed roots. They developed.
also present. are many times longer Pneumatophores & stilt
than sooot. root more developed.
2. Stem aerial, soft & Stem hard, rigid &stout. Stem well developed Stem aerial & well
f1exible. Underground branched & bush like developed.
stem more developed. sometime modified into
phylioclade.
3. Leaves thin, narrow, Leaves long, thin have Leaves fleshly & Leaves thick, leathery &
dissected & hairy. cuticle on outer surface. leathery. Sometime it is large.
absent or modified into
spines.
4. Aerenchymas present Aerenchyma absent. Aerenchyma absent. Aerenchyma some time

present.
5. Cuticle present on outer Cuticle may be present Stem outer surface is Outer surface covered
surface of stem. on outer surface of covered with cuticle or with wax.
stem. wax.
6. Stomate absent, if Stomata are present on Stomata less & sunken, Stomata present but only
present than very less & both sides of leaves. only at lower surface of on lower side of leaves.
only on upper epidermis leaf.
of leaf.
7. Mesophyll not differe- Mesophyll well differe- Mesophyll differentia- Mesophyll differentiated,
ntiated into palisade ntiated into palisade ted but palisade more & but palisade more than
cells and spongy cells & spongy on both side of leaves. spongy parenchyma.
parenchyma. parenchyma.
8. Growth of plant is slow. Growth of plant is Growth of plant is slow. Growth normal but have
normal. viviparous germination.
9. Mechanical tissues are Mechanical tissue They are very well They are developed but
poorly developed. present & developed. developed. lignin is absent.
Ecology [24]

10. Transpiration less but Transpiration is normal. Transpiration is reduced Transpiration very less
Guttation is more. by sunken stomata & and Guttation is absent.
cuticle layer.
11. Gaseous exchange Gaseous exchange is Gaseous exchange is Gaseouse xchange is

occur at air spaces. through stomata. through stomata. through pnematophores.
SPECIAL POINT :
Life Forms : According to Raunkiaer's life forms are of following types. It is bases on the position and
the degree of protection to perennating organs (bud) during adverse season,
1. Phanerophytes - The bud are located much above the surface of the earth. Such type of plants are
found more in tropics. Epiphytes are included in phanerophytes.
2. Chamaeophytes - The buds are situated very close/near to the ground surface. Such type of plants
are found in cold places or high altitudes.
3. Hemicryptophytes - The bud present just below or just above the surface of ground. Such plants are
found in temperate climate.
4. Cryptophytes - The buds lie very deep in the ground.
5. Therophytes - Those plants which are passing the unfavourable climate through their seeds.
Note :
 Black cotton – Soil of Maharashtra are commonly known as regur soil.
 Sierozen – Light coloured soil of arid region.
 Bog soil – Soil of marshed and swamps.
 Solnetz/Solansltz – Black alkaline soil.
 Peat soil – In which 90% humus in present.
 Solonchak – White alkaline & Saline soil.
 Many tribes live in high altitude of Himalaya have high RBC's than people living in the plains. Many
xerophytes may accumulate proline (an amino acid) in their cells to maintain osmotic and water potential
in their leaves.
 The heat shock protein (chaperonins) provide physiological adaptations to plants to high temperature.
This protein helps other proteins to maintain their structure and prevent denaturation at high temperature.
 Dunaliella species (green and halophytic algae found in hyper saline lakes) can tolerate saline conditions
by accumulating glycerol in the cells, which helps in osmoregulation. The main source of CO2 for aquatic
plants are Carbonates and bicarbonates.
SOME ECOLOGICAL TERMS

1. Aestivation (Summer sleep) - Escape from heat of sun
e.g. Lung fishes, Snails, Goround squirrels in south-west desert
2. Arboreta - Botanical graden where specific trees and shrubs species are cultivated.
3. Benthonic - The sedentary organisms of sea are called benthonic. e.g. Crabs, Snails, Star fishes
4. Biodiversity - The term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species and ecosystem of a region.
(a) Species diversity : Variety of species within a region.
(b) Species richness : The number of species in per unit area.
Ecology [25]

5. Biological (phyto-climatic) spectrum - The ratio or percentage distribution of different life forms in
any plant community is called biological spectrum.
6. Biome : Large regional unit or ecosystem characterised by major vegetation type (flora) and associated
founa in a specific climatic zone.
7. Biosphere : All the earth's terrestrial biomes and aquatic systems constitute biosphere. It includes lower
atmosphere the land and the oceans, rivers and lakes, where living beings are found.
8. Biotic potential (Reproductive potential or potential ability) - The term biotic potential was first
used by Chapmann. Under most favourable environmental conditions the maximum reproductive capacity
of an species is known as biotic potential.
9. Botanochemicals - Plants can also be used for the manufacture of innumerable synthetic products called
botanochemicals.
10. Calcarious soil  Soil having excess of calcium carbonate.
11. Calcifuge Plants  Those plants which can grow in little amount of calcium in soil (pH - 3.8 to 4.0) eg.,
Rhododendron, Rumax etc.
12. Community : Assemblage of different populations in an area, interacting with each other.
13. Competitive release - A species whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical area because of
the presence of a comparatively superior species.
14. Cyclomorphosis - Change in body shape with the change in temperature
e.g. Daphnia, Cladocera
15. Ecocline - Offsprings of ecotypes are called "Ecocline".
16. Ecological Equivalents - Organism that occupy the same or similar ecological niche in different
geographical regions are known as Ecological equivalents. e.g. (a) Arctic fox and African Jackel, both are
scavengers. (b) Grazers of North America and Kangaroo's of Australia.
17. Ecosystem : Biological communities intergrated with it's physical environment through the exchange of
energy and recycling of nutrients.
18. Ecotone - The transition zone in between two communities is called ecotone or tension zone. It has greater
number of species and density or it is a transition zone between two communities where one type of
community is modified into another type of community is known as ecotone.
19. Edge effect - Species which occur most abundantly and spend their time in ecotone are called edge species.
The tendency to increase variety and density of some organism at the community border is known as edge
effect.
20. Gause's competitive exclusion principle - This principle state that two closely related species competing
for the same resourse cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior will be eliminated eventually.
This is true if resources are limiting but not otherwise.
21. Guild - Organism of same trophic level is known as guild (e.g. Cow, Goat, Rabbit).
22. Hibernation - Winter sleep or period of dormancy
(i) Cold blooded animals
e.g. Amphibians, reptiles
(ii) Hot blooded animals
e.g. Polar bear, North ground squirrels
23. Land scape : A unit of land with natural boundary having a mosaic of patches, which represents different
ecosystems.
Ecology [26]

24. Nektons - Those aquatic plants and animals which are capacble of swimming actively are called nektons.
They have well developed locomotory organs. It includes -
(i) Phytonektons - usually flagella are present in these plants.
e.g. Chlamydomonas and Dinoflagellates
(ii) Zoo Nektons (animals) - Jelly fishes, sharks, fishes, frog, cuttle fishes.
25. Organism : Basic unit of study of ecology.
26. Periphyton - Organism which lives on hydrophytes like. Vorticella, Hydra, Rotifers
27. Phenotypic Plasticity
The phenotype is the physical expression of the interaction between genotype of an organism and its
environment. The phenotypes show variations due to difference in the environment conditions with in the
local habitat such type of variatons are known as phenotypic plasticity.
28. Planktons - Planktons are free floating and small organisms which swim to water currents.
They lack locomotory organs or the locomotory organs may be reduced. It includes –
(i) Phytoplankton - Microscopic, floating plants e.g. Diatoms
(ii) Zooplankton - Microscopic, floating animals e.g. Protozoans, Crustaceans, Larvae.
29. Population : Group of individuals of a plant or animal species inhabiting a given area or group of individuals
of a species.
30. Resource partitioning - If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid competition by
choosing alternatives. For instance different item for feeding or different foraging patterns.
31. Species : Similar organisms having the potential for interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
32. Vitality - Capacity of normal growth and reproduction for survival of a species. It depends
upon weight of plant, stem height, root length,leaf number etc.
Ecology [27]

ECOLOGICAL : SPECIES, POPULATION,
COMMUNITY AND INTERACTIONS
SPECIES
Is a basic unit of classification, defined as the group of living organism similar in structure, function and
behaviour and produced by similar parents, have common gene pool, can interbreed under natural
conditions and reproductively isolated from other group of organism.
(i) Endemic Species or Endemism :
A species which is found only in a particular area is known as endemic species. e.g. Meta sequoia is
found only in valley of China, Kangaroo in Australia.
(ii) Key-stone Species :
The species which have great influence on the community’s characteristics relative to their low
aboundance or biomass are called key-stone species. The activities of key-stone species determine the
structure of the community. e.g. Lion in forest, Kangaroo rat in desert
(iii) Critical Link Species :
The species which establishes an essential link with other species to help the latter in some vital activity
is called link species. e.g. Mycorrhizal fungi, many insect species which works as pollinators of flowers.
POPULATION
A group of individuals (members) of same species living at one place (specific geographical area)
constitute a population. Local Population or demes (Sub groups of population) is population of organism
inhabiting a particular area. e.g. Homo sapiens inhabiting hills, plains. Sister population is different
population of same kind of organisms which are found in different places are known as sister population.
Hill Plains
Local population Local population

Sister population
Meta population – A set of local population which are interconnected by dispersing individuals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION
(i) Birth rate and Death rate :
Population have many features that features are different from a individual. Like individuals have birth
and death, while population has birth rate (Natality) and death rate (Mortality). In a poulation these
rates are called as per capita birth and death. It can be calculated as for example In a pond 20 lotus
plants in last year, 8 new plants are added means current population is 28.
8
So birth rate of population is = 0.4
20
4
If out of 20 lotus plants 4 are died then death rate of populations is = 0.2
20
(ii) Sex ratio :

An individual is either male or female, but a population has sex ratio. i.e., ratio of male and female
like 60% of population are female and 40% are male.
Ecology [28]

(iii) Age pyramid :
(a) A population at any given time is composed of individuals of different ages. If the age distribution
(percent individuals of a given age or age group) is plotted for the population. the resulting structure
is called Age pyramid. For human population, the age pyramid generally show age distribution of males
and females in a combined digram.
(b) Age pyramid reflects the growth status of the population. i.e.,
(A) Growing (B) Stable (C) Declining
(c) Various age groups in a population determine it's reproductive status. In a population three ages
i.e.,Prereproductive, Reproductive and Post reproductive are considered as ecological ages. Distribution
of age groups influence the population growth.
Post-reproductive
Reproductive
Pre-eproductive
Expanding Stable Declining
Fig.: Representation of age pyramids for human population.
(iv) Population Density or Population size :

(a) Population density is total number of individuals present per unit area or volume at a given time. For
example 50 individuals of tree species grown per hectare and 70 individuals of grass cynodon per
square meter. The size of the population is represented by population density.
(b) Census or Counting of human population done every ten year.
(v) Biotic potential and Environmental resistance :
Biotic potential : The inherent maximum capacity of an organism to reproduce or increase in number.
Biotic potential (symbol 'r') can be realised only when environmental conditions are most favourable.
So that natality rate is maximum and mortality rate is minimum. In this condition population size increase
at maximum rate.
Environmental Resistance : The environmental control on population size, on it's biotic potential.
Nature keeps a check on expression of biotic potential. With increase in population size, the environmental
resistance (against population) increase.
Environmental resistance do not allow organisms to attain their biotic potential and keep the population
size at much lower level.
(vi) Population Growth Forms :
Population have characteristics patterns of growth with time known as population growth form. The
growth or size of a population of a species is not a static parameter, but it keep changing time to time,
due to change in biotic (Food avalability, predation pressure) factors and abiotic factors (water, nutrients,
space, weather). But main cause of change in population density in a given habitat during a given period
of time is due to change in four basic processes.
1. Natality 2. Mortality 3. Immigration 4. Emigration
1. Natality :
(a) The increase in number of individuals in a population under given environmental conditions is called
Natality.
Ecology [29]

(b) Birth, Hatching, Germination, Vegetative propogation cause increase in number of individuals of population.
(c) The increase in number of individuals in per unit time is called Natality rate or Birth rate.
2. Mortality :
(a) The loss of individuals due to death in a population under given environmental conditions is called
mortality.
(b) Number of individuals of population on dying over a unit time is called Mortality rate.
3. Immigration :
The number of individuals of some species that have come into habitat from elsewhere during given
period of time.
4. Emigration :
(a) The number of individuals of population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during given time
period.
(b) So if 'N' is population density at time 't' then at time t + 1. It's density is :
Nt + 1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Immigration
(I)
+ Population
Natality – Mortality
Density
(B) (D)
(N)
Emigration
(E)
The population growth forms (Characteristic pattern of growth in unit time) is of two types.
(i) J-shaped or Exponential or Geometric Growth Form
(ii) S-shaped or Sigmoid or Logistic or Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Grwoth Form
1. J-shaped growth : In the case of J-shaped growth from, the population grows exponentially, and
after attaining the peak value, the population may abruptly crash. The exponential growth cannot be
sustained infinitely because not only environment is ever changing, food and space are also limited.
For example, many insect populations show explosive increase in numbers during the rainy season,
followed by their disappearance at the end of the season. The J-shaped growth form is represented by
the following exponential equation :
dN
 rN
dt
Where, dN/dt is the rate of change in population size, ‘r’ is the biotic potential, and ‘N’ is the
population size
2. S-shaped or sigmoid growth form shows an initial gradual increase in population size, followed by
an exponential increase and then a gradual decline to a near-constant level. This slow-down following
Ecology [30]

the exponential phase, occurs due to increasing environmental resistance. In such cases, plotting of the
rate of increase of population over time gives an S-shaped or sigmoid curve.
Generally, the population size stabilieses with time, with minor fluctuations around this upper limit. The
maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained indefinitely in a given habitat,
represents its carrying capacity (K). The S-shaped sigmoid growth from is represented by the following
equation, which includes an expression for environmental resistance:
dN K N   N
 rN   rN1  
dt  K   K
Where, dN/dt, r and N are the same as in the equation for J-shaped growth form, and (K – N)/K or
(1– N/K) stands for environmental resistance.
COMMUNITY :
Biotic community is the organization of populations of
K
different species which are interdependent and interact
No. of individuals
with each other in a habitat. Large number of biotic
communities are found in nature due to Existance of dN
J-shaped  rN
diverse habitat with characterstic environmental dt
conditions and co-occurence of different species whose
tolerance range overlap with environmental conditions
obtained in that habitat.
Time
When similar conditions are repeated at another location
the same biotic community established over there. Each (a)
K
biotic community have ecological characteristics which
No. of individuals
differentiate it from another community.

dN  K N 
Characteristics of Biotic community :  rN 
dt  K 
(i) Species composition - The kinds of species (Plant and
S-shaped  rN 1  N 
Animals) present in a community represents it's species  
 K
composition. Species composition are different in
different biotic communities even in same community, Time
species composition may be different. (b)
(ii) Species Dominance / Dominance - The highest Fig.: Population growth forms :
number of organisms of a species present in a community (a) J-shaped, (b) S-shaped,
K represents the carrying capacity
(in terms of number and biomass) is called dominant
species.
(a) Communities are generally named after their dominant species. For example, forest community with
dominance of pine trees is called Pine forest, grassland community represents dominance of
grasses.
(b) Communities are also named after important environmental factors like desert community with dry
conditions, marine community due to saline conditions of ocean.
(iii) Physiognomy and Stratification :
(a) Physiognomy is external appearance or look of a community.
(b) A community is first noticed by it's Physiognomy.
Ecology [31]

(c) The 'look' or external appearence is the total effect created by the combination of vertical structure
and architecture of dominant species of vegetation. For example, high physiognamy of a forest differ
from low physiognomy of a grassland.
(d) Several communities may have similar physiognomy, yet they differ sharply on basis of species
composition and dominants. For example different forest communities or forest type.
(e) Stratification- It represent the vertical layering of vegetation or different layers occupies by different
species. The vertical stratification provides physical structure to the plant community, in which many
life forms of plants and animals live in.
e.g., stratification in Forest Ecosystem -
Upper most forest canopy formed by large trees then understorey tree layer then Shrub layer then
lower most herb layer.
In a Pond Community upper surface dwellers then lower / bottom dwellers.
Significance of stratification - Vertical stratification leads increase in number of species and leads to
effecient use of resources of a habitat by different types of plants. In aquatic ecosystems, the stratification
from surface to bottom is determined by light penetration, temperature profile and oxygen profile.
(iv) Species Diversity :
(a) More the productive habitat more the diversity of species in a community. For example, coral reef and
tropical rain forest show high species diversity while desert community show low species diversity.
(b) The species diversity includes the total number of species present in community and the relative
abundence of these species.
(c) Species diversity is the most important functional property of a community. (Food chain, Food web)
SUCCESSION
The successive replacement of communities in an area over a period of time is known as succession.
Both biotic and abiotic components are involved in successional changes. Succession is a community
controlled phenomenon, which results due to action and co-action of living organisms. Physical
environment also determines the nature, direction, rate and optimal limit of change during succession.
During succession changes occurs in both plant and animal communities.
Type of Succession :
1. Primary succession - Occurs in the barren area where there was no vegetation previously, e.g.
volcanic lava, esturine soil, mud bank, igoneous rock, sand dunes.
Note : It requires 1000(s) of years.
2. Secondary succession : This type of succession occur where vegetation was present previously but
vegetation was destroyed due to natural or artificial causes i.e. fire, flood, sudden changes in climate,
land slide.
Note : This succession is comparatively more rapid, required 50-100 years for grass land and 100-200
years for forest.
Some other type of succession :

(A) On the basis of Replacement :
(i) Autogenic succession - During this succession, the community reacts with the environment and
changes it. This community is replaced by new community. This is known as autogenic succession.
Ecology [32]

(ii) Allogenic succession - Community is replaced due to external conditions or forces not by existing
vegetation itself. This kind of succession in known as allogenic succession. e.g. Fire, Flood.
(B) On the basis of changes in nutritional and energy contents :
(i) Autotrophic succession - This is succession of plants communities.
(ii) Heterotrophic succession - This is succession of animal communities.
Note : Sometimes succession is in retrogressive direction - e.g. Forest to grass.
Terms :
 Succession in fresh water  Hydrosere
 Succession in salty water  Halosere
 Succession in acidic water  Oxalosere
 Succession at dry Region  Xerosere
 Succession on rocks  Lithosere
 Succession on sand  Psamosere
 Succession at moistened region  Mesosere
 Succession of microbes on decomposed matters  Serula
Characteristics :
(A) Continuous change in communities towards a state of stability or climax.
(B) Increases species-diversity, biomass, niche specialization, humus content.
(C) Decreases - net community productivity or annual yield.
(D) Future seral communities can be predicated as it is a directional process.
Community Structure Seral Stage Climax

Size of Individual Small Large
Ecological Niche Few Many
Community organisation Simple Complex
Community diversity Low High
Community Structure
Food chain & Food web Simple Complex
Effeciency & energy use Low High
Nutrient conservation Low High
(nutrient cycling & Storage)
Heterotrophs Few Low
Competition & Predation Low High
Net community Productivity High Low
r & k - selection 'r'-strategist k-strategist
Causes of Succession :
1. Biotic factors - The action of each seral community (interaction with it’s enviroment) makes the less
favourable for itself and more favourbale for next seral community in the succession.
2. Physiographic factors - These include climatic and other physical factors like soil erosion, soil,
landslide, volcanic lava. These all factors makes an area barren.
Ecology [33]

(a) Plant Formation/Formation  A well developed plant community in any climate is called formation.
Ex.: Tropical forest.
(b) Plant Association/Association  A sub unit of formation. A smaller community of plant formation
with its two or more dominant species is known as association. A formation has many association.
(c) Consociation  Sub unit of association, means a community with a single dominant species.
Process of Succession
The whole process of succession is actually completed through a number of sequential steps, which
follow one another. These steps in sequence are as follows :
1. Nudation –
Formation of bare (nude) areas by natural or artificial causes is called nudation. It is produced through
several agencies or natural calamities such as erosion, deposition, wind, water, gravity, slipping of
glaciers, fire, lightening, volcanic activity, grazing, diseases and by destructive activities of human
beings.
2. Migration –
(a) The seeds, spores or other propagules reach the bare area. This process is known as migration, is
generally brought about by air, water and other factors.
(b) The plant structures carried by water are often designated as disseminules.
(c) The reproductive structures remaining attached to plant and propagating through the soil are called as
propagules.
(d) The first arrivals in a bare area are called pioneers or pioneer colonisers.
3. Ecesis –
(a) After migration the species establish themselves. The process by which the migrants or disseminules
establish in a new place is called ecesis.
(b) In plants, after migration, seeds, spores and propagules germinate, seedlings grow and adult start to
reproduce.
V Climax
4. Aggregation –
E
(a) After ecesis as a result of G Seral - n
reproduction, the individuals of the Forests E
species increases in number and they T Seral - 3
come close to each other. This is A
Shrublands
T
known as aggregation. Seral - 2
I
(b) The three phenomenon i.e. Grasslands O
migration, ecesis and aggregation N Seral - 1
are sometimes collectively called as Small herbs
PIONEERS
invasion.
5. Competition and coaction – Relay of floristics E
Ecesis
(a) After aggregation of a large number N
V Competition
of individuals of the species at the
I
limited space, there develops Reaction
R
competition. The competition may be
P
for food, space, light or other physical Stabilization
N
factors. It may occur between
M
individuals of the same species
E
(intraspecific) or different species N
(interspecific). T
Ecology [34]

(b) Individuals of a species affect each others life in various ways and this is called coaction.
6. Reaction –
(a) This is the most important stage in succession. The organisms living in a locality bring about a change
in the physical environment and this phenomenon is called as reaction.
(b) As a result of reaction, changes take place in soil, water, light conditions, temperature etc. of the
environment. Due to all these the environment is modified, become unsuitable for the existing community
which sooner or later is replaced by another community (seral community).
7. Stabilization –
(a) It is the achivement of complete stability of the dominant species.
(b) In this stage the organisms in the community establish a complete harmony with the climate of the area
and the community structure remains more or less unchanged. At this stage, there is a perfect equilibrium
between abiotic and biotic components of the area.
(c) The final community of dominant species is not replaced by any other group of plants known as climax
community and the stage as climax stage.
IMPORTANT SUCCESSION
(i)Hydrosere :
1.Hydrarch and Hydrosere :
The ecological succession in water (pond, lake and saline water) is called as hydrarch and the stages
though which it occurs collectively, constitute the hydrosere (in pond or lake) or halosere (in saline
water).
The various seral stage of hydrosere are as follows –
(i) Plankton stage : It is the pioneer stage of the hydrosere. It consists of a large number of
phytoplanktons like diatoms, green algae, blue green algae etc. The phytoplankton are consumed by
certain zooplanktons. When planktons die and decompose, they form a very thin layer of humus at the
bottom of the pond or lake.
Pioneer Seral communities Climax

community community
1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Phytoplanity
Rooted submerged Floating Read-swamp Sedge-meadow Woodland Forest
stage
stage stage stage stage stage stage
Blue-green algae, Myriophyllum Nelumbo Scirpus Carex Salix Ulmus

Green algae, Elodea Nymphaea Typha Juncus curmus Acer
Diatoms Hydrilla Limnanthemum Sagittaria Cyperus Populus Quercus
Bacteria etc. Potamogeton Aponogeton Phragmites Eleocharis Alnus
Vallisneria Trapa
Utricularia Monochoria Tropical
Azolla Rain
Lemna
Spiodella
Azolla Tropical
Spirodella Deciduous
Wolffia
Pistia
Salvinia
General trend of succession
Ecology [35]

(ii) Submerged stage – The humus formed by the decomposition of planktons paves way for the arrival
of a new community comprising plants eg. Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Vallisnaria, Utricularia, Najas,
Ceratophyllum etc. As a result of decay of these plants more humus is collected at the bottom of the
pond or lake.
(iii) Floating stage
(a) As more humus and soil is accumulated at the bottom of the pond or lake, it favours introduction of
a new community of plants comprising floating forms. There may be plants rooted in the bottom soil
with floating leaves eg. Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Victoria, Trapa, Ranunculus etc. At places free
floating plants also appear eg. Azolla, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Salvinia, Pistia etc.
(b) These plants completely cover the water surface so the submerged plants do not get sunlight and
gradually disappear raising the bottom of water body, so the depth of the water is much reduced which
disfavours floating plants and thus floating plants also disappear. When these plants decompose, a better
substratum is built up.
(iv) Reed swamp stage (Amphibious stage) – In shallower water amphibian plants begin to grow.
eg. Scirpus, Sagittaria, Typha, Phragmites. These plants transpire huge quantities of water. They
add more silt and humus at the bottom. The water depth is further decreased which favours the next
stage.
(v) Sedge/Marsh meadow stage – Due to loss of huge amount of water through the amphibious plants
accompanied by accumulation of more soil and organic matter, the pond/lake depth reduces further. As
a result, a new community invades comprising plants like Cymbopogon, Carex (sedge), Cyperus,
Juncus. These plants transpire large quantity of water making the soil too dry for the water loving
plants (hydrophytes) to survive. The amount of humus also increases which paves way for the arrival
of another plant community.
(vi) Woodland stage – Rhizome bearing shrubs and small trees capable of tolerating excessive light
and water logged conditions appear on the edge of sedge/marsh meadow eg. Populus (cottonwood),
Salix (willow), Cephalanthus, Alnus, Terminalia, Cornus (Bogwood)
(vii) Forest stage or climax forest – This is the final and climax community. The woodland community
is rapidly invaded by well adapted, self maintaining and uniform plant community consisting of several
woody trees.
The nature of the climax is dependent upon the climate of the region. In tropical regions with
heavy rainfall, there develop tropical rain forests but in temperate regions mixed forests are
formed. They comprise plants like Quercus, Acer, Ulmus, Abies, Picea, Taxus etc.
Ecology [36]

Diagrametic representation of primary succession
Xerarch or Xerosere :
The ecological succession taking place in a dry area is called as xerarch. The stages through which
it occurs on a bare rock constitute the lithosere or on a sand-dune constitute the psamosere. Here
we will discuss only the lithosere.
The various seral stage of lithosere are as follows :
(i) Crustose lichen stage –
(a) Bare rocks are completely devoid of moisture and nutrients. So in such extremely dry habitats only
crustose lichens make their foot hold as pioneers. The introduction of these plants takes place
through the spores or soridia.
(b) Some common crustose lichens are Rhizocarpon, Lecanora, Graphis, Rhinodina etc. These lichens
produce carbonic acid which corrodes the rock forming fine mineral particles (soil particles).
(c) The dead remains of these lichens get mixed with the rock particles. This invites another community
to invade upon the rock replacing the previous community.
(d) In tropics, blue green algae are pioneers instead of lichens.
(ii) Foliose lichen stage –
(a) Slowly the foliose lichens begin to colonise upon the rock previously pioneered by crustose lichens.
These are leaf like, covering more areas on the rocks. They secrete more acids which enhance soil
formation and a thin layer of soil over the rock surface is formed.
Ecology [37]

(b) The common foliose lichens are Parmelia, Umbilicaria, Dermatocarpon etc. These lichens causes
introduction of an other community.
(iii) Moss stage – The formation of thin layer of soil on the rocks favours the growth of certain xerophytic
mosses like Polytrichum, Funaria, Tortula, Barbula, Grimmia etc. These erect moss plants
accumulate more humus rich soil. Some fruticose lichens like Cladonia, Usnea etc. may also grow
with the mosses.
(iv) Annual grass stage – Annual hardy grasses and herbs invade the humus rich moss dominated rock
surface, e.g. Aristida, Poa. etc. Their roots cause fragmentation of the rock, creating more soil, humus
and moisture.
(v) Perrenial grass stage – Perrenial grasses invade the annual grass dominated surface, eg. Cymbopogon,
Heteropogon etc. Besides, ferns like Adiantum, Asplenium, Actinopteris also appear. By further
weathering of the rock, more soil is formed. The decomposition of plant material builds up a better layer
of substratum that invites yet another plant community to colonise the rock.
(vi) Shrub stage – Enough soil is formed in the herbaceous stage (grass stage) which support the growth
of woody shrubs, which migrate with the help of seeds etc. from the adjoining areas. eg. Fragaria,
Rubus, Rhus, Capparis, Zizyphus etc. These plants can tolerate bright sunlight. They increase soil
and humus content besides moisture.
(vii) Forest stage or climax forest – Initially hardy, light demanding small xerophytic trees invade the
area. They make the habitat shadier and more moist. The xerophytic trees are gradually dominated by
mesophytic trees. The dominant trees of wet temperate area include conifers, oaks, birches and
maples. The warmer areas show dominance of plants like Acacia, Prosopis, Balanites, Boswellia
etc. They represent the climax vegetation which is not replaced.
Pioneer Seral communities Climax

community community
1 2 3 4 5 6
Crustose lichen Foliose lichen Moss Herb Shrub Forest
stage stage stage stage stage stage
Rhizocarpon Parmelia Polytrichum Aristida Rhus Mesophytic

Rinodina Dermato-carpon Tortula Festuca Phyto- trees
Lecanora Grimmia Poa Carpus
General trend of succession
ECOLOGICAL INTERDEPENDENCE AND ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS

Ecological Interdependence : Members of biotic community in an area are dependent on one another
mainly for food, space, reproduction and protection. These interaction are important for survival of
different species and the community.
(1) Positive or beneficial interaction - One or both the interacting species are benefitted but niether is
harmed.
(2) Negative interaction - One or both interacting species is harmed.
(1) Positive or Beneficial Interactions :- It is wide spread phenomenon, it includes  mutualism,
commensalism, protocooperation
(A) Mutualism (+/+) or Symbiosis : (co-evolution)
Positive interspecific interation in which members of two different species completely depend on each
Ecology [38]

other for growth and survival, physcial contact is present in between both the interacting species. It
is obligatory relationship. Both are benifited.
(i) Mutualism between animal and animal - e.g. Termites and Flagellates (Trichonympha)
(ii) Mutualism between plant and animal - e.g. (a) Zoochlorella and Hydra, (b) Yucca plant folwers
and Pronuba insects - Pollination of yucca plant by pronuba (Female yucca moth)
(iii) Mutualism between plant and becteria - e.g. legume plant and Rhizobium
(vi) Mutualism between algae and higher plant - e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena with Anthoceros, Azolla and
coralloid root of cycas plant.
(v) Mutualism between algae and fungi - e.g. 'Lichens', This association is known as Helotism. In this
association two organism behaves as a master and slave.
(vi) Mutualism between fungi and higher plants - e.g. Mycorrihizal association - Boletus in roots of
pinus.
(vii) Fig tree and wasp species.
In many species of fig trees, the female wasp uses the fruit not only as an oviosition (egg-laying)
site but uses the developing seeds with in the fruit for nourishing its larval. The wasp pollinates the fig
inflorescence while searching for suitable egg-laying sites. In return for the favour of pollination the fig
offers the wasp some of its developoing seeds, as food for the developing wasp larvae.
(viii) Bees and orchid flower.
The mediterrranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘’sexual deceit’’ to get pollination done by a species of bee.
One petal of its flower resemblance to the female of the bee in size, colour and markings. The male
bee is attaracted to what it perceives as a female, pseudocopulates with the flower and during that
process is dusted with pollen from the flower, it transfers pollen to it and thus, pollinates the flower.
(B) Proto-cooperation (+/+) - Association in which both organisms are benefited but can live separately.
It is a facultative or optional or occuasional association also called as non-obligatory relationship. e.g.
(i) Hermit crab and Sea anemone
(ii) Tick bird (Red-biled or yellow biled) and Rhinoceros
(iii) Crocodile and Bird
(iv) Scavening - Association in which one partner called scavenger or saprobiont, eats the dead boides of
other animals, which have naturally or killed by another animal. e.g. Jackal, Vulture, Ant, Crow
(C) Commensalism (+ / 0) -
Association between members of two species in which one is benefitted while other is almost unaffected.
(i) Lianas - are woody plnats. Their roots are present in soil but their stem use other plant or object for
support to get better light. They are found in dense forest. No nutritional relationship. Lianas are the
speciality of tropical rain forest. e.g. Bauhinia, Tinospora
(ii) Epiphytes - Small plants grow on other plnats in tropical rain forest. They utilise only the space of host
plant for light and humidity. e.g. Orchids, Hanging mosses
(iii) Epizones - Those animals which depends on plants or other animals.
Sucker fish (Echeneis) - Shark
Pilot fish - Shark
E. coli becteria - Intestine of man
Clown fish - Whale
Barnacles - Whale
Cattle egret birds - Cattle
Ecology [39]

(2) Negative Interaction (Antagonism)/Detrimental
Two type of negative ineraction are following
(A) Exploitation (B) Amensalism
(A) Exploitation - One species harms the other by making its direct or indirect use for support,
shelter or food.It is of three types :
1. Competition 2. Parasitism 3. Predation
1. Competition (–, –)  Interaction in which the fitness of one species is significantly lowers in the
presence of another species. According to Darwin the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
in nature, shown that interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
Cheracteristion of Competition :-
(a) It is generally believed that competition occur when closely related species compete for the same
resources that are limiting, but this is not entirely true because totally unrelated species could also
compete for the same resource e.g. in some shallow South America lakes flamingoes and resident
fishes compete for their common food.
Resources need not be limiting for competition to occur; in interference competition, the feeding
efficiency of one species might be reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory presence of the other
species, even if resources (Food and Space) are abundant.
(b) Competition is best defined as a process in which the fitness of one species (measured in term of
its 'r' the intrinsic rate of increase) is significantly lower in the presence of another species.
(c) Strong and persuasive circumstantial evidence does exist, however in some cases. The Abingdon
tortoise in Galapagos Island exinct within a decade after goats were introduced on the island, apparently
due to the greater browsing efficiency of the goats. This is called 'competitive release'.
(d) A species whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical area because of the presence of a
competitively superior species, is found to expand its distributional range dramatically when the competing
species is experimentally removed.
(e) Connell's elegant field experiments showed that on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, the larger and
competitively superior barnacle Barlanus dominates the intertidal area, and excludes the smaller
barnacle Chathamalus from that zone. In general, herbivores and plants appear to be more adversely
affected by competition than carnivores.
(f) Guase's 'Competitive Exclusion Principle' states that two closely related species competing for the
same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually.
This may be true if resources are limiting but not otherwise. More recent studies do not support such
gross generalisation about competition.
(g) While they do not rule out the occurence of interspecific competition in nature, they point out that
species facing competition might evovle mechanisms that promote co-existence rather than exclusion.
(h) One such mechanism is 'resource partitioning'. If two species compete for the same resource, they
could avoid competetion by choosing, for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging
patterns.
(i) MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warbler living on the same tree were able to
compete and co-exist due to behavioural difference in their foraging activities.
2. Parasitism (+ / – )  This association involves individuals of two species of different size in which
smaller (Parasite) is benefitted and larger (host) is harmed. The parasite gets nourishment and shelter
from host but does not kill the host.
Ecology [40]

Type of Parasite :
(a) Ectoparasite  lives on the body of host
(i) Ectozooparasite - Leech on cattle, ticks on dogs, copepods on marine fish and lice, mospquitoes,
sandfly live on man
(ii) Ectophytoparasite - Amphids, Lac insects, Red cotton bug
(b) Endoparasites  live in the body of host
(i) Tapweorm, Taenia, Ascaris, Entamoeba  live in intestine of man.
(ii) Plasmodium  live in R.B.C. of human.
(iii) Hyper parasitism  A parasite living on another parasite. e.g. plasmodium on female anopheles
mosquito, Bacteriophages on bacteria.
(vi) Brood parasitism  Parasitism in which the parasitic bird (cuckoo) lays its eggs in the nest of its host
(crow) and lets the host incubate them, this relation is known as brood parasitism.
(v) Holo parasitism  Parasite which are totally dependent upon the host for their requirement e.g.
Rofflesia, (Total root parasite), Cuscuta (Total stem parasite)
(vi) Hemiparasite  Parasite which partially depend on the host.
1. Viscum  on oak 
e.g.  both are partial stem parasite.
2. Laranthus  on mango 
3. Santualum – partial root parasite.

Note : Arceuthobium is the smallest parasite.
3. Predation (+ / – ) : A free living organism which catches and kills another species for
food.
1. Insectivores fungi - Dactylella, Dactylaria, Arthorobotrys, Feeds upon small insects and
protozoans.
2. Carnivoroes animals - Lion, snake
3. Insectivores plants - Drosera, Utricularia, Nepenthes
Significance of predators :
(a) Predators acting as conduits for energy transfer across tropic levels, they keep prey populations under
control The prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920's caused havoc by spreading
rapidly into millions of hectacres of rangeland. Finally, the invasive cactus was brought under control
only after a cactus feeding predator (a moth) from its natural habitat was introduced into the country.
(b) Pest control are based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey population. Predator also help
in maintaining species diversity in community, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed
intertidal area, more than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year because of inerspecific
competition.
(c) If a predator is too efficient and overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct and the
predator will also become extinct due to lack of food. This is reason why predators in nature are
'prudent'. The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to it's predator birds because of a special
chemical presents in its body. The butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar stage by feeding
on poisonous weed.
(d) About 25% of all insects are phytophagous (feeding on plant parts and plant sap) are predators. Plants
have specific adaptations or morphological and chemical defence against herbivores.
Ecology [41]

(i) Throns - in Acacia, Cactus.
(ii) Many plant produce and store chemicals that can make herbivore sick or inhibits feeding or distrupt
digestion reproduction or even kill.
(e) Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides and that is why you never see any cattle or
goats browsing on this plant. A wide variety of chemical substances that we extract from plants on a
commercial scale (nicotine, caffeine, quinin, strychnine, opium, etc....,) are produced by them actually
as defences against grazers and browsers.
(B) Amensalism (– / 0) : In this interaction one species is inhibited by toxic secretion of another
spcies. Inhibitor is neither benefitted nor harmed. There are two type of Amensalism,
1. Antibiosis & 2. Allelopathy.
1. Antibiosis - Serection of antibiotics -
(a) Penicillium fungi secretes penicillin which inhibits growth of Staphylococcus bacteria.
(b) Chlorella algae secretes bacteriocytes which not only kill but also inhibit growth of
the bacteria.
(c) Microcystis (BGA) secretes hydroxyl amine, this causes the death of fishes.
2. Allelopathy - Trans cinnamic acid is secreted by Parthenium which inhibits the growth of some plants
like Cassia tora and Vinca regia. This pnenomenon is known as allelopathy, e.g Sunflower, Barley,
Sorguhm, Occimum also show allelopathy. Chemicals which kill or inhibit the growth of other organism.
That chemical known as Depressants. e.g. Parthenium
Population Interactions
Species A Species B Name of Interaction
+ + Mutualism
– – Competition
+ – Predation
+ – Parasitism
+ 0 Commensalism
– 0 Amensalism
SPECIAL POINT
(A) Sliver oak shows autopathy - It destroys own seed.
(B) Allochemics - Chemicals secreted by a species are knwon as allochemics.
Types of allochemics
1. Allamon - Chemicals which repel other enemies is called allamon
e.g. Cuttle fish (Sepia)
2. Kairmons - the chemicals secreted by one organism benefits the another organism
e.g. Nematodes in soil  stimulate growth of fungi.
(C) Cannabalism  organisms eaten by own species.
e.g. cockroach, termites
Ecology [42]

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Competition for nutrients, food, light and space Q.9 Mark the hyperparasite –
is more severe between two – (1) Bacterio phage (2) Bird
(1) Unrelated species occupying different niches (3) Tape worm (4) Man
(2) Unrelated species occupying the same niche Q.10 Occurrence of zoochlorellae in the body wall of
(3) Closely related species occupying different Hydra is an example of –
niches
(1) Predation
(4) Closely related species occupying the same
(2) Mutualism or symbiosis
niche
(3) Commensalism
Q.2 In commensalism –
(1) Both partners are harmed (4) Food chain involving a parasite
(2) Both partners are benefited Q.11 Relationship between nitrogen fixing bacteria and
(3) None of the partners benefited a legume plant is described as –
(4) Weaker partner is benefited (1) Parasitic (2) Saprophytic
Q.3 Symbiosis means – (3) Commensal (4) Mutualistic
(1) Living apart with benefit to one and harm Q.12 Zone of transition, presenting a situation of special
to another partner ecological interest between two types of
(2) Living together with benefit to both partners communities is called as -
(3) Living together with benefit to one partner (1) Ecad (2) Ecotype
(4) Living together without harm (3) Ecotone (4) None of these
Q.4 When one organism inhibits another organism Q.13 The interspecific competition is also called as–
without a significant gain (OR) Antagonism
(1) Synnectrosis (2) Allelopathy
between two organism through gases or
(3) Scramble competition
allochemicals is called –
(4) Interference competition
(1) Parasitism (2) Mutalism
Q.14 The following relationship does not correspond
(3) Amensalism (4) Commensalism
Q.5 The relationship between the alga Microcystis to mutualism –
and the surrounding fauna corresponds to – (1) Mycorrhiza (2) Epiphytism
(1) Exploitation (2) Parasitism (3) Zoochory (4) Zoophily
(3) Amensalism (4) Predation Q.15 The relationship between a climber and the host
Q.6 A component produced by one organism which corresponds to –
inhibit the growth of another organism is– (1) Mutualism (2) Parasitism
(1) Antiallergic (2) Anticoagulant (3) Neutralism (4) Commensalism
(3) Antibiotic (4) Antiseptic Q.16 The protoco-operation is also called as –
Q.7 Mycorrhizae is a symbiotic association (1) Facultative predation
between– (2) Facultative parasitism
(1) Fungi and roots of higher plants
(3) Non-obligatory mutualism
(2) Algae and roots of gymnosperms
(4) Non-commensalism
(3) Algae and bryophytes
Q.17 When food is obtained by killing of host in which
(4) Algae and fungi
the stronger partner is benefitted and host is
Q.8 Carrot grass/ congress grass (Parthenium) exhibit
damaged such an interaction is said to be –
allelopathy by virtue of the production of –
(1) Alkaloids and glycosides (1) Competition (2) Antibiosis
(2) Abscisic acid (3) Predation (4) Parasitism
(3) Protocaterchuic acid Q.18 Secondary succession occurs on –
(4) Hydrocynic acid and transcinnamic acid (1) Burnt lands (2) Humus rich soil
(3) Cut wood lands (4) All of these
Ecology [43]

Q.19 Plant succession is a ..........process – Q.29 Congress Grass produce an acid which inhibit
(1) Unimportant (2) Haphazard growth of other plant is
(3) Definite (4) None of these (1) HCN
(2) Trans cinnamic acid
Q.20 The term succession was coined by –
(3) Oxalic acid
(1) Hult (2) Tansley
(4) Indole aceteic acid
(3) Kormondy (4) Hodges
Q.30 Brood parasitism is shown by
Q.21 The natural process by which different groups (1) Koel (2) Crow
or communities colonize the same area over a (3) Koel & Crow both (4) Crocodile
period of time in a definite sequence is called–
Q.31 Complete the following equation by putting one
(1) Succession (2) Adaptation of the following option respectively. For constant
(3) Biological rhythm (4) Variation size population : Birth + ..... = Death + ........
Q.22 In any lithosere the pioneer community is – (1) emigration, immigration,
(1) Blue green algae (2) Crustose lichen (2) immigration, emigration
(3) Foliose lichens (4) Mosses (3) emigration, population density
(4) immigration, population density
Q.23 Due to modification of the environment by the
Q.32 A total parasite is nutritionally
plant community itself, when one community is
replaced by another suitable community, the (1) A photoautotroph
succession is called as – (2) A chemoautotroph
(3) A photoheterotroph
(1) Induced (2) Autogenic
(4) A chemoheterotrophs
(3) Migration (4) Allogenic
Q.33 Which of the following does not show
Q.24 Serule is –
commensalism
(1) Hydrosere (1) Epiphytes growing on a tree
(2) Microbial succession (2) Rhizobium in Soyabean
(3) Biosere (3) Small fish surviving on the excrets of large fish
(4) Lithosere (4) E.coli residing in the intestine of human
Q.25 In a hydrosere, the submerged stage is followed Q.34 Which of the following ecological relationship
by – between pairs of organism is different from the
other pairs
(1) Sedges (2) Reed-swamps
(1) Fish - Algae (2) Cow - Grass
(3) Floating plants (4) Phytoplanktons
(3) Fungus - Wheat (4) Giraffe - Shrub
Q.26 Overlapping zone between two biomes is-
Q.35 An algae is often seen growing on the shell of
(1) Ecotone (2) Ecosphere turtle this type of relationship is called
(3) Ecosystem (4) Ecotype (1) Mutualism (2) Commensalism
Q.27 Which of the biomes exhibit distinct stratification (3) Parasitism (4) Predation
into stories- Q.36 Which of the following set of value would result
(1) Temperate biome in a population with a grwoth rate of zero
(2) Chapparal biome b = birth d = death
(3) Tundra biome i = immigration e = emigration
(4) Tropical rainforest biome (1) b = 1000 d = 500 i = 750 e = 1000
(2) b = 1000 d = 500 i = 1000 e = 1000
Q.28 Which is a predacious fungai
(3) b = 1000 d = 500 i = 1500 e = 1000
(1) Arthrobotrys (2) Rhizopus
(4) b = 1000 d = 500 i = 500 e = 1000
(3) Pyronema (4) Polyporus
Ecology [44]

Q.37 Which of the following is least likely to result in Q.46 What will form a new species
density dependent effects on growth of natural (1) differential reproduction
population (2) Inbreeding
(1) Interspecific competition (3) Variation (4) None of the above
(2) Parasitism Q.47 Alturistic behaviour is found in
(3) Disease (1) Spotted dear (2) Honey Bee
(4) Increased rain fall (3) Termite (4) All of the above
Q.38 Maximum parental care is present in Q.48 Crow also incubates the eggs of
(1) Pigeon (2) Dove
(1) Tadpole (2) Primates
(3) Koel (4) Weaver bird
(3) Koel (4) Crow
Q.49 The population of a place tends to increase when
Q.39 Probiosis (Both benifitted) includes-
(1) Predation increases
(1) Mutualism
(2) Emigration occur
(2) Proto co-operation
(3) Immigration occur
(3) Commensalism (4) Reproductivity decrease
(4) 1 & 2 Both Q.50 Two different species can not live for long
Q.40 Biological contraol of weeds and pests is largely duration in the same niche or habitat. This law
based on is called
(1) Pray predator interaction (1) Allen's law (2) Gause's law
(2) Host parasite interaction (3) Jorden's law (4) Weisman's theory
(3) Antibiosis (4) Allelopathy Q.51 Which of the following are characterstic feature
Q.41 Which of the following chemical compound help of population
in transmitting the massage to other member of (1) Birth rate (2) Death rate
same species - (3) Sex ratio (4) All of the above
(1) Hormone (2) Ptyalin Q.52 Inhibitation of growth of plants by release of
(3) Pheromones (4) None certain chemicals by higher plants is called
(1) Antibiosis (2) Allelopathy
Q.42 Genetically adaptive population to a particular
(3) Predation (4) None of these
habitat is
Q.53 Species present in only one community is known
(1) Ecotone (2) Ecotype
as
(3) Ecosphere (4) Ecology
(1) Ubiquitous species (2) Exclusive species
Q.43 Which one of the following is protective device
(3) Dominat species (4) None of the above
(1) Camouflage (2) Competition Q.54 Species which is present in many communities
(3) Symbiosis (4) Commensalism is called
Q.44 A smoother crop is which (1) ubiquitous species (2) endemic species
(1) Does not require much irrigation (3) exclusive species (4) dominant species
(2) Is easier to harvest Q.55 Negative interaction is also known as
(3) Is immune to most of pathogen (1) Allelopathy (2) Antagonism
(4) Does not allow to grow weed (3) Antibiosis (4) Competition
Q.45 The number of individual of a species in Q.56 Chemical which is secreted by walnut and inhibit
particular habitat remain constant at a given time growth of apple is
due to (1) HCN (2) Juglon
(1) Man (2) Predator (3) Trans cinnemic acid
(3) Parasite (4) Available food (4) Walnum
Ecology [45]

Q.57 Bee dance is a mode of Q.64 Which of the following is not an example of
(1) Mating (2) Grouping predation
(3) reproduction (4) Communications (1) Browsing by goats
Q.58 The carrying capacity of a population mean - (2) Killing of deer by lion
(3) Killing of small fish by shark
(1) The rate at which the density of individual
(4) Ticks on dogs
increase over time
Q.65 Which equation shows exponetial growth
(2) The maximum number of individual which
(1) dN/dt = – rN (2) dN/dt = rN
can be supported in a given environment
K –N
(3) The proportion of individual which are most (3) dN/dt = rN  K 
 
responsible for population growth
K N
(4) The minimum number of individual necessary (4) dN/dt = rN  
 K 
to avoid extinction Q.66 J shaped curve is formed in
Q.59 Which of the following intercation is not a (1) Logistic growth (2) Exponetial growth
positive interaction (3) Limited growth (4) 2 & 3 Both
(1) Flower and pollinator Q.67 S shaped growth curve is obtained in
(2) Plant & herbivore (1) Logistic growth (2) Exponetial growth
(3) Legume plant and N2 fixing organism (3) Limited growth (4) 1 & 2 Both
(4) Lichen Q.68 Among the following a partial parasite is
(1) Bacteria (2) Fungi
Q.60 The most important factor regulating seasonal
(3) Viscum (4) 1 & 2 Both
migration is
Q.69 Which of the following counter acts biotic
(1) Change in air temperatue
potential
(2) Change in day length
(1) Limitation of food suply
(3) Reduced availability of food (2) Predation
(4) Increased predator pressure (3) Competiton
Q.61 The actual rate of growth of population is the (4) All of the above
difference between the Q.70 Parasite can be best explained as an organism
(1) Number of adult and number of new born which depends on
(2) Size last year and size this year (1) others for food
(3) Number of breeding and non breeding (2) others for shelter
individual (3) others for food & shelter
(4) Birth rate & Death rate (4) others for reproduction
Q.62 Which equation shows logistic growth Q.71 What is the most important factor for success
for population
K N
(1) dN/dt = rN  K  (1) Natality
 
(2) dN/dt = rN (2) Unlimited food
(3) Adaptabiltiy
(3) dN/dt = rN(1+N/K) (4) Nt = N0ert
(4) Interspecific competition
Q.63 The number of individual in reproductive age is
Q.72 Proportion of young individual is heighest in
more than prereproductive phase in
(1) Declining population
(1) Declining population
(2) Stable population
(2) Stable population
(3) 1 & 2 Both
(3) Expanding population (4) Expanding population
(4) None
Ecology [46]

Q.73 When a population reches upto carrying capacity Q.83 Which group of plants has to face physiological
of environment than dryness -
(1) Mortality rate = Birth rate (1) Hydrophytes (2) Epiphytes
(2) Mortality rate > Birth rate (3) Lithophytes (4) Halophytes
(3) Mortality rate < Birth rate Q.84 Which type of plants possess aerenchyma like
(4) None of the above those of hydrophytes; thick leathery leaves with
Q.74 Some frogs are cryptically coloured to aviod cutinized epidermis & presence of resin & tannin
(1) Competition (2) Antibiosis in cortical cells like those of xerophytes and cells
(3) Predation (4) Amensalism with high osmotic pressure like those of
Q.75 Variety of different life forms in shallow pond succulents -
constitute (1) Desert xerophytes (2) Lithophytes
(1) Ecosystem (2) Community (3) Succulents (4) Mangroves
(3) Population (4) Biome Q.85 Hydrilla is a or Vallisneria and Hydrilla are
Q.76 Higher root : shoot ratio is found in - example of –
(1) Epiphytes (2) Hydrophytes (1) Floating and anchored
(3) Halophytes (4) Psammophytes (2) Suspended hydrophyte
Q.77 In xerophytes, longer root system are found (3) Submerged hydrophyte
because - (4) A free floating hydrophyte
(1) Roots grow deeper to absorb water from Q.86 Which among the following could be deviod of
deep water tables roots -
(2) They give mechanical support to the plant (1) Epiphyte (2) Parasite
(3) Low temperature at night encourages root (3) Hydrophyte (4) Mesophyte
growth Q.87 In which of the following plants, the metabolism
(4) Hight temperature of soils encourages root would be hindered if the leaves are coated with
growth wax or vaseline on thier upper surface -
Q.78 Vegetation of Sunder bans is - (1) Trapa (2) Vallisneria
(1) Desert type (3) Hydrilla (4) Lotus
(2) Temperate evergreen Q.88 Wax coating on leaves is a characteristic of-
(3) Mangrove type (1) Floating hydrophyte
(4) Monsoon type (2) Mesophyte
Q.79 Which of the following are xerophytes ? (3) Xerophyte
(1) Psammophytes (2) Lithophytes (4) submerged hydrophytes
(3) Halophytes (4) All the above Q.89 Glazed and shining leathery leaf surface and the
Q.80 Which of the plants have no leaves but green presence of sclerenchymatous hypodermis in
stems - leaves is the characteristic feature of -
(1) Hydrophytes (2) Xerophytes (1) Epiphytes (2) Cold xerophytes
(3) Mesophytes (4) Hot xerophytes
(3) Mesophytes (4)Epiphytes parasites
Q.90 Plants growing near sea shore will usually have
Q.81 In Opuntia the leaves are modified into-
xerophytic characters like thick leaves because-
(1) Scales (2) Spines
(1) Light available to the plants is not sufficient
(3) Stolons (4) Phylloclades
(2) There is plenty of water in the soil
Q.82 Water storage tissue & succulent nature is
characteristics of - (3) There is too high concentration of salts for
the plants to absorb sufficient water from
(1) Hydrophytes (2) Halophytes
soil
(3) Mesophytes (4) Xerophytes
(4) The soil is muddy
Ecology [47]

Q.91 Mangrove vegetation is found in - Q.100 Which is halophyte of saline soil of Haryana and
(1) Western Ghats (2) Sunderbans Rajasthan -
(3) Kullu valley (4) Dehradun valley (1) Salicornia (2) Suada
Q.92 A plant that completes its life cycle before the (3) Salsola (4) All of the above
onset of dry conditions fall into which of the Q.101 Which one of the following sets consists only of
following categories - xerophytic plants
(1) Short day plants (1) Subabool, teak, Eucalyptus, mango
(2) Mangroves (2) Banyan, Acacia, Zizyphus, Teak
(3) Drought escaping (3) Safflower, Eucalyptus, Asparagus, Acaci
(4) Amphibious hydrophyte (4) Acacia, Prosopis, Zizyphus, Opuntia
Q.93 In general, a plant most likely to survive in areas Q.102 Root cap is absent in
where temperature is high, relative humidity is (1) Halophytes (2) Hydrophytes
low and wind prevalent, would have- (3) Mangrooves (4) Mesophytes
(1) Small and narrow leaves Q.103 Which of the following is a hydrophyte-
(1) Mimosa (2) Neptunia oleracea
(2) Large and broad leaves
(3) Trapa (4) Albizzia julibrissin
(3) Large intercellular spaces
Q.104 Which of the following is amphibious in nature?
(4) Reduced palisade tissue
(1) Ranunculus (2) Hydrilla
Q.94 Pneumatophores and viviparous germination are
(3) Vallisneria (4) Trapa
found in -
Q.105 Which of the following is not a water plant or
(1) Opuntia (2) Jussiaea
hydrophyte-
(3) Rhizophora (4) Eichhornia
(1) Bladderwort (2) Water melon
Q.95 Desert grasses often roll their leaves to -
(3) Vallisneria (4) Trapa
(1) Check loss of water by transpiration Q.106 Root less insectivorous plants is -
(2) Protect growing apex (1) Dionaea (2) Cuscuta
(3) Reduce respiration (3) Drosera (4) Utricularia
(4) Expose to light more chlorenchymatous tissue Q.107 Heterophyllous plants are common among -
present near the lower epidermis (1) Free floating hydrophytes
Q.96 Presence of lacunate cortex, spicules, sclereids, (2) Submerged hydrophytes
oil cells and water storage tissue are (3) Amphibious or emergent rooted hydrophytes
characteristic of - (4) Suspended hydrophytes
(1) Hydrophyte (2) Halophyte Q.108 What type of leaves are present in Ranunculus
(3) Xerophyte (4) Heliophyte aquatilis -
Q.97 Photosynthetic and respiratory gaseous (1) Simple (2) Heterophyllous
exchange in hydrophytes occure through - (3) Homophyllous (4) Pinnately compound
(1) Lenticels (2) Stomata Q.109 In true (submerged) hydrophytes stomata are
(3) Epidermis (4) Hydathodes present on -
Q.98 Root is feebly developed and stem is soft and (1) Upper epidermis
buoyant in - (2) Lower epidermis
(1) Sciophytes (2) Halophytes (3) Not present on any part
(3) Hydrophytes (4) Heliophytes (4) Present on both sides of leaf
Q.99 The cells for rolling down of lamina in grasses Q.110 The vascular plants which are devoid of stomata
to reduce transpiration are - and hydathodes -
(1) Sunken stomata (2) Subsidiary cells (1) Pteridophytes (2) Gymnosperms
(3) Bulliform cells (4) Guard cells (3) Spermatophytes (4) Hydrophytes
Ecology [48]

Q.111 Water plants usually have a well developed- Q.121 Sunken stomata & multiple epidermis is found
(1) Root system (2) Aerenchyma in the leaves of -
(3) Vascular system (4) Stomatal system (1) Nelumbium (2) Nerium
Q.112 Swollen petiole of Eichhornia is made up of- (3) Neem (4) Maize
(1) Parenchyma (2) Chlorenchyma Q.122 Reduced leaves, thick cuticle & sunken stomata
(3) Aerenchyma (4) Collenchyma protected by hairs are the characteristics of -
Q.113 Which hydrophytes have a well developed roots, (1) Xerophytes (2) Mesophytes
vascular tissues & stomata - (3) Hydrophytes (4) Halophytes
(1) Submerged types (2) Suspended types Q.123 The characteristics of water storage tissue is-
(3) Amphibious types (4) Free floating types (1) Large sized cells
Q.114 Which of the following is an amphibious plant (2) Cell walls thin
and bear dimorphic leaves- (3) Presence of mucilage
(1) Chlorella (2) Hydrilla
(4) Presence of vacuoles
(3) Vallisneria (4) Ranunculus
Q.124 Which plant tolerates salinity -
Q.115 Grasses & many crop plants which possess
(1) Hydrophte (2) Halophyte
hydathodes & exhibit guttation are -
(3) Mesophyte (4) Xerophyte
(1) Hydrophytes (2) Mesophytes
Q.125 Which group of plants grow in saline situations
(3) Xerophytes (4) Halophytes
and face physiological dryness -
Q.116 Plants growing in hot climate in nonsaline loose
(1) Lithophytes (2) Halophytes
soil are -
(3) Hydrophytes (4) Epiphytes
(1) Xerophytes (2) Halophytes
Q.126 Which of the following is an efficient sand binder
(3) Mesophytes (4) Lithophytes
of Rajasthan desert -
Q.117 In high mountains, there is a lot of moisture and
(1) Dalbergia latifolia (2) Prosopis
water yet the plants are xerophytes because -
(1) Water turns into snow on mountains (3) Tectona grandis (4) Cassia fistula
(2) Water runs away due to the presence of Q.127 Which of the following are plants of one group-
slopes and cannot be used by plants (1) Mangifera & Rhizophora
(3) Rocks of mountains cannot absorb water (2) Rhizophora & Avicinia
(4) None of these (3) Rhizophora & Balanophora
Q.118 Desert plants are generally - (4) Balanophora & Avicinia
(1) Less chlorophyllous (2) Heterophyllous Q.128 Upper part of Sea/aquatic ecosystem contains
(3) Herbaceous (4) Succulents (1) Nekton (2) Benthos
Q.119 Plants growing in xerophytic conditions have (3) Plankton
(1) Extensive development of shoot (4) Plankton and nekton
(2) Extensively developed roots and small & Q.129 The upper vertical zone of ocean upto the depth
thick leaves of 200 meters is known as-
(3) Extensive development of air spaces (1) Aphotic zone (2) Abyssal zone
(4) Large flowers (3) Photic zone (4) None of these
Q.120 Cladode, phylloclade & phyllode are the Q.130 In an aqueous environment, microscopic animals
characterstic of - and plants are collectively known as-
(1) Mesophytes (2) Xerophytes (1) Herbivore (2) Commensals
(3) Epiphytes (4) Hydrophytes (3) Flora and fauna (4) Plankton
Ecology [49]

Q.131 Which of the following can be recognised as a Q.142 The major source of water to the soil is -
major environment in the ocean basin - (1) Ground water (2) Capillary water
(1) Pelagic zone (2) Littoral zone (3) Precipitation (4) Flood water
(3) Benthonic zone (4) All of these Q.143 A soil is said to be fertile when -
Q.132 Shallow lakes with abundant organic matter (1) It is rich in organic matter
are-
(2) It has capacity to hold water
(1) Eutrophic (2) Heterotrophic
(3) It has a capacity to hold nutrients
(3) Oligotrophic (4) Saprotrophic
(4) It holds water & all essential nutrients in a
Q.133 Nutrient enrichment of lakes is called-
definite proportion
(1) Biochemical oxygen demand
Q.144 What is the best pH of the soil for cultivation of
(2) Green house effect
plants -
(3) Eutrophication
(1) 3.4 – 5.4 (2) 6.5 – 7.5
(4) Biomagnification
(3) 4.5 – 8.5 (4) 5.5 – 6.5
Q.134 Endemic plants -
Q.145 Forests near equator region are called -
(1) Cosmopolitan
(1) Deciduous
(2) Occur in a particular area
(2) Tropical rain forests
(3) Occur at high altitudes
(3) Coniferous forests
(4) Occur on north pole
(4) Temperate forests
Q.135 Ecology name proposed by -
Q.146 Animals of desert are -
(1) Tansley (2) Reiter
(3) Carl (4) Sukhachev (1) Arboreal (2) Fassoiral
Q.136 The study of interaction between living (3) Crepuscular (4) Nocturnal
organisms and environment is called - Q.147 Insectivorous plants grow in the soil which is
(1) Ecosystem (2) Phytology deficient in -
(3) Ecosystem (4) Ecology (1) Mg (2) Ca
Q.137 Father of Indian ecology is - (3) P (4) N
(1) Prof. R Mishra (2) G.S. Puri Q.148 Maximum photosynthesis take place by -
(3) S.C. Pandeys (4) Prof. N. Dudgeon (1) Phytoplankton
Q.138 Species ecology is - (2) Zooplankton
(1) Autecology (2) Synecology (3) Marsh plants
(3) Palaeo ecology (4) Forest ecology (4) Woody plants
Q.139 The term Autecology is refers to study of - Q.149 Pneumatophores are found in -
(1) Plant community (2) Individual organism (1) The vegetation which is found in marshy and
(3) Environment (4) Soil form salin lake
Q.140 The science dealing with soil is called - (2) the vegetation which found in saline soil
(1) Pedology (2) Acarology (3) Xerophytes
(3) Geology (4) Palaeantology (4) Epiphytes
Q.141 Water logged soils are - Q.150 In which of the following plant sunken stomata
(1) Physiologically dry are found -
(2) Physiologically wet (1) Nerium (2) Hydrilla
(3) With great amount of water (3) Mango (4) Guava
(4) With less amount of water
Ecology [50]

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 4 2 3 3 3 1 4 1 2 4 3 4 2 4 3 3 4 3 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 2 2 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 2 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 4 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 1 4 4 3 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 4 3 3 4 1 3 2 4 1 3 4 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 2 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 4
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 4 2 3 1 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 3 3 4 2 1 2 4 2 2
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 3 2 2 4 1 1 2 1
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Ans. 1 3 4 4 2 2 4 1 1 1
Ecology [51]

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Ecology take into account Q.10 Plants are killed in winter by frost –
(1) Environmental factors only (1) Because respiration ceases at such a low
(2) Plant adaptaions only temperature
(3) Effect of plants on environment (2) Because there is no transpiration.
(4) Relationships between organisms and their (3) Because no photosynthesis takes place at
enviornment such a low temperature
Q.2 The term ecology was proposed by- (4) Because of desiccation and mechanical
(1) Haeckel (2) Odum damage to the tissues
(3) Daubenmire (4) Reiter Q.11 Which of the following is direct dominant
ecological factor which affects the vegetation
Q.3 Who defined ecology as the study of structure
of a place
and function of nature ?
(1) Temperature (2) Altitude
(1) Haeckel (2) E.P. Odum
(3) Soil (4) Wind
(3) R. Misra (4) Taylor
Q.12 Major characteristics of the vegetation of a
Q.4 Who defined ecology as "The reciprocal locality are controlled –
relationship of organisms and their environ-
(1) Mainly by climate
ments"?
(2) By animals only
(1) Misra (2) Haeckel (3) By altitude of a place only
(3) Odum (4) Lamarck (4) By man only
Q.5 Autecology means the study of - Q.13 Ecological factors work –
(1) Effect of temperature on vegetation (1) Together
(2) Effect of soil on vegetation (2) In complex combinations
(3) Ecology of individual organism (3) Only indirectly
(4) Effect of precipitation on vegetation (4) Singly
Q.6 Synecology is the study of - Q.14 The hydrologic factor refers to –
(1) Environment (2) Plant community (1) Gravitational water
(3) Individual (4) None (2) Snow
Q.7 The transitional zone where two different com- (3) Water
munities meet is called - (4) Atmosphere
(1) Niche (2) Ecotone Q.15 Most dense layer of atmosphere vulnerable to
(3) Ecad (4) Ecotype pollution (OR) Life supporting zone of
Q.8 Science which deals with the management of atmosphere is –
plants, animals, soil, water and minerals is - (1) Ionosphere (2) Mesosphere
(1) Autecology (3) Troposphere (4) Stratosphere
(2) Synecology Q.16 Plant groups growing in zones where high
(3) Phytosociology temperature alternates with low temperature
(4) Resource ecology are called as –
Q.9 What ecological factors are most strong (1) Mesotherms (2) Megatherms
determinants of various biomes – (3) Hekistotherms (4) Microtherms
(1) Soil and wind Q.17 At what height in atmosphere the concentration
(2) Light and wind of ozone is maximum –
(3) Temperature and precipitation (1) At 25 km (2) At 50 km
(4) pH and humidity (3) At 100 km (4) At 10 km
Ecology [52]

Q.18 The alpine forests are classed under the plant Q.29 The term sub-soil generally refers to –
group called – (1) Horizon - R (2) Horizon - B
(1) Hekistotherms (2) Megatherms (3) Horizon - A (4) Horizon - C
(3) Mesotherms (4) Microtherms Q.30 Pedology is the study of –
Q.19 Biological rhythms of the majority of organisms (1) Locomotion of animals
are modulated by – (2) Soil erosion
(1) Soil factors (2) Light (3) Soil formation
(3) Temperature (4) Wind (4) Rock formation
Q.20 When a plant of hot climate is transferred to Q.31 The Biological weathering occurs due to the
colder regions, it gets an injury called – action of –
(1) Thermal death (2) Chilling (1) Carbon dioxide (2) Oxygen
(3) Freezing (4) Desiccation (3) Alkalies (4) Acids
Q.21 ‘Flag trees’ are formed due to – Q.32 Water logging occurs in –
(1) Erosion and depression (1) Clay soil (2) Gravel soil
(2) Slat spray
(3) Sandy soil (4) Loam soil
(3) Lodging
Q.33 Plants absorb from the soil –
(4) Unidirectional winds
(1) Capillary water
Q.22 Which is the least porous soil –
(2) Gravitational water
(1) Clay (2) Loam
(3) Both capillary water and gravitational water
(3) Sand (4) Peat/Silt
(4) Hygroscopic water
Q.23 In coarse textured soils –
Q.34 Water held tightly in the form of a thin film on
(1) Pore frequency is low
the surface of soil particle is known as –
(2) Pore space is narrow
(1) Hygroscopic water (2) Gravitational water
(3) There is no soil air (4) Water retaining
capacity is high (3) Capillary water (4)Run away water
Q.24 Which of the following does not occur in loam Q.35 The term ‘chesard’ refers to –
soil – (1) Gravitational water
(1) Sand (2) Silt (2) Capillary water
(3) Chalk (4) Sand (3) Water vapour
Q.25 Soils transported by air are called as – (4) Run off water
(1) Residual (2) Colluvial Q.36 Humus is important for plant growth because–
(3) Eolian (4) Aerial (1) It is partially decomposed
Q.26 Edaphic factors are concerned with – (2) It is derived from leaves
(1) Soil and their Characteristics (3) It is made up of dead organic matter
(2) Rainfall (4) It is rich in nutrients and increases the
(3) Grazing by animals water holding capacity
(4) Competition among different species of Q.37 Plants growing on rocks are called as –
plants (1) Sciophytes (2) Halophytes
Q.27 Soil formation is initiated by the phenomenon (3) Lithophytes (4) Psychrophytes
of – Q.38 Storage capacity of the soil is the extent to
(1) Pedogenesis (2) Laterization which it can hold –
(3) Weathering (4) Gleization (1) Hygroscopic + Bound water
Q.28 Which soil is best for plant growth – (2) Capillary + Hygroscopic water
(1) Clay soil (2) Loamy soil (3) Capillary water
(3) Sandy soil (4) Gravel (4) Gravitational water
Ecology [53]

Q.39 Plants growing on sand and gravel are called Q.49 Soil texture depends upon –
as – (1) Quantity of microbes
(1) Psammophytes (2) Psilophytes (2) Size of particles
(3) Oxylophytes (4) Eremophytes (3) Quantity of humus
Q.40 A soil is said to be physiologically dry when– (4) Amount of water in soil
(1) There is plenty of water in the soil Q.50 Which of the following factors cannot be
(2) Concentration of salt is very high in the soil regarded as belonging to a non living
(3) Light available to plants is not sufficient environment –
(4) Both (1) and (2) together (1) Rainfall
Q.41 Plants growing on cold soil are called as – (2) Light
(1) Psychrophytes (2) Psammophytes (3) Temperature
(3) Oxylophytes (4) Sciophytes (4) Interspecific competition
Q.42 Ecology takes into account - Q.51 Factors which relate to form and behaviour of
the earth's surface are called -
(1) Effect of plants on environment
(1) Biotic (2) Edaphic
(2) Plant adaptation only
(3) Topographic (4) Climatic
(3) Environmental factors only
Q.52 Which of the following habitats would be
(4) All the above
ideally suited to sciophytes –
Q.43 Who started ecological studies in India ?
(1) Desert
(1) Saxton (2) Dudgeon
(2) Ponds and lakes
(3) R. Mishra (4) Agharkar
(3) Dry and sunny place
Q.44 Ecotype is -
(4) Moist and shady place
(1) Transitional zone
Q.53 Laterite soil is rich in –
(2) Genetically adapted ecological races of an
(1) Mg (2) Ca
area
(3) Al (4) Fe
(3) Genetically different individuals with same
Q.54 Flowering is induced if germinating seeds are
phenotype
exposed to –
(4) Genetically identical individual with same
(1) High temperature
phenotype
(2) Low temperature
Q.45 A plant or animal form produced in response
to a habitat, the adaptations not being heritable (3) Temperature below freezing
is called - (4) Temperature above 45° C
(1) Ecad (2) Ecophene Q.55 Mark the correct relationship –
(3) Life form (4) Ecotype (1) Chesard – Ecard = Holard
(2) Holard–Chesard = Ecard
Q.46 How many horizons are present in a fully
developed soil profile – (3) Ecard – Chesard = Holard
(4) Holard + Ecard = Chesard
(1) Five (2) Eleven
(3) Three (4) One Q.56 Humus is an example of –
Q.47 Plants growing on burnt soil are called as- (1) Crystalloids (2) Organic colloids
(1) Pyriform (2) Pyrophilous (3) Soil structure (4) None of them
(3) Hydrophilous (4) Heliophilous Q.57 ‘Solum’ includes –
Q.48 The soil containing particles between 0.002– (1) Horizons A and B
0.02 mm is – (2) Horizons A2 and B only
(3) Horizon A only
(1) Clay (2) Fine sand
(4) Horizons A1 and A2 only
(3) Gravel (4) Silt
Ecology [54]

Q.58 A good soil is that which allows – Q.66 Hydrophytes have –
(1) Rapid percolation of water (1) Less mechanical system as well as feebly
(2) Selective percolation of salt developed vaculature system
(3) No percolation of water and salt (2) Well developed stomata
(4) Slow percolation of water (3) Well developed roots
Q.59 The term ‘ecard’ refers to – (4) None
(1) Unavailable water Q.67 An aquatic plant with floating leaves –
(2) Run off water (1) Have stomata only on upper surface
(3) Total atmosphere precipitation (2) Have stomata on lower surface
(4) Available water (3) Have stomata on leaf surface
Q.60 Percentage of water left in the soil when a (4) Have stomata
plant wilts is known as – Q.68 In hydrophytes the finely dissected leaves are
(1) Wilting coefficient found generally in –
(2) Field capacity (1) Emerged plants
(3) Water retaining power of the soil (2) Free floating plants
(4) Turgidity (3) Submerged plants
Q.61 The soil near the surface is usually darker (4) Rooted floating plants
than the soil about one meter down. This is Q.69 The basis of classification of hydrophyte,
because the top soil is – mesophyte and xerophyte is –
(1) Richer in organic matter (1) Tolerance to light
(2) Richer in Ca and Mg (2) Availability of water
(3) Dry (3) Tolerance to temperature
(4) Young and wet (4) Tolerance to frost and rain
Q.62 ‘Chalky soil’ is a term used for – Q.70 Useful adaptation for hydrophytes is -
(1) Sandy soil (1) Increase in aerenchyma
(2) Carbonate rich soil (2) Decrease in mechanical tissues
(3) Large leaves
(3) Saline soil (4) Clay soil
(4) Large mechanical tissues
Q.63 Vegetation of any place is primarily determined
by – Q.71 The classification of plants in hydrophytes,
mesophytes and xerophytes was suggested by-
(1) Rainfall
(1) Warming (2) Odum
(2) Amount of soil water
(3) Mishra (4) Weaver
(3) Soil type
Q.72 Heterophylly is common in -
(4) Amount of light
(1) Emergents
Q.64 Biotic factors are –
(2) Free floating hydrophytes
(1) All the living organisms which influence (3) Submerged hydrophytes
other organisms
(4) Rooted floating hydrophytes
(2) Factors of atmosphere which affect life
Q.73 Plants with well developed spongy tissues in
(3) Chemical factors of soil which affect life its leaves & exhibit temporary wilting in noon
(4) Physical factors of soil which affect life hours are -
Q.65 The instrument which measures wind velocity (1) Halophytes
is – (2) Floating hydrophytes
(1) Hydrometer (2) Photometer (3) Mesophytes
(3) Lactometer (4) Anemometer (4) Succulents
Ecology [55]

Q.74 Plants growing in aerated sand of a river bank Q.81 Long term stability of a community depends on
are - (1) type of its abiotic component
(1) Psammophytes (2) resource partitioning
(2) Physical xerophytes
(3) Biodiversity
(3) Physiological xerophytes
(4) Successio
(4) Mesophytes
Q.82 External appearance of community is known as
Q.75 Vivipary is characteristic feature of –
(1) Halophytes (2) Mesophytes (1) Stratification (2) Physionomy
(3) Xerophytes (4) Hydrophytes (3) Physiognomy (4) Diversity
Q.76 Biotic potential refers to Q.83 Which of the following is a synthetic character
of community
(1) Increase of population under optimum
condition (1) Biomass (2) Diversity
( 2 ) Increase of population under given (3) Stratification (4) Value index
condition Q.84 Which is not a character of climex community
(3) Increase of population under natural (1) Large size
condition (2) Mesophytic
(4) None of the above (3) Simple food chain
Q.77 Specilized roots that penetrates the stem of (4) Complex organisation
the host estiblishing relationship with its Q.85 Term ecosystem development to ecological
conducting elements are called
succession was given by
(1) Haustoria (2) Rhizoid
(1) Odum (2) Elements
(3) Rhizoplane (4) Rhizopore
(3) R.D. Mishra (4) Blackman
Q.78 Which of the following is least likely to be true
Q.86 When the vegetation of any region reaches at
for ecological succession
climatic climax it is
(1) The species composition of the community
(1) Lithophytic (2) Xerophytic
change regularly
(3) Mesophytic (4) Hydrophytic
(2) The total number of species rises initially
than stabilises Q.87 The sequence : BGA  crustose lichen 
(3) The total nonliving material is increases foliage lichen  masses  shrubs  dicot
plant represent
(4) Total biomass is decline after initial stage
(1) Phylogenetic trend
Q.79 The traditional concept of succession includes
the idea of an equilibrium states called a climax (2) Food pyramid
community. Ecologist now think that there may (3) Ecological succession trend
be no such thing as climax community because (4) Genetic drift
(1) Disturbance is on going in ecosystem Q.88 If the vegetation of a place is burnt the first
(2) All organism eventually die one to appear will be
(3) Species diversity generally increases (1) Mosses (2) Lichen
(4) Each succession is different from other (3) Liver wort (4) Fern
Q.80 An area was cleared for road. Road was not Q.89 Name the term used to describe a single
constructed and the land was left to overgrow. dominant species that dictate community
The process by which the vegetation structure
reestablished is called (1) Pioneer species
(1) Primary succession (2) Exogenous species
(2) Secondary succession (3) Keystone species
(3) Tertiary succession (4) Edge species
(4) Regenerative succession
Ecology [56]

Q.90 In succession complexities in structure - Q.101 The invasion of a new community in a bore
(1) Increase area is initiated by
( 2) Decrease (1) Migration (2) Ecesis
(3) Remain constant (3) Aggregation (4) All
(4) Intially increase than decrease Q.102 The effects of individual of same species upon
Q.91 In plant succession when climax is reached each other is called as
the net productivity
(1) Reaction (2) Competition
(1) Continue to increase
(3) Coaction (4) Ecesis
(2) Become half
Q.103 No. of species is more at ecotone, this
(3) Become zero
phenomenon is known as
(4) Become 10%
(1) Ecotone effect (2) Edge effect
Q.92 Which of the following is the keystone species
in tropical rain forest (3) Diversity effect (4) All of the above
(1) Fig (2) Pinus Q.104 Species which are present at ecotone is known
(3) Cycas (4) Fungi as
Q.93 Climax community is (1) Ecotone species (2) Keystone species
(1) Ist stable community (3) Link species (4) Edge species
(2) unstable community Q.105 Synecology and plant sociology are the words
(3) Intermediate community equivalent to
(4) Last stable community (1) Community ecology
Q.94 Primary succession on rocks starts with (2) Population ecology
(1) Herbs (2) Animals (3) Gene ecology
(3) Lichen (4) Trees
(4) Auto ecology
Q.95 If a piece of land which had a plant community
Q.106 Pioneer community is xerosere is
becomes barren due to some external thrust,
the succession taking place here is called as (1) Foliaose lichen (2) Moss
(1) Induced (2) Deflated (3) Crustose lichen (4) Fern
(3) Autonomic (4) All the above Q.107 The invasion of a community in succession
Q.96 The direction of succession involves
(1) Predictable (2) Unpredictable (1) Ecesis, aggregation competition
(3) Haphazard (4) Always changing (2) Migration, aggregation and competition
Q.97 The ultimate serel community appear in an area (3) Aggregation, competition and coaction
as a result of (4) Migration, ecesis and aggregation
(1) Ecesis (2) Nudation
Q.108 Mark the climatic cause for the initiation of
(3) Invasion (4) Reaction
succession
Q.98 In a hydrosere the submerged stage is followed
(1) Depletion (2) Drought
by
(3) Deposition (4) Micro-organism
(1) Phytoplenktons (2) Reed swamp
(3) Sedges (4) Floating plant Q.109 The physiographic factor responsible for the
Q.99 The pioneer in a hydrosere initiation of succession in
(1) Diatoms (2) Sedges (1) Erosion (2) Fire
(3) wolffia (4) Lemna (3) Hail (4) Wind
Q.100 According to polyclimax theory the climax Q.110 Formation of bare land for initiation of
stage is controlled by succession is
(1) Eadaphic factor (2) Biotic factor (1) Migration (2) Ecesis
(3) Topographic factor (4) All of these (3) Nudation (4) Coaction
Ecology [57]

Q.111 The successive developmental stage in Q.120 Plant and animals living in a particular area
succession is known as constitute -
(1) Pioneer (2) Climax (1) Flora and fauna (2) Community
(3) Sere (4) All of the above (3) Ecosystem (4) Ecology
Q.112 Increase of population under optimum conditions Q.121 Stable plant community formed during succession
is termed - is called -
(1) Reproductive ability (1) Sere community
(2) Climax community
(2) Secondary production
(3) Dominant community
(3) Biotic potential
(4) Ecotone
(4) Biomass
Q.122 Succession in a water body leads to formation of -
Q.113 In a population unrestricted reproductive capacity
(1) Mesophytic vegetation
is called as -
(2) Xerophytic vegetation
(1) Biotic potential (2) Fertility
(3) Halophytic vegetation
(3) Carrying capacity (4) Birth rate
(4) Epiphytic vegetation
Q.114 What is true for individuals of same species -
Q.123 Competition for food, light and space is most
(1) Live in same niche severe in -
(2) Live in same habitat (1) Closely related species growing in the same
(3) Interbreeding area (in the same niche)
(4) Live in different habitat (2) Closely related species growing in different
Q.115 When the two ecosystems overlap each other the habitat
area is called - (3) Distantly related species growing in the same
(1) Ecotone (2) Niche habitat
(4) Distantly related species growing in different
(3) Edge effect (4) Ecotypes
habitat
Q.116 The community which starts succession at a place
Q.124 Most successful parasites are those which do not-
is termed -
(1) grow free
(1) Climax community
(2) Kill their host
(2) Seral community
(3) Reproduce sexually
(3) Pioneer community
(4) Survive in soil
(4) Primary community
Q.125 Of the following which is the smallest parasite-
Q.117 Earliest settlers on barren lands or the farmers of (1) Lemna
nature are -
(2) Arceuthobium
(1) Diatoms (2) Lichens (3) Spirodella
(3) Moss & grasses (4) Ferns (4) Wolffia
Q.118 In plant succession last community is called - Q.126 Two different species can not live for long duration
(1) Ecotone in the same niche or habitat. This law is -
(2) Climax community (1) Allen's law
(3) Seral community (2) Gauss's law
(4) Ecosystem (3) Jorden's principal
Q.119 Group of two or more than two plant species is (4) Weiseman's theory
called as - Q.127 Capacity to blend with surroundings is called
(1) Plant community (2) Animal ecosystem (1) Hibernation (2) Mimicry
(3) Plant ecosystem (4) Ecological niche (3) Camouflage (4) Aestivation
Ecology [58]

Q.128 A behavioural strategy of adaptation called Q.135 The exponential increase in insect populations
echolocation is found in during rains is finally controlled by
(1) Bats (1) Environmental resistance
(2) Monarch butterfly (2) Reporductive potential
(3) Praying mantis (3) Growth rate
(4) Arctic tern (4) Carrying capacity
Q.129 Natality under actual conditions is called Q.136 Which statement is not related to S-shaped
(1) Biotic potential populations curve ?
(2) Maximum natality (1) Environmental resistance suddenly become
effective
(3) Ecological natality
(2) Exponential phase is followed by decline
(4) Reproductive potential
phase
Q.130 An Urn shaped population age pyramid
(3) Mass mortality and population crash occurs
represent
(4) Both (1) & (3)
(1) Growing population
Q.137 The periodic departure and return is known as
(2) Static population
(1) Migration (2) Immigration
(3) Decling population
(3) Emigration (4) Mutation
(4) Threatened population
Q.138 When an animal group is centred around a
Q.131 Ability of an environment to support a dominant female, it is called
population is called its
(1) Patriarchy (2) Matriarchy
(1) Biotic potential
(3) Swarm (4) Flock
(2) Purifying capacity
Q.139 Altruistic behaviour is not found in
(3) Carrying capacity
(1) White ants (2) Spotted deer
(4) Environmental resistance
(3) Honey bees (4) Bitch
Q.132 The equation for J-shaped population growth
Q.140 Territory is defended against
curve
(1) Predator
dN
(1)  rN (2) Any intruder
dt
dN K –N
(3) Intruder of another species
(2) dt  rN  K  (4) Intruder of same species
 
(3) Nt = N0 + B + I – D – E Q.141 Inability of different organisms to interbreed is
N called
(4) D = (1) Streility
S
Q.133 In the equation for S-shaped population (2) Parasitism
dN K –N (3) Reproductive Isoloation
growth  rN   , r represents
dt  K  (4) Monogamy
(1) Carrying capacity Q.142 The increased number and density of species
(2) Environmental resistance in region of ecotone is called
(3) Biotic potential (1) Edge effect
(4) Population size (2) Sympatric speciation
Q.134 Which is not true for J-shaped growth curve? (3) Dominance
(1) Exponential phase is prolonged (4) Abundance
(2) Population never grows beyond carrying Q.143 Which of the following association is not an
capacity example os symbiosis ?
(3) Population crash occur (1) Lichen (2) Mycorrhiza
(4) Population seldom reaches equilibriumx (3) Root nodules (4) Epiphytes
Ecology [59]

Q.144 Which is not an effect of competition ? Q.148 Find the odd one out
(1) Regulation of population size (1) Lianas in tropical rain forest
(2) Generalization of niche (2)E. coli in large intestine of man
(3) Establishment of social hierarchy (3) Pilot fish Remora and shark
(4) Help in speciation (4) Rafflesia on roots of forest tree
Q.145 Competitive exclusion principle was given by Q.149 Find the odd one out
(1) J. Grinnel (2) Gause (1) Mating (2) Competition
(3) Lindeman (4) Bates (3) Aggregation (4) Altruism
Q.146 Which of the following shows biologicl Q.150 Toxic chemical against nematode is secreted
antagonism or allellopathy by
(1) Amensalis (2) Protocooperation (1) Tagetes (2) Black walnut
(3) Competition (4) Parasitism (3) Pencillium (4) Grevillea robusta
Q.147 The interaction between two living organism
of different species which is beneficial to both
but is not obligatory because they can live
without each other is known as
(1) Proto-cooperation
(2) Mutualism or symbiosis
(3) Commensalism
(4) Amensalism
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 4 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 4 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 2 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 1 1 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 2 4 3 3 1 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 4 2 2 4 1 2 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 2 2 1 4 1 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 4 1 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 4 3 1 3 3 4 3 1 1 1 4 3 1 1 4 4 1 4
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 1 3 2 4 1 3 4 2 1 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 2 2 1 2
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
Ans. 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 2 1 4 1 2 4 4
Ques. 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Ans. 3 1 4 2 2 1 1 4 2 1
Ecology [60]

EXERCISE – 3 PREVIOUS YEAR'S QUESTION
Q.1 Ethology is the study of - Q.10 Pneumatophores are characteristic feature
[UTTARANCHAL 2004] of - [BIHAR 2001]
(1) Behaviour of animals (1) Hydrilla (2) Rhizophora
(2) Past life of organism (3) Typha (4) None of these
(3) Disease causing pathogens Q.11 Factors relating to form and behaviour of the
earth's surface are called - [BIHAR 2001]
(4) None of these
(1) Edaphic (2) Topographic
Q.2 Humus is - [UTTRANCHAL 2005]
(3) Climatic (4) Biotic
(1) Dead and decayed organic matter
Q.12 Aerenchyma is helpful in plants by -
(2) Living matter
[BIHAR 2006]
(3) Fertilizers
(1) Providing buoyancy in hydrophytes
(4) Living animal / plants / microbes (2) Absorption in stilt roots
Q.3 Name the famous plant ecologist - (3) Giving mechanical strength to plants
[C.G. PMT 2005] (4) Giving flexibility to plants
(1) Jagdish chandra bose Q.13 Plants growing in saline soil are called -
(2) Birbal Shani [UP CPMT 2002]
(3) Ramdeva Misra (1) Xerophyte (2) Hydrophyte
(4) Charles Darwin (3) Halophyte (4) Heliophyte
Q.4 Correct percentage of CO2 in atmosphere is - Q.14 Which one of the following is well-developed
[C.G. PMT 2005] tissue present in hydrophytes?
(1) 0.03 % (2) 0.3 % [UP CPMT 2002]
(1) Aerenchyma (2) Collenchyma
(3) 1 % (4) 1.1. %
(3) Stomata (4) Root system
Q.5 In an quatic environment, microscopic animals
and plants are collectively known as - Q.15 Penumetophores are found in - [RPMT 2000]
(1) Orchid (2) Piper
[C.G. PMT 2006]
(3) Ficus (4) Rhizophora
(1) Commensals (2) Herbivores
Q.16 The term Autecology refers to study of -
(3) Fauna and Flora (4) Planktons
[RPMT 2000]
Q.6 5th June is - [C.G. PMT 2006]
(1) Plant community (2) Individual organism
(1) World Environment Day
(3) Environment (4) Soil form
(2) Wold AIDS Day Q.17 Autoecology refers to - [RPMT 2001]
(3) World Womens Day (1) Plant ecology
(4) Worlds Polio Day (2) Animal ecology
Q.7 Plants developing in dry condition are - (3) Ecological study of individual species
[BIHAR 2004] (4) Ecological study of group of species, which is
(1) Xerophytes (2) Mesophytes grown together
(3) Lithophytes (4) Hydrophytes Q.18 Which part of the pond ecosystem does not affect
Q.8 Soil carried by gravity is - [BIHAR 2002] by the temperature - [RPMT 2001]
(1) Alluvial (2) Colluvial (1) Epilimnion (2) Metalimnion
(3) Elluvial (4) Glacial (3) Hypolimnion (4) All
Q.19 Root cap is absent in - [RPMT 2002]
Q.9 Velamen tissue is found in - [BIHAR 2001]
(1) Mesophytes (2) Hydrophytes
(1) Mesophytes (2) Epiphytes
(3) Epiphytes (4) Xerophytes
(3) Hydrophytes (4) Xerophytes
Ecology [61]

Q.20 Which of the following have sunken stomata - Q.27 The two vegetations of ecosystem are separated
[RPMT 2002] by - [UP CPMT 2001]
(1) Nerium (2) Mangifera (1) Ecotone (2) Ecoline
(3) Hydrilla (4) Zea mays (3) Ecosytem (4) Ecesis
Q.21 Velamen & spongy tissue is found in - Q.28 In plant succession last community is called -
[RPMT 2002] [RPMT 2000]
(1) Breathing roots (2) Parasitic roots (1) Ecotone (2) Climax community
(3) Tuberous roots (4) Epiphytic roots (3) Seral community (4) Ecocystem
Q.22 Root cap is absent in - [RPMT 2005] Q.29 In which one of the following habitats does the
(1) Lithophytes (2) Xerophytes diurnal temperature of soil surface vary most ?
(3) Hydrophytes (4) Mesophytes [AIPMT 2004]
Q.23 Which of the following is the example of (1) Forest (2) Desert
xerophytes - [RPMT 2005] (3) Grassland (4) Shrub land
(1) Brassica (2) Cuscuta Q.30 People who have migrated from the planes to an
(3) Capparis (4) Hydrilla area adjoining Rohtang Pass about six months
Q.24 The organisms inhabiting a common environment back : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
belongs to the same - (1) are not physically fit to play games like
[UTTARANCHAL 2004] football.
(1) Species (2) Genus (2) suffer from altitude sickness with symptoms
(3) Population (4) Community like nausea, fatigue, etc.
Q.25 Insectivorous plants usually survive in - (3) have the usual RBC count but their
[JHARKHAND 2005] haemoglobin has very high binding affinuty
(1) Water rich soil to O2.
(2) N2 deficient soil (4) have more RBCs and their haemoglobin has
(3) N2 rich soil a lower binding affinity to O2.
(4) Sugar deficient medium Q.81 Sacred groves are specially useful in :
Q.26 Group of two or more than two plants species is [AIPMT Mains 2012]
called as - [JHARKHAND 2003] (1) generating environmental awareness
(1) Plant community (2) preventing soil erosion
(2) Animal ecosystem (3) year-round flow of water in rivers
(3) Plant ecosystem (4) conserving rare and threatened species
(4) Ecological niche Q.84 The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by
plants like : [AIPMT Mains 2012]
(1) Azolla (2) Typha
(3) Salix (4) Vallisneria
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 3 1 4 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 3 1 4 2 3 3 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Ans. 4 3 3 4 2 1 1 2 2 4 4 4
Ecology [62]

EXERCISE – 4 AIIMS SPECIAL
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”. While
answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
(1) If both Assertion and Reason are True and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(2) If both Assertion and Reason are True but Reason is not correct explanation of the Assertion
(3) If Assertion is True but the Reason is False.
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
Q.1 Assertion : Drought resistant plants are not true Q.11 Assertion : Well developed chlorenchyma is
xerophytes. present in aquatic plants
Reason : Drought resistant plants always have Reason : Photosynthetic root are present in
physiological dryness. Trapa plant.
Q.2 Assertion : In winter and summer season Q.12 Assertion : Water holding capacity of the soil
growth of phytoplantkton is low in any lake. depends upon structure of soil.
Reason : Amount of nutrients and oxygen is
Reason : Water holding capacity of sandy soil
less in lake during summer and winter.
is best.
Q.3 Assertion : Chemical which repel other animals
Q.13 Assertion : Human regulated environment is
called allomones.
called noosphere.
Reason : These are beneficial substances for
others. Reason : Human is the main cause for pollution
Q.4 Assertion : In mangrove plants, negatively in our cosystem due to exploitation of natural
geotropic roots come out of the mud called resources.
pneumatophores. Q.14 Assertion : Ephiphytes are completely
Reason : Mangrove plants grow in water-logged autotrophic plants which grow on other plants.
marshy conditions so there is problem of aeration Reason : Epiphytes are found in Sariska
in roots of these plants. national park.
Q.5 Assertion : Loam soils are ideal for vegetation. Q.15 Assertion : Psychrophytes are also known as
Reason : Loam soils have clay but no sand. hekistotherms plants.
Q.6 Assertion : Mangroves have breathing roots. Reason : Cold soil is physiologically dry habitat.
Reason : Soil air is almost negligible in swamps.
Q.16 Assertion : Photosynthesis process is absent in
Q.7 Assertion : Profundal zone of a lake harbours
aphotic zone of ocean.
have only heterotrophs.
Reason : Aphotic zone is the deepest zone of
Reason : Autotrophs fail to grow in deep water
ocean without oxygen.
due to lack of light.
Q.8 Assertion : Ecads appear different. Q.17 Assertion : Solar energy is the best pollution
Reason : They lives in different environmental free form of energy.
conditions. Reason : It can be produced in a nuclear reactor
Q.9 Assertion : Heliophytes are shade loving plant. in large amout from a tiny amount.
They requires poor light intensity. Q.18 Assertion : Planktons are free floating organism
Reason : They are found in lower level of on the surfaces of water.
stratification. Reason : All Planktons belongs to animal
Q.10 Assertion : Epiphytes can be absorb kingdom.
atmospheric humidity. Q.19 Assertion : Hygroscopic water is hold by soil
Reason : Velamen tissue presents in thier colloids.
hanging roots.
Reason : It can be utilized by plants.
Ecology [63]

Q.20 Assertion : Undifferentiated and living xylem Q.32 Assertion : Intraspecific competetion is most
is found in aquatic plants (suspended). sever.
Reason : Phloem is less developed in aquatic Reason : Organisms of same species have
plants. same basic requirements.
Q.21 Assertion : Drought resistant plant are also Q.33 Assertion : In protocoopertion both organism
known as succulent xerophytes. are benefitted.
Reason : They complete their life cycle during Reason : Both are benefitted as well dependent
the favourable season. on each other.
Q.22 Assertion : Soil water available to plant is Q.34 Assertion : Due to growth of Penicillium,
chresard. bacteria become less in soil.
Reason : Capillary water is only form of soil Reason : It shows ammensalism.
water which is available to plants. Q.35 Assertion : All predators are carnivorous.
Q.23 Assertion : Alluvial soil is a transported soil. Reason : They kill and eat the producer.
Reason : It is brought through the wind. Q.36 Assertion : Biotic potential of any one species
Q.24 Assertion : Solar energy is conventional energy is high in maximum favourable conditions.
sources. Reason : Number of species increases in area
Reason : It is widely used. under favourable conditions.
Q.25 Assertion : In Aquatic ecosystem most of the Q.37 Assertion : Mesophytes are climax community
food chain depends on light. in hydrosere.
Reason : In aquatic ecosystem parasitic food Reason : No biotic community is stable in
chain starts from phytoplankton ecosystem.
Q.26 Assertion : Home range of different groups can Q.38 Assertion : Ecotone have maximum diversity.
overlap.
Reason : Ecotone is transition zone of two
Reason : Territory of different groups can not communities.
overlap.
Q.39 Assertion : In population, dominance is
Q.27 Assertion : Epiphytes are included in subordination behaviour.
phanerophytes.
Reason : Dominance is a negative interaction
Reason : The buds are located at much above in population.
from surface of earth.
Q.40 Assertion : Territory is defended against
Q.28 Assertion : Temperature is gradually decreasing
members of same species.
towards the pole.
Reason : It reduces the competetion for the
Reason : Effect to latitude and altitude are
basic need.
almost same for temperature.
Q.41 Assertion : Group of African elephants is
Q.29 Assertion : Stratosphere is suitable for aviation.
patriarchy.
Reason : Moisture content is low and large
Reason : In this group the group leader is male.
convection currents are lacking in the stratosphere.
Q.42 Assertion : In most favourable environmental
Q.30 Assertion : In hydrophytes, photosynthesis takes
condition organism have maximum biotic
place through whole plant body.
potential.
Reason : Light is the limiting factor for
Reason : Biotic potential is maximum
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
reproduction capacity of organism.
Q.31 Assertion : In mutalism both organisms are
Q.43 Assertion : The competition for the basic needs
benefitted.
get reduced in territory.
Reason : Both are benefitted but they are not
Reason : Territory is defended against
dependent on each other.
members of same species.
Ecology [64]

Q.44 Assertion : Arctic fox and African Jackal are Q.47 Assertion : Key-stone species determine the
cological equivalent. structure of the community.
Reason : They have same niche in different Reason : These species have great influence
habitats. on community
Q.45 Assertion : Zone of transition between two type Q.48 Assertion : Biomass is a analytical character.
of communities is called ecotone. Reason : "Growth of plant" is synthetic
Reason : Esturay is an ecotone between marine character which are derieved from biomass.
and fresh water communities. Q.49 Assertion : Ecosystem is made up by biotic and
Q.46 Assertion : Interspecific competition are more abiotic componants.
strongest as compair to Intra specific Reason : It is the smallest structural and
competition. functional.
Reason : Members of different species have Q.50 Assertion : Biotic community is never stable
same requirement. in nature.
Reason : Climax community is more stable in
succession.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 4 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 3 4 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 3 2 1 3 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 4 2 2 1 2 4 1 2 2 2
Ecology [65]

Bansal Quick Review Table
Instruction to fill
(A) Write down the Question Number you are unable to solve in column A below, by Pen.
(B) After discussing the Questions written in column A with faculties, striks off them in the manner so that you can
see at the time of Revision also, to solve these questions again.
(C) Write down the Question Number you feel are important or good in the column B.
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
EXERCISE NO. Question I am unable to Good / Important

solve in first allempt questions
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
Ecology [66]

ECOSYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
(A) A.G.Tansley - The term "Ecosystem" coined by A.G. Tansley. According to Tansley Ecosystem is
symbol of structure and function of nature.
(B) E.P.Odum - Father of ecosystem ecology. According to E.P.Odum Ecosystem is the smallest structural
and functional unit of nature or environment.
(C) Karl Mobius - Used term Biocoenosis for ecosystem.
(D) Thienmann - Used term Biosystem for ecosystem.
(E) Sukhachov - Used term Biogeocoenosis for ecology.
(F) Misra - Used term Ecosom for ecosystem.
(G) Forbes - Used term Microsom for ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM –
Total living (biotic) and non living (aboitic) componants of the environment present in a particular area
is called ecosystem.
Characteristics :
(1) In any ecosystem, communities or living organisms interact with their physical environment in such a
way that there is a well defined flow of energy forming clear trophic (food) levels and material
cycles within this ecosystem.
(2) Ecosystem is normally an open system because there is a continuous and variable entry and loss of
energy and materials.
(3) An ecosystem may be small like a drop (microsystem) of water and as large as sea or tract of forest.
(4) An ecosystem may be temporary as a fresh water pool or a field or permanent like a forest or sea.
(5) Thus any area of nature that includes living organisms and nonliving substances interacting, so that a
flow of energy leads to characteristic trophic structures and cycling of materials makes the
ecosystem.
(6) There is an energy source for all living organisms in an ecosystem.
(7) Adequate amount of food and essential nutritional element should be present for living organisms in an
ecosystem.
(8) There should be a continuous cyclic flow of energy and materials in form of food chains between
organisms and environment.
(9) There are regular changes in the climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, light etc.) in an ecosystem.
(10) Ecosystem is also self maintainable and self regulatory system, it means an ecosystem maintains a
balance in between different trophic levels.
(11) Each trophic level control the other trophic level in an ecosystem. If any change take place in any
trophic level of ecosystem, the other trophic levels of this ecosystem may react according to it. So
ecosystem always remain in equilibrium. This feature of system is known as Homeostasis.
(12) A science of self control as (homeostasis) in an ecosystem is called cybernetics.
(13) The boundaries of ecosystem are indistinct and have a overlapping character over each other.
(14) Ecosystem is the smallest structural and functional unit of nature or environment. It is a self regulatory
and self sustaining unit.
Ecology [67]

TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
(A) Natural Ecosystem (B) Artificial Ecosystem
(A) Natural Ecosystem -
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem - eg. forest, grassland, tree, desert ecosystems.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem - Aquatic ecosystem is again of two type
(i) Lentic ecosystem - Stagnant fresh water, lake, pond, swamp.
(ii) Lotic - Running fresh water ecosystem. eg., rivers
(B) Artificial Ecosystem - Man made ecosystem eg., cropland, Gardens etc.
On the basis of size, type of ecosystem :
(i) Mega ecosystem - Ocean/Sea (ii) Macroecosystem - Forest
(iii) Microecosystem - Pond (iv) Nanoecosystem - Drop of water.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
(A) Abiotic component (B) Biotic component
(A) Abiotic component
(i) Temperature (ii) Light (iii) Soil (iv) Climate
(v) Rainfall etc.
(B) Biotic component
Formed by living things. eg., plants, animals, microbes.
Type of Biotic Components :
1. Producers -
(i) All the autotrophs of ecosystem are called producers. They prepare their own food. The green plants
are the main producers. In the process of photosynthesis, producers absorb solar energy and convert
it into chemical energy so producers are also called transducers or converters.
(ii) Energy enters into the ecosystem through the producers. The solar energy is the only ultimate source
of energy in ecosystem. This energy is available for the remaining living organisms. Other example of
producers are Chemoautotrophs eg. iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and phytoplankton.
2. Consumer -
All the heterotrophs of the ecosystem are known as consumers. They directly (herbivores) or indirectly
(Carnivores) depend on the producers for food.
Type of consumer
(i) Macro consumers (ii) Micro consumers
(i) Macro consumers (Phagotrophs or holozoic) : They digest their food inside the body. ie., first
ingestion then digestion. Macro consumers are of following types –
(a) Primary consumers - Such living organisms which obtain food directly from producers or plants are
known as primary consumers. eg., herbivores of ecosystem, Cow, Grazing Cattle, Rabbit. They are
also known as secondary producers as they synthesize complex materials in the cells, by the digestion
of food which is obtained from the plant.
(b) Secondary consumers or primary cornivores - Animals which feed upon primary consumers and
obtain food. Those cornivores which kill and eat the herbivores, are called predator. eg., Dog, Cat,
Snake
(i) The organism which completely depends on dead animals are not example of predators but they are the
scavangers or detrivores. eg., Vulture, Crow, Fox.
(ii) All predators are carnivores but all carnivores are not predators.
Ecology [68]

(c) Top Consumers - Those animals which kill other animals and eat them, but they are not killed &
and eaten by other animal in the nature. eg., Lion, Man, Hawk, Peacock.
(ii) Micro Consumers/Decomposers or Saprotrophs/osmotrophs-
Those living organisms which decompose the dead body of producers and consumers are known as
decomposer or reducers or transformer or osmotrophs.
Characterstics :
(i) The main decomposers in ecosystem are bacteria and fungi. In Bacteria and fungi, process of
decomposition completely takes place outside the body. They release enzymes from their body on dead
remains and decompose it into simpler organic substance and then absorb it so these are called as
osmotrophs (absorptive).
(ii) Decomposers play a significant role in mineral cycle.
(iii) In aquatic system whale is secondary consumer. It is an example of filter feeder because it feeds
on plankton.
(iv) Vulture is a scavenger not predator because it never kills any animal. Vulture is also a decomposer.
In Vulture, the break down of the food material takes place inside the body and then released into the
soil in the form of waste material and minerals.
(v) Plant parasites are known as primary consumers while animals parasites (E.coli bateria, Entamoeba
hisotlitica, liver fluke, tapeworm) are known as secondary consumers.
(vi) All the insectivorous plants play the double role i.e., producer as well as secondary consumer
because they sythesise their own food through photosynthesis and they eat insects simultaneously.
(vii) Man and peacock are omnivores.
(viii) Organisms which use milk or curd are known as secondary consumer.
(ix) Inorganic material (CO2, H2O, Light), autotrophs (Producers) and decomposers are essential in
ecosystem but, macro consumers are non essential.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM :

(A) Structure of Ecosystem :
Biotic and abiotic components are physically organized to provide characteristic structure to a ecosystem
It is species composition and stratification (lake stratification, forest stratification, ocean stratification).
(1) Another way to represent the structure of ecosystem is through food relationship of producers and
consumers constituting the Standing Crop.
(2) The nutrients necessary for growth of living organisms, accumulated in biomass and in abiotic componants
like soil called Standing State.
(B) Function of Ecosystem :
Ecosystem posses a natural tendency to persist, which is due to it's variety of functions (activities under
taken to ensure persistance).
For example 1. Leaves carryout photosynthesis, root absorb nutrients from soil, 2. Herbivores utilize
plant production and decomposers carryout decompositions and product used by producers. So key
aspect of function of ecosystem are -
1. Productivity 2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow 4. Nutrient cycling
Ecology [69]

1.Productivity :
(i) Primary productivity -
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over
a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in term of weight (g–2) or energy (Kcal
m–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in term of g–2yr–1 or (Kcal
m–2) yr–1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystem. It can be divided into GPP and NPP.
(a) Gross primary productivity (G.P.P.) - It is the total amount of energy fixed (organic food) in an ecosystem
(in producers) in unit time is called G.P.P. including the organic matter used up in respiration during the
measurement period. It is also known as total (Gross) photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is
utilised by plants in respiration.
(b) Net primary productivity (N.P.P.) - It is the amount of stored organic matter in plant tissues after
respiration utilisation.
NPP = GPP – R (R = Respiration + Metabolic activities)
or
GPP = NPP + R
NPP is the available biomass for the consumption of heterotroph.
(ii) Secondary productivity - Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
(a) The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of
the organic matter, productivity of the ocean are only 55 billion tons.
(b) In per unit area maximum productivity found in tropical rain forest.
(c) In water, least productive ecosystem is very deep lakes and highly productive ecosystem is coral reef.
(d) Nitrogen is the limiting factor in ocean and phosphorus is the limiting factor in lake productivity.
(e) In land highest productivity notice in Tropical rain forest (5 kg/msq/year). Lowest productivity is notice
in Deserts and tundra.
(f) Most productive Agro-ecosystem is Sugarcane and rice ecosystem (3-4 kg./msq/year).
2.Decomposition :
Decomposition (Formation of Humas) : Decomposers break down comlex organic matter into inorganic
substance like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition. Dead plant
remains such as leaves, bark, flower and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter, constitute
detritus, which is the raw material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of decomposition
are
1. Fragmentation, 2. Leaching, 3. Catabolism, 4. Humification and
5. Mineralisation.
1. Fragmentation : Detritivores (eg., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process
is called fragmentation.
2. Leaching : By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon
and get precipitated as unavilable salts.
3. Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple inorganic substance. This
process is called as catabolism.
Ecology [70]

4. Humification : Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called
humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow
rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
Types of Humus -
(i) Mor (Coarse terxtured humus)- It is raw humus and is formed in acidic soil (PH - 3.8 – 4.0) in which
decomposition of litter is slow because it has less number of decomposer organism.
(ii) Mull – This is completely decomposed litter. i.e., humus because rate of decomposition is fast due to
high PH of soil. (Best PH of the soil 5.5 to 6.5)
5. Mineralisation : The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients
occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Characteristics of Decomposition :
1. It is important to not that all the decomposition steps operate simultaneously on the detrius. Humification
and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil.
2. It is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition
of detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detrius
is rich in lignin and chitin and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like
sugars.
3. Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition
through their effects on the activities of soil microbes. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition
where low temperature (< 10ºC) and an anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build up of
organic materials.
4. Decomposition requires years at very high altitude or lattitudes. Rate of decomposition is low in prolonged
dry soil like in tropical desert.
5. The actual rate of decomposition depands on environmental conditions and detritus quality.
6. Nutrient Immobilisation - In the process of decomposition, some nutrients get tied up with the biomass
of microbes and become temporarily unavailable to other organisms. Such incorporation of nutrients in
living microbes (bacteria and fungi) is called nutrient immobilisation. This immobilization check or prevents
the wash out of nutrients from ecosystem.
3.Energy Flow :
(i) Energy flow is the key function of ecosystem. The storage and expenditure of energy in ecosystem is
based on the two basic laws of thermodynamics.
(a) Energy is neither created nor destroyed but only transformed from one state to another state.
(b) The law of entropy - The transfer of food energy from one to another organisms leads to loss of energy
as heat due to metabolic activity.
(ii) Energy in food is in concentrated form, heat energy is highly dispersed. It must be understood that all
changes in energy forms can be accounted for energy flow in any system.
(iii) It is useful to examine the relationship between incident radiant energy and the energy captured by the
producers in the food they menufacture. Only the visible light, or the photosysnthetically active
radiation (PAR), which carries about 50 percent of the energy of total incident solar radiation, is
available to producers for absorption.
Ecology [71]

(iv) Under favourable environmental conditions, only about 1-5 percent energy of incident radiation or 2-
10 percent of PAR is actually captured by the photosynthetic process (gross primary productivity), and
the remaining portion is dissipated. Since the simultaneously occuring respiratory processes are energy
consuming and use up the part of the photosynthetic gain, the net capture of energy (Net primary
productivity) is reduced to only 0.8-4 percent of the incident total radiation, or 1.6-8 percent of PAR.
Only the energy captured can be used by other trophic levels.
Incident solar radiation
(100%)
Photosynthetically Absorbed by gases/water vapour

Active Radfiation (PAR) Reflected by clouds
(50%) Scattered by dust particles
(50%)
Captured in photosynthesis
(gross primary productivity)
(1-5%)
Loss in respiration
(0.2-1%)
Net primary productivity
(0.8-4%)
Food Flow Model :

1. A simplified representation of energy flow through ecosystem has been made in figure presented. Two
aspects with respect to energy flow in ecosystem need careful consideration. First, the energy flows
one ways, i.e., form producers to herbivores to carnivores; it cannot be transferred in the reverse
direction.
2. Second, the amount of energy flow decreases with successive trophic levels. Producers capture
only a small fraction of solar energy flow decreases with successive trophic levels. Producers capture
only a small fraction of solar energy (1-5 percent of total solar radiation), and the bulk of unutilised
energy is dissipated mostly as heat. Part of the energy capture in gross production their standing crop
(respiration) and for providing food to herbivores (herbivory). The unutilised net primary production is
ultimately converted to detritus, which serves as energy source to decomposers.
3. Thus, energy actually used by the herbivore trophic level is only a small fraction of the energy captured at
the producer level. On an average, in different ecosystems, the herbivore assimilation or productivity
approximates 10 percent of gross productivity of producers.
4. The enrgy assimilated by the herbivores is used in respiration and a fraction of unassimilated energy is
transferred to decomposers (eg., Faecal matter). The remaining herbivore level energy available at carnivore
trophic level is again partitioned leaving a very small fraction to support the next trophic level (top carnivore).
5. The respiration cost also increases sharply along successive higher trophic levels. On an average, respiration
in producer consumes about 20 percent of its gross productivity. Herbivores consume about 30 percent of
assimilated energy in respiration. The proportion of assimilated energy consumed in respiration rises to about
60 percent in carnivores. Because of this tremendous loss of energy at successive higher trophic levels, the
residual energy is decreased to such an extent that no further trophic level can be supported. Therefore, the
length of food chains in an ecosystem is generally limited to 3-4 trophic levels.
Ecology [72]

Solar
radiation
IIIrd & IVth Trophic Level

Ist Trophic IInd Trophic Level Sec. And Tert. Consumers
Level (Plants) Primary consumers (Carnivores and Top carnivores)
Photosynthesis Producers Herbivory Herbivores Carnivory Carnivores

GP A A
NU NU NU NU NU NU
Heat Heat Heat
Decomposers R
Fig.: A generalized energy flow model of ecosystem : Boxes represent biotic components and the
arrows show the pathways of energy transfer; SR-Solar radiation: GP-Gross primary
productivity ; A-Assimilation; R-Respiration; NU-Not utilised; NA, Not assimilated
Food Chain :
1. In ecosystem every organism depends on other organism for food material and all organism are (herbivores
to carnivores) arranged in a series in which food energy is transferred through repeated eating and being
eaten. It is called food chain. In food chain, energy flow is in the form of food.
2. In a food chain, food material or food energy is transfer from one trophic level to next trophic level.
3. Four trophic levels are present in the ecosystem, because level of energy decreases during the flow of
energy from one trophic to the another trophic level.
First trophic level [T1] = Producers
Second trophic level [T2] = Primary consumers
Third trophic level [T3] = Secondary consumers
Fourth trophic level [T4] = Top consumers
4. Five trophic levels found in highly complex ecosystem in which tertiary consumer is present in
between the secondary consumers and top consumer. Then the fifth trophic level (T5) is formed by the
top consumer.
5. In food chain energy flow is unidirectional (preducers to herbivores).
6. Shorter food chains will provide greater energy.
7. Generally the decomposers (Bacteria and Fungi) are not included in the food chain but when included
then included as the last trophic level.
Type of Food Chains :

1. In nature three type of food chain are present-
(a) Grazing food chains or Predatory food chain - Most of food chain in nature are of this type. This
food chain begins with Producers (plants) and in successive order it goes from small organism to big
organism.
Ecology [73]

(i) Aquatic ecosystem :
Producer Pri. consumer Sec. consumer Top consumers
   
Phytoplankton  Zooplankton  Small fish  Large fish
   
T1 T2 T3 T4
(ii) Grass land ecosystem :

Producer Pri. consumer Sec. consumer Top consumers
   
Grass  Rabbit  Fox  Lion
   
T1 T2 T3 T4
2. Parasitic food chain - This food chain also starts from producers but in successive order it goes from
big organism to the smaller organisms.
eg.,
Tree ecosystem
Tree  Birds  Parasites
  
T1 T2 T3
Note : Both above food chains are directly dependent on solar radiation (as a primary source of
energy) and have rapid energy flow.
3. Detritus food chain or Saprophytic food chain - This food chain begins with decomposition of dead
organic matter by decomposers so it is also known as saprophytic food chain. In this food chain
primary consumers are bacteria and fungi.
Dead organic matter  Bacteria, fungi
Note :
(i) In mangrove vegetation this food chain goes up to big organism.
(ii) Dead mangroves leave  Bacteria & fungi  Amphipds, molluscs, crabs, nematodes  small fishes 
fish eating birds.
(iii) In detritus food chain energy flow is rather very slow yet magnitude of energy is great because vast
number of decomposers are involved.
(iv) It does not depends on light.
(v) In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC(Grazing Food Chain) is the major conduit (source) of energy flow. As
against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger energy flow through the detritus food chain (as
it is small) than through the grazing food chain.
(vi) In Sunderbans, Tigers feed on the fishes and crab in the absence of their natural prey.
Food Web :
1. In big ecosystem many food chains are interlinked together on different trophic levels to form food web.
In food web transfer of food energy is unidirectional but from many different alternative pathways.
Ecology [74]

2. In food web members of a particular trophic level obtain their food according to their choice and taste
but that type of facility is not present in food chain. It means they have more than one option or
alternative for getting food.
3. As mush as food web is complex that ecosystem is more permanent or stable, such type of
ecosystem is not destroyed naturally and continues for long time. This ecosystme is not affected by loss
of any organism of any particular trophic level. Those ecosystems which have simple food web are
not very stable it means that they can be finished at any time, if there is a change in any particular
trophic level.
Insects Frog Eagle
Rats Snake Peacock
Plants Deer
Rabbit
Fox, Jackal, Wolf Lion
Goat
[T1] [T2] [T3] [T4]
Pyramids of Ecosystem :
Graphical representation of ecological parameters at different trophic levels and trophic structure in
ecosystem is called pyramids. These parameters are Number, Biomass and Energy. First of all,
pyramid was formed by Charis Elton; So we called it Eltonian pyramids.
These Pyramid are of three types
(1) Pyramids of number, (2) Pyramids of energy, (3) Pyramids of biomass.
(1) Pyramids of number -
(a) In this type of pyramid the number of individual organism in various trophic level is shown. These
pyramid are mostly upright, because number of producers [T1] is maximum and number of herbivores
and carnivores decrease towards apex or at successive trophic levels, such as Grassland ecosystem
and aquatic ecosystem.
Lion
Fox Small Fish
Rabbit Zooplankton
Grass Phytoplankton
Grass land Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
Ecology [75]

(b) But in a tree ecosystem the pyramid of numbers is inverted. This is called parasitic ecosystem.
Because birds (herbivores) depend on the tree (producer) and parasites (consumer) like bugs, lices
depend on birds, therefore with increase in the number of trophic levels, the number of the organisms
increase sequentially.
Parasites
Birds
Tree
Tree Ecosystem
Note :
(i) Maximum number of producers are present in aquatic ecosystem. The number of organism at any
trophic level depends upon the availability of organisms which are used as food on lower level
so availability of food is main factor.
(ii) Pyramid of number shows biotic potential of a ecosystem. The number of members of any particular
species in favourable conditions is called their biotic potential. When the numbers of the members of
any species increases over the limit then it is called population explosion. Because of this existence
of the species comes in danger. Human population is also near this condition at present.
(2) Pyramid of Biomass -
(a) Pyramids of biomass represent the total amount of biomass of each trophic level of ecosystem, mostly
these pyramids are also upright (erect) eg., tree ecosystem, forest ecosystem.
Parasites
Birds
Tree
Pyramid of biomass in Tree ecosystem

(b) Pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem is inverted because in it producers are micro-organism and
their biomass is very less.
T4 Large fishes (Top consumers)

T3 Small fishes (Sec. Consumers)
T2 Zooplanktons (Pri. Consumers)

T1
Phytoplanktons (Producers)
Ecology [76]

Note : Pyramid of lake on the basis of biomass-
T3
T2
T1
(3) Pyramids of energy -

(a) It represent amount of energy at different trophic levels, energy pyramids are always upright or erect
because there is a gradual decrease in energy at successive trophic levels. According to the 10% law
of Lindeman, the 90% part of obtained energy of each organism is utilized in their various metabolic
activites and heat and only 10% energy is transferred to the next trophic level. So 90% energy is lost
at each trophic level, therefore top consumers like lion etc. are ecologically weakest but physically
they are strong.
Note : Pyramids of energy represent the productivity of ecosystem as well as transfer of production in
ecosystem.
Ecosystem Shape of Pyramid
Pyramid of Number
Grassland Uprigint
Forest Inverted
Aquatic Upright
Pyramid of Biomass
Grassland Upright
Forest Upright
Aquatic (Lake) Inverted
Pyramid of Energy
All ecosystems Upright
4. Nutrient Cycling / Biogeochemical Cycle :

Bio – Living organism
Geo – Rock, Soil, Water
Chemcial – Material or Nutrients
(a) All the types of material required by ecosystem in addition of energy, are available continuously to
ecosystem through recyling. Thus there is a constant exhcange of materials between the living organism
and their abiotic environment through the recyling of materials. This phenomenon is called Biogeochemical
cycle.
(b) The mineral elements taken up from the enviroment (soil as well as air) by the green plant, (the
producers), are again returned to the environment through consumers and decomposers.
(c) The following types of cycles are found in an ecosystem
(i) Gaseous Cycle - C, H, N, O cycle. Reservior is in the atmosphere (air) or in Hydrosphere(water).
(ii) Sedimentary cycle - P, S, Ca cycles reservoirs are in earth’s crust (lithosphere)
(iii) In these cycles, the bulk material remains in the inactive reservoir on earth crust like sediment of sea
or water bodies.
(iv) Nutrient cycles can be conveniently considered under the following three aspects as shown in above
figure.
Ecology [77]

(v) Input of Nutrients : Ecosystem receives nutrients form external sources and stores them for further
used though biological processes. For example, nutrients in dissolved state are gained from rainfall (wet
deposition), or in particular state from dust fall (dry deposition). Symbiotic biological fixation of nitrogen
in soil also represents an input. Weathering of soil parent materials, which releases available nutrients from their
fixed state, is another example of input.
(vi) Output of Nutrients : Nutrients are moved out of an ecosystem and many become input to another
ecosystem. For example, considered loss of nutrients like calcium and magnesium (from soil particle)
occurs through runoff water, or through soil erosion. Significant amount of nitrogen may be lost in
gaseous form by the denitrification process in soil. Harvesting of agricultural crops or transportation of
logs from forest, represent nutrient loss from these ecosystems.
Atmospheric input Gaseous output
Ecosystem
Producers Consumers
Uptake Recycle Recycle
Soil
Hydrologic and
Economic output
Weathering input
Fig.: A generalised model of ecosystem nutrient cycling : Nutrients are brought in (input), moved out (output), and
cycled internally in the ecosystem. Boxes represent ecosystem components and arrows show the pathways
of nutrients transfers.
(vi) In an undisturbed ecosystem, (ie., an ecosystem in which human activities are absent or nearly so)
the input of nutrients may approximately equal the output of nutrients, rendering the nutrient cycle
more or less balanced.
(vii) Generally, the absolute amounts of nutrient moving in (input) and moving out (output) of the ecosystem
are much less than the amount of nutrients cycled within (amongst different components) the ecosystem.
Sever disturbances in the ecosystem (e.g., Tree felling, insect outbreak, fire, soil erosion, etc.) may make
the nutrient cycles unbalanced and the ecosystem unstable. The soil can be lost rapidly by erosion after
removal of natural vegetation.
(viii) Internal Nutrient Cycling : Plants absorb varying amounts of nutrients from the soil. Due to
decomposition of dead organic matter, nutrients are continuously regenerated and strored in soil and
available to the plant. A dynamic state exists in soil, with nutrient regeneration and absorption occuring
simultaneously.
Ecology [78]

(ix) The transfer of nutrients form the soil to plants by the process of nutrient absorption is known as
uptake. The absorbed nutrients are metabolically incorporated in plants during growth. Periodically,
nutrients are recycled i.e., brought back to soil through litter fall from vegetation, animal remains and
faecal matter, etc. The overground, as well as root detritus decompose to regenerate the nutrients.
(x) Eventually, nutrients contained in the detritus on soil surface and within, are regenerated by decomposition
in plant-available forms.
(xi) When the uptake of nutrient exceeds the amount recycled (e.g., as in the case of a young growing
forest), a fraction of the uptake is retained in the standing crop. This retension of balance nutrients
in the standing crop leads to increase in nutrients content of the ecosystem. Thus, in a nutrient cycle:
Retention = Uptake – Recycle.
(xii) Rates of nutrient uptake, recycle and retention vary widely in different ecosystems. A large number of
chemical methods are available for determining the amounts of different nutrients per unit weight of
biomass of soil. By determining changes in the nutrient concentrations and biomass with time, the
nutrient budget of the ecosystems can be computed.
Carbon Cycle :
The main source of carbon is atmosphere and in hydrosphere it is rocks of carbonates. Carbon
present in lithosphere in the form of coal and petroleum. The carbon released from them is present in
the atmosphere in the form of carbodioxide. The green autotrophs utilize CO2 from the air to synthesize
food materials which is obtained by other organisms as food. Carnivors obtain their organic food from
the herbivores. These carbonic matter produce CO2 through the oxidation or respiration which dissolve
in air or water and again utilized by the plants.
Photosynthesis
Atmospheric Co2
Respiration
Burning
Respiration
Respiration
by
soil
organisms
Plants Animals Fossil fuel
Soil
Decomposition Solution
Detritus
Root respiration
Ecology [79]

Nitrogen Cycle :
Atomsphere is the only source of nitrogen 78% nitrogen is present in atmospheric air. Plants absorb
nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions mainly.
Nitrogen cycle is completed in following steps
1. Nitrogen fixation -
(a) In this process first of all some bacteria and blue green algae converts atmospheric
nitrogen in to nitrogenous, compounds viz ammonia, amino acid or nitrate salts.
e.g.
Bacteria – Rhizohbium, Aerorhizobium, Azospirillum
Frankia, Clostridium, Azotobacter
Blue green algae – Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Aulosira, Nostoc  In flooded rice field in
tropics
Note :
(1) Azotobacter is aerobic bacteria
(2) Clostridium is anaerobic bacteria
(3) Symbiotic relationship where the nitrogen fixing bacteria does not penetrate deep into
host tissue, known as associative symbiosis. Azospirillum with grass paspalum notatum.
2. Nitrification –
(a) Conversion of ammonia into nitrate is called nitrification.
Nitrification process complete in two steps.
NH 3 Nitrosomon
   as
 NO 2 Nitrobacte
 r  NO 3
(b) Few quantity of nitrate comes in soil by electrochemical or photochemical process or physical N2
fixation.
(c) Now few quantity of this nitrate absorb by plants from soil.
Wet and dry

Atmospheric N2 deposition
Nitrogen fixation by free-living
and symbiotic microbes
Consumers Plants
Denitrification
Detritus Litter fall

Ammonification
Uptake
Soil Nitrosomonas Soil Nitrobacter Soil

Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate
Runoff
Seepage
3. Nitrogen assimilation –
Plants absorb nitrate from the soil and form protein. When consumers eat these plant proteins is
transferred into consumer.
Ecology [80]

4. Ammonification –
Protein present in litter, is converted into ammonia by some ammonifying bacteria. e.g. Bacillus vulgaris,
Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus ramosus
5. Denitrification –
Some quantity of nitrate which is not used by plants is converted into nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria.
e.g. Thiobacillus denitrificans, Pseudomonas denitrificans
Note : some nitrate washed out from the ecosystem through seepage.
Phosphorus Cycle
1. Phosphorus is the main constituent of protoplasm, plasma membrane, bones and teeth. Main source of
phosphorus is rocks. If comes from the weathering of phosphorus containing rock in the soil. Plants
absorb this phosphrous from the soil and transfer this phosphate to animals and after the death of
animals it is released again into the lithosphere by the action of decmposers.
2. Sometime some of the elements like phosphorus and calcium reach into the sea through water, from
where they transform into rocks. They separate from the cycle for a long time so it is also known as
sedimentary cycle.
3. But when these rocks break after sometime then this phosphorus is again made available to the sea plant
or sea weeds, which pass into fish and sea birds. The excretory materials of birds on the rocks of sea
shore is called Guano and and it is a source of phosphorus.
4. Plants absorb phosphate from the soil in the form of orthophosphate (Po43–)
5. Phosphorous cycle differ from nitrogen and carbon cycle in atmospheric input of phosphorous through
rainfall is much smaller and gaseous exchange of phosphorous between organism and environment is
negligeble, which both are considerable in Nitrogen and Carbon cycle.
Consumers Producers
Litter Fall
Detritus
Decomposition
Soil Uptake
Solution
Runoff
Weathering
Rock
Minerals
Water Cycle :
1. Water is indispensable for life. Sea is the main source of water on earth. Water is always present in the
atmosphere in the form of water vapour. Water is also evaporated from other places from where it reaches
into the atmosphere. These vapours form clouds in the atmosphere, condensation of water vapour forms
clouds, moist, fog and ice at high altitudes. It comes again on he earth in above forms.
Ecology [81]

2. Water cycle plays a significant role on the earth. Plants and animals receive water or absorb water.
Water participates in various metabolic activites of the body of organisms and again it is formed. Water
is converted into food through the photosynthesis in plants. Water is also present in protoplasm of all
organisms. This water again comes into the atmosphere through transpiration from the plants and
evaporation and sweating from the animals. Thus this cycle goes on continuously. The oxygen cycle and
hydrogen cycle is also found in the ecosystem as above cycles.
Note :
(i) Water cycle is diectly operated by solar radiation and it is under the control of forests.
(ii) The term Cycle is used for the movement of matter and the term Flow  is used for the
movement of energy.
SPECIAL POINT :
(i) Ecological efficiency - The percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next is
called ecological efficiency or food chain efficiency.
Energy in biomass production at a trophic level

E.E = × 100
Energy in biomass production at previous trophic level
(ii) Assimilation efficiency - It is the production of consumed energy that is assimilated.

Food energy assimilate d
A.E. = × 100
Food energy ingested
(iii) Net production efficiency -
Net pri. productivi ty
N.P.E. = × 100
G.P.P.
(iv) Photosynthetic efficiency -
G.P.P.
P.E. = × 100
Inciden total solar radiation
Humus
Environmental Conditions Humification
 Detritus Fragmentation
Leaching catabolism
Co2, H2O, Nutrients
Mineralisation
Ecology [82]

EXERCISE - 1
Q.1 Eltonian pyramids of numbers are upright in one Q.9 The best arrangement of an energy system
of the following ecosystem - consisting of hawks, snakes, mice and grasses
(1) Grassland (2) Tree is -
(3) Pond (4) Both (1) and (3) (1) Grass  mice  snake  hawks
Q.2 The type of food chain in which organic matter (2) Grass  snake  mice  hawks
decomposed is converted into energy rich (3) Grass  mice  hawks  snakes
compounds is called - (4) Mice  snake  hawks  grass
(1) Detritus food chain (2) Grazing food chain Q.10 If a big fish eats small fish which eats Hydra
(3) Cybernetics (4) None above who in turn eats water fleas ; water fleas in turn
Q.3 One of Eltonian pyramids have to be upright eat phytoplankton. In this chain, water fleas will
always - be -
(1) Biomass (2) Energy (1) Producers
(3) Number (4) All of these (2) Primary consumers
Q.4 Word 'ecosystem' was coined by - (3) Secondary consumers
(1) Elton (2) Tansley
(4) Top consumer
(3) Odum (4) Billing
Q.11 The graphic representation of trophic level is
Q.5 Biotic components include -
represented by a pyramid. Which of the
(1) producers only following pyramid is always a true pyramid
(2) consumers only unlike the others ?
(3) producers and consumers only (1) Pyramid of number
(4) producers, consumers and decomposers
(2) Pyramid of biomass
Q.6 The last organisms of the food chain are
(3) Pyramid of energy
generally-
(4) Both (1) and (3)
(1) photosynthetic plants
Q.12 Which of the following constitutes the structure
(2) herbivores
of an ecosystem ?
(3) carnivores
(1) Ecological community
(4) decomposers
(2) Quantity and distribution of abiotic materials
Q.7 In an ecosystem, the population of -
(3) Range of physical conditions
(1) primary producers is larger than primary
consumers (4) All the above
(2) secondary consumers is largest Q.13 Ecosystem comprises both abiotic and biotic
(3) primary consumers out numbers primary components. Biotic component of an ecosystem
producers consists of -
(4) primary consumers are least dependent (1) Producers (2) Consumers
upon primary producers (3) Decomposers (4) All the above
Q.8 An aquatic ecosystem consists of - Q.14 Autotrophic organisms (green plants), which
(1) biotic factors capture solar energy to synthesise organic food
(2) biotic and abiotic factors are called -
(3) consumers only (1) Producers (2) Consumers
(4) producers only (3) Decomposers (4) None of the above
Ecology [83]

Q.15 In a pyramid of numbers representing an Q.23 The importance of ecosystem maintenance lies
ecosystem of a large freshwater pond the in -
number of primary consumers is - (1) Cycling of materials
(1) More than the secondary consumers (2) Flow of energy
(2) Less than the secondary consumers (3) Both of the above
(3) Less than the producers (4) None of these
(4) Less than the tertiary consumers Q.24 The amount of energy, utilized by herbivores
Q.16 Food chain refers to - from the plants is -
(1) A number of human beings forming a chain (1) 5 % (2) 10 %
for food (3) 50 % (4) 90 %
(2) The transfer of food energy from producers Q.25 The percentage of net primary production of
to consumers total light intake is -
(3) Animals near a source of food (1) 10 % (2) 0.8 – 4 %
(4) None of the above (3) 10 – 20 % (4) 15 %
Q.17 The sequence of species through which the Q.26 The flow of materials and energy in an
organic molecules in community pass is called ecosystem is respectively -
is - (1) Cyclic only (2) Linear only
(1) Food web (2) Food chain (3) Linear and cyclic (4) Cyclic and linear
(3) Nutrient cycle (4) Pyramid of energy Q.27 Mark the incorrect statement with reference to
Q.18 A group of interconnected food chains is called- carbon cycle -
(1) Pyramid of energy (2) Food web (1) Lime rocks contribute to CO2 of water
(3) Food cycle (4) Complex food chain (2) Atmospheric CO2 gets dissolved in water
Q.19 The energy which is utilized by the living world (3) CO2 is returned by combustion of fuel
is primarily - (4) 75% of total carbon lies in geological
component
(1) Heat (2) Electricity
Q.28 The sulphate rocks are formed in ocean by
(3) Light (4) Kinetic
leaching of -
Q.20 Energy flow in ecosystem is -
(1) FeS and Fe2S3
(1) Unidirectional (2) Bidirectional
(2) Organic sulphates and -SH
(3) Multidirectional (4) None of the above
(3) Soluble inorganic sulphates
Q.21 The rate at which new tissues are formed in
(4) All of these
producers is the ecosystem's -
Q.29 Biogeochemical cycling means -
(1) Net primary productivity
(1) Cycling of nutrients in an ecosystem
(2) Gross primary productivity
(2) Cycling of water
(3) Net secondary productivity
(3) Cycling of energy in an ecosystem
(4) Gross secondary productivity
(4) Cycling of gases between plants and the
Q.22 How much amount of light is used in the atmosphere
production process by plants ? Q.30 The least productive ecosystem is -
(1) 1 to 5% (2) 5% to 10% (1) Coastal seas (2) Very deep lakes
(3) 20 to 40% (4) more than 70% (3) Grasslands (4) Moist forests
Ecology [84]

Q.31 One of the following is sedimentary cycle ? Q.40 Which of the following does not contribute
(1) Carbon (2) Hydrogen directly to the recycling pathways of trophics ?
(3) Nitrogen (4) Phosphorus (1) Bacteria and fungi feeders
Q.32 The primary consumers in a pond ecosystem is- (2) Plants
(1) Phytoplankton (2) Zooplankton (3) Carnivores (4) Herbivores
(3) Fishes (4) Bacteria Q.41 Efficiency of any ecosystem is best depicted by
Q.33 The number of primary producers within a pyramid of -
specified area would be minimum in -
(1) Energy (2) Number
(1) Grassland (2) Pond ecosystem
(3) Biomass (4) Volume
(3) Desert (4) Forest ecosystem
Q.42 The correct match is -
Q.34 The river mouth ecosystem is called as -
(1) Producers-act upon the decomposed
(1) Estuarine (2) Lotic
substances and transform them into
(3) Lentic (4) None of these
different forms of inorganic and organic
Q.35 In a natural ecosystem, decomposers include-
substances
(1) Bacteria and fungi (2) Parasitic algae
(2) Consumers-are autotrophic members of
(3) Macroscopic animals
(4) All the above ecosystem
Q.36 Which of the following is not true for man made (3) Decomposers-feed upon dead decaying
ecosytems ? living organisms and break them into simpler
(1) They are highly efficient compounds fit for use of producers
(2) They lack the diversity of natural ecosystems (4) None of these
(3) They mainly comprise seasonal vegetation Q.43 The first trophic level in any kind of food chain
or one chosen crop. is always a green plant because -
(4) Parks and aquaria are not man-made (1) Of their wide distribution
ecosystems. (2) They alone have a capacity to fix
Q.37 Lotic ecosystem refers to - atmospheric CO2, in the presence/absence
(1) Ecosystem of estuary water of sunlight
(2) Deep marine-water ecosystem (3) Of their richness in chlorophyll
(3) Ecosystem of flowing water (4) Of their capacity to convert light energy to
(4) Static-water ecosystem chemical energy
Q.38 The ecosystem of a pond is referred to as- Q.44 The creating force of an any ecosystem is-
(1) Lentic (2) Lotic
(1) Organic fuels, carbohydrates
(3) Xeric (4) Benthic
(2) Biomass
Q.39 The correct sequence of components through
(3) Solar energy
which energy may pass from initial source,
(4) Producers
through an ecosystem is -
Q.45 When frog eats grasshopper which thrives on
(1) Sun – autotrophs-heterotrophs– environment
green plants, the frog is -
– space
(1) Primary producer (2) Herbivore
(2) Space – environment – heterotrophs –
autotrophs – sun (3) Primary carnivore (4) Top consumer
(3) Sun – space – environment – heterotrophs Q.46 The largest ecosystem in the world is
– autotrophs contributed by -
(4) Sun – space – environment – autotrophs – (1) Forests (2) Rivers
heterotrophs (3) Oceans (4) Grasslands
Ecology [85]

Q.47 If the primary producers are absent from any Q.56 One of the following is a true micro-ecosystem
ecosystem which of the following will occur ? (1) One litre of water from a pond kept in an
(1) Herbivores will not survive air tight flask
(2) Carnivores will not survive (2) One litre of tap water in a flask covered over
(3) Both will be disintegrated because of food by cotton plug
absence (3) Ten litre of boiled pond water covered over
by a lid
(4) No change will take place
(4) One litre of pond water closed with a cork
Q.48 Grasshopper in grassland is a -
having gas exchange tube.
(1) Producer (2) Herbivore
Q.57 The decomposers in an ecosystem constitute the
(3) Carnivore (4) None of these
following trophic level -
Q.49 The pyramid of number for forest ecosystem is- (1) T1 (2) T3
(1) Upright (2) Inverted (3) T5 (4) T4
(3) Both of above (4) None of above Q.58 If all the green plants were to disappear from
Q.50 They can be put in the category of primary the earth -
consumers - (1) All the animal will die
(1) Eagles and tigers (2) Fishes and whales (2) Only the herbivores will die
(3) Snakes and frogs (4) insects and cattles (3) Only the carnivores will die
Q.51 The study of fresh water ecology is - (4) It will not matter to any one because
(1) Hydrology (2) Ecology chemosynthetic bacteria will produce food
for all
(3) Limnology (4) Geology
Q.59 The bacteria which attack the dead animals are-
Q.52 The place where fresh water joins the salt water
(1) First link of the food chain and are known
is called as -
as primary producers
(1) Island (2) Lagoon
(2) Second link of the food chain and are
(3) Beach (4) Estuary herbivorous
Q.53 The word standing crop in ecosystem refers to- (3) Third link of the food chain and are tertiary
(1) Living components consumers
(2) Non-living components (4) The end of the food chain and are
(3) Both living and non-living components decomposers
(4) None of the above Q.60 The number of producers and consumers in an
Q.54 The pyramid of energy in any ecosystem is- ecosystem is mutually controlled by a -
(1) Always upright (1) Feed back mechanism
(2) Food chain mechanism
(2) May be upright
(3) Productivity control
(3) Always inverted
(4) Any of these
(4) None of the above
Q.61 The non-green plants are as important as the
Q.55 Which of the following organisms can convert
green plants because they -
ammonium or nitrates into amino acids ?
(1) Cause human disease
(1) Scavengers (2) Cause diseases of other plants
(2) Producers (3) Are useful in several industries
(3) Primary consumers (4) Bring about decomposition of dead animals
(4) Primary detritivores and plant remains
Ecology [86]

Q.62 The ecosystem of earth is known as - Q.70 The pyramid of number in a forest ecosystem
(1) Biome (2) Community is -
(3) Biosphere (4) Association (1) Rhomboidal (2) Upright
Q.63 In any given ecosystem, the number of (3) Inverted (4) Linear
individuals of a species remain more or less Q.71 The pyramid of biomass in a parasitic ecosystem
constant over a period of time. This constancy is -
of numbers is maintained by - (1) Upright (2) Inverted
(1) Parasites (2) Predators (3) Linear (4) Rhomboidal
(3) Human beings (4) Available food
Q.72 The pyramid of biomass in a shallow pond
Q.64 The ecosystem exists in a state of 'balance'. ecosystem is -
Supposing one of the heterotrophs, says the
(1) Inverted (2) Upright
rabbit, multiplies and increases in number
(3) Rhomboidal (4) Linear
suddenly then -
Q.73 The cybernetic of an ecosystem refers to -
(1) The balance will be permanently upset
because the rabbits will eat the grass in the (1) Harvest index
system and die of starvation. (2) A feed back mechanism
(2) The 'balance' will be restored by an increase (3) Regulation of equilibrium
in the wolf population (4) Reverse energy flow
(3) Epidemics will break out in the rabbits and Q.74 The gross production minus losses respiration in
kill all of them an ecosystem is indicated as-
(4) Rabbits will starts eating each other (1) Net production
Q.65 Which of the following terms is not a synonym (2) Secondary production
literally for ecosystem ? (3) Net storage
(1) Ecosom (2) Ecosphere (4) Net primary production
(3) Microcosm (4) Holocoene
Q.75 The biotic and abiotic components of the
Q.66 The amount of living matter present in a ecosystem are connected through -
component population of a particular trophic level
(1) Standing quality
is called as -
(2) Climatic regime
(1) Standing crop (2) Standing quality
(3) Transducers
(3) Both of these (4) Standing state
(4) Humification and mineralization
Q.67 Which of the following is the smallest unit?
Q.76 The rate of storage at consumer level is -
(1) Biosphere (2) Ecosphere
(1) Secondary productivity
(3) Ecosystem (4) Biome
(2) Tertiary productivity
Q.68 The term reducer is applied to -
(1) Decomposers (2) Detrivores (3) Both of these
(3) Both of these (4) Heterotrophs (4) Net productivity
Q.69 In a parasitic food chain which trophic level is Q.77 The SO2 is returned to the atmosphere by-
represented by bugs and lices ? (1) Metabolism of producers
(1) T4 (2) T3 (2) Metabolism of consumers
(3) T2 (4) T1 (3) Both of these
(4) Combustion of fuel
Ecology [87]

Q.78 A group of interacting living things and all the Q.82 Organisms which acquire energy and nutrients
environmental factors with which they interact by digesting the organic molecules of living
are together called - organisms are called -
(1) Ecosystem (2) Succession (1) Producers (2) Consumers
(3) Producers (4) Ecological niche (3) Detritivores (4) None of the above
Q.79 An ecosystem does not normally alter because Q.83 Which of the following is the trophic level of
it is in a state of - man in an ecosystem ?
(1) Deficient light (1) Omnivore (2) Carnivore
(2) Imbalance (3) Herbivore (4) Producer
(3) Homeostasis Q.84 The rate at which new tissues are formed in
(4) Deficient components producers is called the primary net productivity
Q.80 The immediate surroundings of an ecosystem are of the ecosystem. About how much of the net
called - primary productivity of a terrestrial ecosystem
(1) Macroenvironment (2) Microenvironment is eaten and digested by herbivores ?
(3) Biosphere (4) Both (1) and (2) (1) 2 % (2) 10 %
Q.81 Raymond Lindmann (1942) used the term trophic (3) 50 % (4) 85 %
level. Trophic levels are formed by- Q.85 Net community productivity (NCP) is the -
(1) Animals only (1) Total rate of photosynthesis
(2) Plants only (2) Chemical energy left after utilization by plants
(3) Organisms linked in food chains (3) Rate of storage of organic matter not used
(4) Top consumers in food chain by heterotrophs
(4) Energy wasted by carnivores
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 2 2 4 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 4 1 2 2 2 2 3 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 3 2 2 4 4 3 1 2 4 2 3 1 1 4 3 1 4 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 1 4 3 4 1 1 2 4 3 1 4 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 3 4 2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 3 1 4 1 3 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85
Ans. 3 2 1 2 3
Ecology [88]

EXERCISE - 2
Q.1 A food chain consists of - Q.9 The total amount of living material at various
(1) Producers, carnivores and decomposers levels of a food chain is depicted by -
(2) Producers, herbivores and carnivores (1) Pyramid of numbers
(3) Producers and primary consumers (2) Pyramid of energy
(4) Producers, consumers and decomposers (3) Pyramid of biomass
Q.2 The herbivores that feed directly on producers
(4) All the above
are called -
Q.10 In the diagram, different pyramids are shown.
(1) Primary consumers
Which one is the pyramid of numbers in a
(2) Secondary consumers
temperate forest ?
(3) Tertiary consumers
(4) Quarternary consumers
Q.3 Within the ecosystem, energy is transferred (1) (2)
from organism to organism in the form of -
(1) Light (2) Heat
(3) Chemicals (4) None of the above
Q.4 The rate at which light energy is converted to (3) (4)
chemical energy of organic molecules is the
ecosystem's - Q.11 Which of these is the food chain which runs
(1) Net primary productivity from larger to smaller organisms ?
(2) Net secondary productivity (1) Grazing food chain
(3) Gross primary productivity (2) Predator food chain
(4) Gross secondary productivity (3) Saprophytic food chain
Q.5 Producers in an ecosystem are - (4) Parasitic food chain
(1) Green organisms which fix solar energy Q.12 The type of food chain in which decomposed
by photosynthesis organic matter is converted into energy -rich
(2) Aanimals which cause an increase in compounds is called -
biomass
(1) Cybernetics
(3) Organisms which can be used as
manure (2) Detritus food chain
(4) Animals in the food chain which produce (3) Grazing food chain
more energy than they consume (4) None of these
Q.6 The dominant second trophic level in a lake Q.13 Biological equilibrium is equilibrium amongst-
ecosystem is - (1) Consumers and decomposers
(1) Phytoplankton (2) Zooplankton (2) Producers and consumers
(3) Benthos (4) Nekton
(3) Producers and decomposers
Q.7 Which of the following animals is dominant in
(4) Producers, consumers and decomposers
desert ecosystem?
(1) Leopard (2) Lizard Q.14 If we completely remove the decomposers
(3) Hyla (4) Tiger from an ecosystem, the ecosystem functioning
Q.8 Pyramid of numbers is upright in which of the will be adversely affected because-
ecosystems ? (1) Energy flow will be blocked
(1) Pond ecosystem (2) Rate of decomposition of other
(2) Tree ecosystem components will be very high
(3) Grassland ecosystem (3) Herbivores will not receive solar energy
(4) None of these (4) Mineral movement will be blocked
Ecology [89]

Q.15 Zooplankton includes - Q.24 Denitrification is -
(1) Ciliates (2) Flagellates (1) Reduction of NO2 to ammonia by bacteria
(3) Small crustaceans (4) All the above in the soil
Q.16 Energy and nutrients enter in a community by (2) Conversion of ammonia to amino acids
way of the - (3) Conversion of ammonia and nitrates to
(1) Detritivores (2) Producers gaseous nitrogen
(3) Scavengers (4) Consumers (4) Oxidation of ammonia to nitrate
Q.17 Food webs are 3-D web of interrelations in Q.25 Nitrogen cycle involves bacteria capable of
which several food chains are interlinked. It changing proteins to ammonia called as -
helps to provide - (1) Bacteria of decay
(1) Alternate pathways for flow of energy (2) Denitrifying bacteria
(2) More variety and quality of food at each (3) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
trophic level (4) Ammonifying bacteria
(3) Stability to ecosystem Q.26 Ruthless exploitation and pollution of the
(4) All of these environment has increased the magnitude of
Q.18 Which food chain is directly dependent upon waste materials which has disturbed the
solar radiations - operations of all important-
(1) Grazing (2) Parasitic (1) Biomes
(3) Detritus (4) All of these (2) Ecosystems
Q.19 The most productive ecosystem is - (3) Bio-geo-chemical cycles
(1) Temperate forest (2) Coral reef (4) All of the above
(3) Estuary (4) Sugarcane field Q.27 Carbon is available to crop plants in the form
Q.20 All ecosystems have no boundary because- of-
(1) They require minerals for their functioning (1) Amino acids (2) Carbon dioxide
(2) They cannot occur in isolation (3) Elemental carbon (4) Carbonates
(3) The are large in size Q.28 Which of the following contribute to the
(4) They require light from all sources carbon cycle ?
Q.21 A ecological pyramid, devised by C. Elton 1927; (1) Photosynthesis
is a graphic diagram that shows relationship (2) Respiration
between - (3) Fossil fuel combustion
(1) Transfer of food through food chains (4) All of the above
(2) Organisms Q.29 Of more immediate concern regarding carbon
(3) Various trophic levels of a food chain cycle is -
(4) Populations and communities within an (1) Output rate of carbon locked in deposits
ecosystem of coal, petroleum and natural gas
Q.22 The denitrifying bacteria are - (2) Green house gases
(1) Micrococcus denitrificans (3) Increase in the total mass of carbon in
(2) Pseudomonas earth's atmosphere by 12-14%
(3) Thiobacillus (4) All of the above
(4) All of the above Q.30 The organisms which participate most
Q.23 In nitrogen cycle, which of the following plays actively in nitrogen cycle in nature are -
an important role ? (1) Saprophytic angiosperms
(1) Rhizopus (2) Nitrobacter (2) Parasitic fungi
(3) Mucor (4) All green algae (3) Bacteria (4) Legumes
Ecology [90]

Q.31 Biogeochemical cycles can be traced in - Q.39 Ecosystem term coined by -
(1) Ecosystems (2) Biomes (1) Odum (2) Mishra
(3) Only water (4) Both (1) and (2) (3) Reiter (4) Tensley
Q.32 Hydrological cycle comprises of two Q.40 Large ecosystems are called -
overlapping cycles - (1) Biomes (2) Ecotone
(1) Surface waters and atstmospheric cycles (3) Ecads (4) Biocoenosis
(2) Oceanic and fresh water cycles Q.41 "Biocoenosis" name proposed by -
(3) Ground water and atmospheric cycles (1) Tensley (2) Reiter
(3) Haeckel (4) Carl Mobius
(4) Global and smaller cycles
Q.42 Vultures in an ecosystem are -
Q.33 The phosphorus cycle differs from those of
(1) Predators (2) Scavangers
carbon and nitrogen as well as those of sulphur,
oxygen and hydrogen in that it lacks- (3) Consumers (4) Top carnivores
Q.43 The maximum energy is stored at following
(1) Water (2) Dust particles
tropical level in any ecosystem -
(3) Gaesous phase (4) All above
(1) Producers (2) Herbvores
Q.34 Cycling of elements in any ecosystem is called-
(3) Carnivores (4) Top carnivores
(1) Chemical cycle Q.44 The source of energy in an ecosystem is -
(2) Geochemical cycle (1) Sunlight (2) DNA
(3) Biogeochemical cycle (3) ATP (4) RNA
(4) Geological cycle Q.45 Ecosystem may be defined as -
Q.35 In India, coniferous forests are found in – (1) A localized association of several plants and
(1) Rajasthan animals
(2) Satpura Hills (2) Different communities of plants, animals and
(3) Himalayan region microbes together with their physico-
chemical environment
(4) Madhya Pradesh
(3) Different communities of plants microbes
Q.36 Grassland with scattered trees is called –
plus their physico-chemical environment
(1) Rain forests (4) none of the above
(2) Evergreen forest Q.46 Ecosytem is -
(3) Savannah (1) Any functional unit that includes the whole
(4) Deciduous forests community in a given area interacting with
Q.37 Life forms are used in the preparation of - the abiotic factors
(1) Food chain (2) A group of green plants
(2) Ecological pyramids (3) A group of animals interacting with
(3) Biological spectrum environment
(4) Man and pets living together
(4) Quardats & transects
Q.47 In any given ecosystem, number of individuals in
Q.38 In an ecosystem -
a species remains more or less constant over a
(1) Primary producers are more than primary period of time. This constancy of number is
consumers maintained by -
(2) Primary consumers are larger than primary (1) Parasites (2) Predators
producers (3) Man (4) Available food
(3) Secondary consumers are larger than primary Q.48 Who proposed that ecosystem is symbol of
producers structure & function of nature -
(4) Primary consumers are least depend on (1) Gardener (2) Odum
primary producers (3) Tansley (4) Reiter
Ecology [91]

Q.49 Largest ecosystem of the world are - Q.58 A plant, being eaten by a herbivore which in turn
(1) Forests (2) Grass lands is eaten by a carnivore makes -
(3) Great lakes (4) Oceans (1) Food chain (2) Web of food
Q.50 Which of the following is a man made artificial (3) Omnivores (4) Interdependence
ecosystem - Q.59 When peacock, eats snake which eats insects
(1) Grassland ecosystem depends on green plants, the peacock is -
(2) Forest ecosystem (1) a primary consumer
(3) Ecosystem of artificial lakes & dams (2) a primary decomposer
(4) None of these (3) a final decomposer of plants
Q.51 Green plants in a forest ecosystem are - (4) the apex of the food pyramid
(1) Suppliers of food & O2 Q.60 If we completely remove decomposers from from
an ecosystem, the ecosystem functioning will be
(2) Consumers of nutritive materials
adversely affected because -
(3) Consumers of animal proteins
(1) Mineral movement will be blocked
(4) Suppliers of timber
(2) Herviores will not receive solar energy
Q.52 Nepenthes (Insectivorous pitcher plant) is -
(3) Energy flow will be blocked
(1) Producer (2) Consumer
(4) Rate of decomposition of other components
(3) Both 1 & 2 (4) None of these
will be very high
Q.53 Which one is omnivorous -
Q.61 Science of self control in an ecosystem is
(1) Frog (2) Lion called -
(3) Deer (4) Man (1) Synecology (2) Autecology
Q.54 Trophic levels are formed by - (3) Cybenetics (4) Edaphology
(1) Only plants Q.62 Pyramids of energy are -
(2) Only carnivores (1) Always upright (2) Always inverted
(3) Only animals (3) Mostly upright (4) Mostly inverted
(4) Organisms linked in food chain Q.63 The ecological pyramid of numbers in pond
Q.55 In a forest ecosystem green plants are - ecosystem is -
(1) Primary producers (1) Upright (2) inverted
(2) Consumers (3) May upright or Inverted
(3) Primary consumers (4) First upright then inversed
(4) Decomposers Q.64 An ecosystem resists change because it is in a
Q.56 In an ecosystem the function of the producers is state of -
to - (1) Homeostasis (2) Regular Illumination
(1) Convert organic compounds into inorganic (3) Static Imbalance (4) Food accumilation
compounds Q.65 What is true about any ecosystem -
(2) Trap solar energy and convert it into chemical (1) It is self regulatory
energy (2) It is self sustained
(3) Utilize chemical energy (3) Top carnivores have climax tropic level
(4) Release energy position
Q.57 With regard to ecological food chain, man is a - (4) All
(1) Consumer Q.66 The Pyramid of numbers in grassland ecosystem
(2) Producer will be -
(3) Both consumer & producer (1) Up right (2) Inverted
(4) decomposer (3) Irregular (4) Linear
Ecology [92]

Q.67 Pyramid of number is inverted in case of - Q.75 Which biome is most rich in fauna and flora -
(1) Pond ecosystem (1) Deciduous forests
(2) Desert ecosystems (2) Chaparral
(3) Grassland ecosystem (3) Tropical rain forests
(4) Forest ecosystem (4) Taiga
Q.68 Which ecosystem has maximum number of Q.76 Autumn colouration of leaves appear only in-
producers in an unit area - (1) Tropical regions
(1) Pond (2) Grassland (2) Evergreen plants
(3) Forest (4) Tundra (3) Temperate decidous plants
Q.69 The storage of energy of consumer level is known (4) deserts
as - Q.77 What determines the limits of a biome
(1) Grass primary production (1) Temperature & rain fall
(2) Secondary productivity (2) Type of soil & presence of barrier
(3) Net primary productivity (3) Altitude & latitude
(4) Net productivity (4) All the above
Q.70 Gross primary productivity is - Q.78 Which of the biomes axhibit distinct stratification
into stories -
(1) Rate at which organic molecules are formed
in an autotroph (1) Tundra biome
(2) Rate at which organic molecules are used up (2) Temperate biome
by an autotroph (3) Tropical rain forest biome
(3) Storage of organic molecules in the body of (4) Chapparal biome
an autotroph Q.79 Veldts of Africa & Pampas of south America
(4) Rate at which organic molecules are are -
transferred to next higher trophic level (1) Rain forest biomes
Q.71 The flow of materials from non living components (2) Chaparral biomes
to living components and back to the non living (3) Temperate biomes
components in a more or less cyclic manner is (4) Grassland biomes
called a - Q.80 All the living organisms and non-living factors of
(1) Gaseous cycle the earth constitute -
(2) Sedimentary cycle (1) Biosphere (2) Community
(3) Biogeochemical cycle (3) Biome (4) Association
(4) Hydrologic cycle Q.81 The term biosphere is used for the zone of the
earth where life exists -
Q.72 The plant parts when fully decomposed by
microogranism & mixed in the soil is called - (1) On the lithospere
(1) Litter (2) Duff (2) In the hydrosphere
(3) Mull (4) All (3) In the lithosphere and hydropshere
Q.73 Temperate evergreen forests in India found in- (4) In the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere
(1) Himalaya (2) W. Bengal
Q.82 When Biosphere turns into human dominated
(3) Andman (4) Rajasthan
evironment it is called -
Q.74 Which biome refers to artic desert -
(1) Noosphere (2) Troposphere
(1) Tundra (2) Taiga (3) Mesophere (4) Man sphere
(3) Savannah (4) Thar desert
Ecology [93]

Q.83 A biosphere is composed of - Q.84 Rhododendron is characteristic vegetation of-
(1) Living organisms (1) Tropical region (2) Mangrove
(2) Living organisms + Lithosphere (3) Alpine (4) Epiphytes
(3) Living organisms + lithosphere + atmosphere Q.85 Bacteria are essential in carbon cycle as -
(4) Living organisms + lithosphere + atmosphere (1) Decomposer (2) Synthesizer
+ hydrosphere (3) Consumer (4) Pri. Producer
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 3 3 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 2 2 4 4 2 4 1 2 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 4 3 4 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 4 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 1 1 2 1 4 3 4 3 1 3 4 4 1 2 1 1 4 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 1 1 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 4
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85
Ans. 1 4 1 4 1
Ecology [94]

EXERCISE - 3 PREVIOUS YEAR'S QUESTIONS
Q.1 Pond is an example of ........ ecosystem - Q.8 Nepenthes is a - [C.G. PMT 2004]
[UTTRANCHAL 2005] (1) Primary producer
(1) Artifical (2) Natural (2) Consumer
(3) Forest (4) Grassland (3) Both primary producer and consumer
Q.2 Which of the following is the most productive (4) None of the above
ecosystem? [WEST BANGAL JEE 2007] Q.9 Biological equilibrium is found among the -
(1) Estuary (2) Open sea [C.G. PMT 2005]
(3) Desert (4) Mountain (1) Producers and consumers
Q.3 The pyramid of energy in a forest ecosystem (2) Producers and decomposers
is - [C.G. PMT 2004] (3) Producers, consumers and decomposers
(1) Always upright (4) Producers and light
(2) Always inverted Q.10 The number of individuals of a species in a
(3) Both upright and inverted particular ecosystem at a given time remains
constant due to - [C.G. PMT 2005]
(1) Man (2) Parasites
Q.4 The importance of ecosystem is -
(3) Predators (4) Available food
[C.G. PMT 2004]
Q.11 The two components of an ecosystem are -
(1) Flow of energy (2) Cycling of materials
[C.G. PMT 2005]
(3) Both of the above (4) None of the above
(1) Biotic and abiotic
Q.5 Which is the correct path of energy flow in an
(2) Plants and animals
eco system is - [C.G. PMT 2004]
(3) Weeds and micro-organism
(1) Producers  Carnivores  Herbivores 
(4) Plants and light
Decomposers
Q.12 The pyramid of number in a grassland ecosystem
(2) Producers  Herbivores  Carnivores 
is - [C.G. PMT 2005]
Decomposers
(1) Linear (2) Upright
(3) Herbivores  Carnivores  Producers 
(3) Irregular (4) Inverted
Decomposers
Q.13 The cycling of elements in an ecosystem is
(4) Herbivores  Producers  Carnivores 
called- [C.G. PMT 2006]
Decomposers
(1) Chemical cycle
Q.6 The number of primary producers within a
(2) Biogeochemical cycle
specified area would be maximum in -
(3) Geological cycle
[C.G. PMT 2004]
(4) Geochemical cycle
(1) Grassland ecosystem
Q.14 Which of the following bacteria has potential for
(2) Forest ecosystem
nitrogen fixation ? [C.G. PMT 2006]
(3) Pond ecosystem
(1) Nitrosomonas (2) Nitrobacter
(4) Deserts
(3) Nitrosococcus (4) Rhizobium
Q.7 A food chain starts with - [C.G. PMT 2004]
Q.15 Ecosystem has - [JHARKHAND 2006]
(1) Nitrogen fixation organisms
(1) Plant and animal
(2) Phtosynthesising organisms (2) Air and H2O
(3) Respiration (3) Soil and light
(4) Decomposers (4) Biotic and abiotic component
Ecology [95]

Q.16 Sal and teak are found in - Q.24 Lion is kept under in Etoplian pyramid as -
[JHARKHAND 2006] [BIHAR 2004]
(1) Producer
(1) Tropical rain forest
(2) Primary consumer
(2) Tropical deciduous forest (3) Seconary consumer
(3) Temperature board leaf forest (4) Tertiary consumer
(4) Temperature needle leaf forest Q.25 Bacteria and fungi developing on dead decaying
Q.17 Decomposers are - [JHARKHAND 2005] organisms are -
(1) Parasites (2) Commensals
(1) Autrophs (2) Hetrotrophs
(3) Saprophytes (4) Symbionts
(3) Organotrophs (4) Autoheterotrophs Q.26 Phytoplanktons are important biotic comoponent
Q.18 During food chain the maximum energy is stored of - [BIHAR 2001]
in - [JHARKHAND 2005] (1) Grassland (2) Pond ecosystem
(1) Producers (2) Decomposers (3) Forest ecosystem (4) None of these
(3) Herbivores (4) Carnivores Q.27 Which ecological pyramid can never occur in an
inverted form ? [BIHAR 2001]
Q.19 In the phosphorus cycle, weathering makes
(1) Pyramid of number
phosphate available first to -
(2) Pyramid of biomass
[JHARKHAND 2005] (3) Pyramid of energy
(1) Decomposers (2) Consumers (4) Pyramid of species richess
(3) Producers (4) All the above Q.28 Peacock eats a snake and snake eats insect
while insect eats green plant, then position of
Q.20 In a food chain, the total amount of living
peacock is - [UP CPMT 2002]
material is depicted by -[JHARKHAND 2005]
(1) Primary producer
(1) Pyramid of biomass (2) Secondary producer
(2) Pyramid of energy (3) Decomposer
(3) Pyramid of number (4) Top at the apex of food pyramid
(4) Trophic levels Q.29 Source of energy in an ecosystem is -
[UP CPMT 2002]
Q.21 Nitrates are converted to nitrogen by -
(1) Sun
[JHARKHAND 2005] (2) ATP
(1) Nitrogen fixing bacteria (3) Sugar made by plant
(2) ammonification bacteria (4) Green plant
(3) Denitrifying bacteria Q.30 Legume plants are important for atmosphere
because they - [UP CPMT 2002]
(4) Nitrifying bacteria
(1) Help in NO2 fixation
Q.22 In pond ecosystem, diatoms represent - (2) Do not help in NO2 fixation
(1) Producers [JHARKHAND 2004] (3) Incrase soil fertility
(2) Primary consumers (4) All of these
(3) Secondary consumers Q.31 Tropical dense forest are due to -
[UP CPMT 2002]
(4) Tertiary consumers
(1) Low rainfall and low temperature
Q.23 Pyramids of biomass in pond ecosystem is -
(2) High rainfall and low temperature
[BIHAR 2005]
(3) Low rainfall and high temperatrue
(1) Inverted (2) Upright (4) High rainfall and high temperature
(3) Linear (4) Irregular
Ecology [96]

Q.32 Energy enters in food chain- Q.40 Ecosystem creates - [RPMT - 2005]
[UP CPMT 2003] (1) Food chain (2) Food web
(1) by producer (3) Any of the two (4) None
(2) by primary consumers Q.41 Ecosystem term coined by - [RPMT - 2005]
(3) by secondary consumers (1) P. Maheshwari (2) Tansley
(4) by tertiary consumers (3) R. Mishra (4) P. Odum
Q.33 In an ecosystem - [RPMT - 2000] Q.42 The importance of ecosystem lies in -
(1) Primary producers are more than primary [CPMT 80]
consumers (1) Flow of energy (2) Cycling of materials
(2) Primary consumers are larger than primary (3) Both the above (4) None of the above
producers Q.43 A pond is a - [RPMT 2002]
(3) Secondary consumers are larger than (1) Biome
primary producers
(2) Natural ecosystem
(4) Primary consumers are least depend on
(3) Artificial ecosystem
primary producers
(4) Community of plants & animals
Q.34 In Which type of the forest, humus is formed
Q.44 Which biotic components mainly help in recycling
by the dry and dead leaves - [RPMT - 2001]
of minerals - [CPMT 80]
(1) Coniferous forest (2) Decidous forest
(1) Producers (2) Consumers
(3) Tundra forest (4) Alpine
(3) Decomposers (4) All the above
Q.35 A pond is a - [RPMT - 2002]
Q.45 Path of energy flow in a n ecosystem is -
(1) Biome
[MPPMT 2002]
(2) Natural ecosystem
(1) Herbivorous  producer  carnivorous 
(3) Artifical ecosystem
decomposer
(4) Community of plants & animals
(2) Herviorous  carnivorous  producer 
Q.36 The importance of ecosystem lies in -
decomposer
[RPMT 2003]
(3) Producer  carnivorous  herbivorous 
(1) Energy flow
decomposer
(2) Cycling of materials
(4) Producer  herbivorous  carnivorous 
(3) Both (4) None
decomposer
Q.37 Concept of Ecological pyramid was given by-
Q.46 The number of primary producers in a specified
[RPMT - 2004] area would be maximum in -
(1) Odum (2) Elton [RPMT 85, CPMT 86, MP PMT 85, 95]
(3) Darwin (4) Reiter
(1) Pond ecosystem
Q.38 Stratification is found in - [RPMT - 2004]
(2) Grassland ecosystem
(1) Tundra (2) Tropical forest
(3) Forest ecosystem
(3) Deciduous forest (4) Desert
(4) Desert ecosystem
Q.39 Driving force of ecosystem is -
Q.47 Carbon cycle includes (the following is a logical
[RPMT - 2004]
sequence) - [CPMT 79]
(1) Producers
(1) Producer – consumer – decomposer
(2) Plants with Carbohydrate
(2) Decomposer – consumer – producer
(3) Biomass
(3) Producer – decomposer – consumer
(4) Solar energy
(4) Consumer – producer – decomposer
Ecology [97]

Q.48 The bulk of nitrogen in nature is fixed by - Q.56 Percentage energy transferred to higher trophic
[CPMT 82] level in food chain is - [AIPMT-1999]
(1) Lightening (1) 1 % (2) 10 %
(2) Chemical industries (3) 90 % (4) 100 %
(3) Denitrifying bacteria Q.57 Which is the reason for highest biomass in
(4) Symbiotic bacteria aquatic ecosystem - [AIPMT-2000]
Q.49 Hydrological cycle is controlled by - (1) Nano plankton, blue green algae, green algae
[RPMT 85] (2) Sea grass, and slime molds
(1) Grasslands (2) Forests (3) Benthonic and brown algae
(3) Planktons (4) Epiphytes (4) Diatoms
Q.50 In india the temperate evergreen type of Q.58 Which of the following is a correct pair -
vegetation is found mostly in - [CPMT 76] [AIPMT-2002]
(1) Western Himalayas above 3,500 Meter (1) Cuscuta - parasite
(2) Estern and western Himalayas less than (2) Dischidia - insectivorous
3,500 Meter (3) Opuntia - predator
(3) Rajasthan and South Punjab (4) Capsella - hydrophyte
(4) Western ghats and Assam Q.59 Bamboo plant is growing in a far forest then what
Q.51 Savannahs are - [MPPMT 2002] will be the tropic level of it - [AIPMT-2002]
(1) Tropical rain forest (1) First trophic level (T1)
(2) Desert (2) Second trophic level (T2)
(3) Grassland with scattered trees (3) Third trophic level (T3)
(4) Dense forest with close canopy (4) Fourth trophic level (T4)
Q.52 Biosphere refers to - [MP PMT 80] Q.60 Which of the following is expected to have the
(1) Plants of the world highest value (gm/m 2 /yr) in a grassland
(2) Special plants ecoystem- [AIPMT-2004]
(3) Area occupied by living beings (1) Tertiary production
(4) Plants of a particular area (2) Gross production (GP)
Q.53 Acacia, Prosopis and Caparis belongs to - (3) Net production (NP)
[AIPMT-1998] (4) Secondary production
(1) Deciduous forest (2) Tropical forest Q.61 An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but
can recover after some time if damaging effect
(3) Thorn forest (4) Evergreen forest
stops will having - [AIPMT-2004]
Q.54 Total amount of energy trapped by green plants
(1) High stability and low resilience
in food is called - [AIPMT-1998]
(2) Low stability and low resilience
(1) Gross primary production
(3) High stability and high resilience
(2) Net primary production
(4) Low stability and high resilience
(3) Standing crop
Q.62 Which one of the following pairs is mismatched-
(4) Standing state
[AIPMT-2005]
Q.55 In which biome a new plant may adapt soon -
(1) Savanna - acacia trees
[AIPMT-1998]
(2) Coniferous forest - evergreen trees
(1) Tropical rain forest
(3) Tundra - permafrost
(2) Desert
(4) Prairies - epiphytes
(3) Mangrove (4) Sea island
Ecology [98]

Q.63 Which one of the following is not used for Q.69 Study the four statements (1-4) given below and
construction of ecological pyramids ? select the two correct once out of them-
[AIPMT-2005] [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(1) Rate of energy flow (A) A lion eating a deer and a sparrow feeding
(2) Fresh weight on grain are ecologically similar in being
(3) Dry weight consumers
(4) Number of individuals (B) Predator star fish helps in maintaining
Q.64 Which one of the following ecosystem types has species diversity of some invertebrates
the highest annual net primary productivity- (C) Predators ultimately lead to the extinction of
[AIPMT-2007] prey species
(1) Temperate deciduous forest (D) Production of chemicals such as nicotine,
(2) Tropical rain forest strychnine by the plants are metabolic
(3) Tropical deciduous forest disorders
(4) Temperate evergreen forest The two correct statements are :
Q.65 Quercus species are the dominant component in- (1) A and D (2) A and B
[AIPMT-2008]
(3) B and C (4) C and D
(1) Scrub forests
Q.70 The biomass available for consumption by the
(2) Tropical rain forests
herbivores and the decomposers is called-
(3) Temperatre deciduous forests
[AIPMT Pre 2010]
(4) Alpine forests
Q.66 Consider the following statements concenrning
food chain - [AIPMT-2008]
(3) Standing crop
(a) Removal of 80 % tigers from an area
resulted in greatly increased growth of
vegetation Q.71 Which one of the following is one of the
(b) Removal of most of the carnivores resulted characteristics of a biological community?
in an increased population of deers [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(c) The length of food chains is generally limited (1) Stratification (2) Natality
to 3-4 trophic levels due to energy loss (3) Mortality (4) Sex-ratio
(d) The length offood chains may very from 2 Q.72 Which of the following representations shows the
to 8 trophic levels pyramid of numbers in a forest ecosystem?
Which two of the above statements are [AIPMT Mains 2010]
correct ?
(1) a, c (2) a, b (1) (2)
(3) b, c (4) c, d
Q.67 The slow rate of decomposition of fallen logs in
nature is due to their - [AIPMT-2003]
(1) Anaerobic environment around them (3) (4)
(2) L:ow cellulose content
(3) Low moisture content
Q.73 Identify the possible link “A” in the following
(4) Poor nitrogen content
food chain :
Q.68 Which one of the following types of organisms
Plant  insect  frog  “A”  Eagle
occupy more than one trophic level in a pond
ecosystem ? [AIPMT-2009] [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Frog (2) Phytoplankton (1) Wolf (2) Cobra
(3) Fish (4) Zooplankton (3) Parrot (4) Rabbit
Ecology [99]

Q.74 In an area where DDT had been used Q.77 Which one of the following is not a functional
extensively, the population of birds declined unit of an ecosystem ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
significantly because : [AIPMT Pre 2012] (1) Decomposition (2) Productivity
(1) earthworms in the area got eradicated (3) Stratification (4) Energy flow
(2) cobras were feeding exclusively on birds Q.78 Which one of the following is not a gaseous
(3) many of the birds eggs laid, did not hatch biogeochemical cycle in ecosystem ?
(4) birds stopped laying eggs [AIPMT Pre 2012]
Q.75 The upright pyramid of number is absent in : (1) Phosphorus cycle (2) Nitrogen cycle
(3) Carbon cycle (4) Sulphur cycle
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
Q.79 The rate of formation of new organic matter by
(1) Forest (2) Lake
rabbit in a grassland, is called :
(3) Grassland (4) Pond
[AIPMT Mains 2012]
Q.76 Given below is an imaginary pyramid of
(1) Net productivity
numbers. What could be one of the possibilities
about certain organisms at some of the different
levels ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
Q.80 Identify the likely organisms (a), (b), (c) and (d)
TC 10 in the food web shown below :
[AIPMT Mains 2012]
SC 50
PC 500
PP 1
(1) Level PP is “phytoplanktons” in sea and

“Whale” on top level TC
(2) Level one PP is “pipal trees” and the level
SC is “sheep” Options :
(3) Level PC is “rats” and level SC is “cats”.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(4) Level PC is “insects” and levels SC is “small (1) deer rabbit frog rat
insectivorous birds”. (2) dog squirrel bat deer
(3) rat dog tortoise crow
(4) squirrel cat rat pigeon
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 1 3 2 3 2 3 1 4 1 2 2 4 4 2 2 1 3 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 1 1 4 3 2 3 4 1 3 4 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 3 2 3 4 1 1 4 2 2 4 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 4 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 4 3 1 2 1
Ecology [100]

EXERCISE - 4 AIIMS SPECIAL
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”.
While answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
(1) If both Assertion and Reason are True and the Reason is a correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(2) If both Assertion and Reason are True but Reason is not correct explanation of the
Assertion
Q.1 Assertion : The pyramid of biomass indicates Q.8 Assertion : Predators directly depend on
the decrease in biomass in successive trophic producers for food.
levels. Reason : Tertiary consumers are green plants.
Reason : In tree ecosystem pryamid of biomass Q.9 Assertion : In predation, one organism is killed
is inverted. by other organism and used as food
Q.2 Assertion : Each ecosystem has two types of Reason : In this type of association predator
biotic components autorophs and heterotrophs. lives on interest.
Reason : Autrotrophs sysnthesize food Q.10 Assertion : In ecosystem, the function of
materials while heterotrophs utilize and producers is to convert organic compounds to
resynthesize it. inorganic compounds.
Q.3 Assertion : Detritus food chain depends upon Reason : Consumers are directly dependent on
light energy solar energy.
Reason : In this food chain food starts with Q.11 Assertion : Biosphere consist of hydrosphere,
producers. lithosphere and atmosphere.
Q.4 Assertion : Tundra biome is most delicate fragile Reason : Biosphere is formed of only nonliving
biome matter.
Reason : Trees and shrubs are densly Q.12 Assertion : Crop field is a natural ecosystem.
distributed in this biome. Reason : Complex food chain is found in this
Q.5 Assertion : In ecological pyramids, producers ecosystem.
always occupy the base. Q.13 Assertion : Agroecosystem is man made and
Reason : Pyramids of number and biomas are stable ecosystem.
mostly upright but pyramid of energy always Reason : it can be maintained by biological
inverted. control.
Q.6 Assertion : Energy flow in ecosystem is Q.14 Assertion : Pyramid of biomass in aquatic
bidirectional. ecosystem is inverted.
Reason : Amount of energy increase with each Reason : Number of phytoplanktons are
and every trophic levels. maximum in aquatic ecosystem.
Q.7 Assertion : Biotic and abiotic components Q.15 Assertion : Lion is a ecologically weakest
constitute ecosystem. animal.
Reason : Sun is the ultimate source of energy Reason : 90% energy is lost. When it transfered
in ecosystem. from one trophic level to another trophic level.
Ecology [101]

Q.16 Assertion : Earth is a closed system for minearl Q.27 Assertion : Consumers are not much essential
cycle. for the formation of ecosystem.
Reason : Mineral cycle is take place between Reason : Producers and reducers can maintain
abiotic and biotic component of earth . a balance in ecosystem.
Q.17 Assertion : Pyramid of energy is always upright. Q.28 Assertion : Total amount of energy fixed in an
Reason : There is a gradual decrease in energy producer is gross primary productivity.
at successive trophic levels. Reason : It is the amount of storage organic
Q.18 Assertion : Ecological efficiency always matter in producer including respiratory
decrease. untilsation.
Reason : The percentage energy transferred Q.29 Assertion : Artifical ecosystem are mostly
one to another trophic level always increases. temporary.
Q.19 Assertion : In ecosystem energy flow is always Reason : They require energy from external
unidirectional. environment.
Reason : In food web energy flow from Q.30 Assertion : Heliophytes are mainly occurs in
different pathway. Tundra region.
Q.20 Assertion : According to Lindeman in food
Reason : Maximum light intensity occurs in
chain only 90% of enegy transferred from one
Tundra region.
to next trophic level.
Q.31 Assertion : Ecologically, animals are
Reason : 10% energy is lost at each trophic
consumers.
level due to respirations & heat.
Reason : Living organism are classified as
Q.21 Assertion : Those ecosystem which have
followings Producers, Consumers, Decomposers.
complex food web are more stable.
Q.32 Mr. X is eating curd/yoghurt. For this food intake
Reason : In complex food web every organism
in a food chain he should be considered as
have more than one option for getting food.
occupying-
Q.22 Assertion : Decomposers play a significant role
(1) First trophic level
in mineral cycle.
Reason : Decomposers are not included in the (2) Second trophic level
food chain. (3) Third tropic level
Q.23 Assertion : In ecosystem energy cycle runs (4) Fourth trophic level
between producers and consumers. Q.33 The Great Barrier Reef along the east coast of
Reason : Energy goes to producers through Australia can be categorized as -
decomposer. (1) Population (2) Community
Q.24 Assertion : Vulture is decomposer. (3) Ecosystem (4) Biome
Reason : Vulture is scavenger not predator.
Q.34 Which one of the following correctly represents
Q.25 Assertion : All predators are carnivores. an organism and its ecological niche?
Reason : All carnivores are not predators. (1) Vallisneria and pond
Q.26 Assertion : Tundra biome is located above 60ºN (2) Desert locust (Schistocerca) and desert
latitude on polar ice.
(3) Plant lice (aphids) and leaf
Reason : Coniferous forests occur in this biome.
(4) Vultures and dense forest
Ecology [102]

Q.35 Given below is one of the types of ecological Q.36 Which one of the following is correct matching
pyramids. This type represents - of a plant, its habit and the forest type where it
normally occurs?
(1) Prosopis, tree, scrub
(2) Saccharum, grass, forest
(3) Shorea robusta, herb, tropical rain forest
(1) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland
(4) Acacia catechu, tree, coniferous forest
(2) Pyramid of biomass in a fallow land
(3) Pyramid of biomass in a lake
(4) Energy pyramid in a spring
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 4 3 3 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 2 1 1 1 4 2 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ans. 1 2 4 2 2 3 1 1 1 4 2 3 3 1 3 1
Ecology [103]

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
Ecology [104]

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
BIODIVERSITY
Term given by Edward Wilson. Combined diversity at all the levels of biological organization called
Biidiversity. The biodiversity can be studied at three levels.
(1) Genetic diversity
(2) Species diversity
(3) Community and Ecosystem diversity
(1) Genetic diversity :
(a) A species show high diversity at gene level over it's distributional range. For ex. Medicinal plant Rauwolfia
Vomitoria growing in himalayan range show diversity in synthesis of chemical reserpine in concentraction
and potential.
(b) India has 50,000 genetically different spacies of rice and 1000 varieties of mangos.
(c) Each species, varying from bacteria to higher plants and animals, stores an immense amount of genetic
infromation. For example, the number of genes is about 450-700 in Mycoplasma, 4000 in Escherichia coli,
13000 in Drosophila melanogaster, 32000-50000 in Oryza sativa and 35000 to 45000 in Homo sapiens.
(d) Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species; the differences could be in allels (different
variants of same genes), in entire genes (the traits determining particular characteristics) or in chromosomal
structures.
(e) The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its environment and respond to natural selection. If a
species has more genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions.
(f) Lower genetic diversity in a species leads to uniformity, as in the case of large monocultures of genetically
similar crop plants. This has advantage when increased crop production is a consideration, but can be a
problem when an insect or a fungal disease attacks the field and posses a threat to the whole crop.
(g) The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation (evolution of new species). It has a key role in
the maintenance of diversity at species and community levels. The total genetic diversity of a community
will be greater if there are many species, as compared to a situation where there are only a few species.
Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability.
(2) Species diversity :
(a) Diversity at species level.
Ex.: Western Ghat have greater species diversity of amphibians than Eastern Ghat.
(b) Species are distinct units of diversity, each playing a specific role in an ecosystem. Therefore, loss of species
has consequences for the ecosystem as a whole.
(c) Species diversity refer to the variety of species within a region. Simplest measure of species diversity is
species richness, i.e., the number of species per unit area. The number of species increases per unit
area of the site.
(d) Generally, greater the species richness, greater is the species diversity. However, number of individuals
among the species may also vary, resulting into differences in evenness or equitability and consequently
in diversity.
Ecology [105]

(e) Suppose, we are having three sample areas. In the sample area-I, there are three spacies of birds. Two
species are represented by one individual each, while the third species has four individuals. In the sample
area-2 that has the same three spacies, each spacies is represented by two individuals. This sample area
show greater evenness, and there are equal chances for a species being represented in a sample. The
sample area-2 will be considered more diverse than the first. In the sample area-3 the species are represented
by an insect, a mammal and a birds. This sample area is most diverse as it comparises taxonomically unrelated
species. In this example, we find equal number of spacies but varying number of individuals per species. In
nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading
to greater diversity.
(3) Community and Ecosystem diversity :

Diversity at ecosystem and community level called Community and diversity. Ex. India have diverse kind
of ecosystem like desert, rain forests, mangrovs, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries and alpine meadows, than
the Norway.
Fig.: Three perspectives of diversity : alpha, beta and gamma diversity.
(a) -Diversity : Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem has three perspectives. Alpha diversity
(within-community diversity) refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same community/habitat.
Ecology [106]

(b) -Diversity : A combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to represent diversity
within a community or habitat. Species frequently change when habitat or community changes. The rate of
replacement of specis along a gradient of habitats or communities is called beta diversity (between -
community diversity). There are differences in species composition of communities along environmental
gradients, eg., altitudinal gradient, moisture gradient, etc.
Higher the heterogenecity in the habitats in a region or greater the dissimilarity between communities,
higher is the beta diversity.
(c) -Diversity : Diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area is called gamma
diversity.
Ecosystem diversity describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological processes that
sustain energy flow, food webs and the recycling of nutrients. It has a focus on various biotic interactions
and the role and function of keytone species. Studies in temperate grasslands have shown that diverse
communities are functionally more productive and stable even under environmental stresses such as
prolonged dry conditions.
Magnitude of Biodiversity in world and India

(a) According to IUCN (2010) the total number of species of plants and animals described so far are about
1.5 million.
(b) According Robert May global species diversity is about 7 million.
(c) According to knowledge of earth's biodiversity-
70% of all species is of animals.
22% of all plants species (Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms)
(d) Among animals, insects are most species rich (number of species) constituting 70% of total animal
species. ie., from every 10 animals, 7 are insects
(e) Prokaryotes are not counted in global biodiversity as the number of prokaryotic species in not known,
conventional toxonic methods are not suitable for them and many species are not cultrable under laboratory
conditions.
 India share 2.1% of world land area but share global species diversity is 8.1% which make India
one of the 12 mega diversity countries of world. India has 45000 species of plants and twice number
of species of animals and many more yet to be identified and discovered.
Ecology [107]

 According to Robert Mays global estimates, only 22% of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying
this proportion to India more than 1,00,000 plant and 3,00,000 animal species yet to be discovered and
described.
Plants
Animals
Fig.: Number of plant and animal species in different groups reorded in India
Group Number of species

Higher Plants 2,70,000
Algae 40,000
Fungi 72,000
Bacteria (including cyanobacteria) 4,000
Viruses 1,550
Mammals 4,650
Birds 9,700
Reptiles 7,150
Fish 26,959
Amphibians 4,780
Insects 10,25,000
Crustanceans 43,000
Molluscs 70,000
Nematodes and worms 25,000
Protozoa 40,000
Others 1,10,000
Approximate Numbers of Species which have been Described and Identified from all over the World
Ecology [108]

(a) India has 10 biogeographical regions among them Deccan Peninsula has the most extensive coverage
of landmass (42%).
(b) The most biodiversity rich zone are Western Ghat and North East Himalaya account for 4% and
5.2% of geographical area respectively.
(c) Each biogeographical area have several habitats, biotic communities and ecosystem .
(d) A large number of species (both plants and animals) are present in these zone which are endemic (exclusive
to India).
(e) About 33% of flowering plants are endemic to India.
(f) Among animals, out of recorded vertebrates, 53% - Fresh water fishes, 60% Amphibians, 36%
Reptiles, 10% mammalian fuana are endemic to India which are mainly distributed in North - East,
Western Ghats and Nicobar Islands.
(g) A very high number of Amphibian species are endemic to western ghat.
(h) Biological diversity in ecosystems like deep oceans, wetlands, lakes and habitats like tree canopy and soil
of tropical rain forest in India yet to be explored.
Fig.: Biogeographical regions of India.
Gradients / Pattern of Biodiverity :

(A) The pattern of biodiversity is decided by latitudes (Distance from equator), altitude (Height from
sea level.
(a) As we move from high to low latitudes ie., from poles to the equator the biological diversity increases. ie.,
equator towards the pole for example, Tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5ºN to 23.5ºS) harbour more species
Ecology [109]

than temperate or polar areas. Colombia located near equator has about 1400 species of birds while
Newyork at 41ºN has 105 species and greenland at 71ºN only 56 species and Greenland at 71°N only
56 species of birds.
(b) India located in tropical latitude has more than 1200 species of birds.
(c) A forest in tropical region like Equator has 10 times more species of vascular plants than temperate
region like midwest of USA.
(d) The largly tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has greatest biodiversity on earth.
It home to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3000 fishes, 1,300 birds, 427 mammals, 427
Amphibians, 378 reptiles and more than 1,25,000 invertebrates.
(e) Tropics have very high biodiversity due to -
(i) Speciation (Formation of new species) is the function of time and unlike temperate regions which are
subjected to frequent glaciations in past the tropical latitudes have remained undisturbed for millions of
years. so have long evolutionary time for species diversification.
(ii) Tropical environment unlike temperate one are less seasonal, relatively more constant and predictable
which promotes niche specialisation and leads to greater species diversity.
(iii) There is more solar energy available in tropics, which contributes to higher productivity and indirectly
contribute to greater diversity.
(f) Decrease in species at altitudes, from lower to higher altitude on a mountain.
(g) 1000 m increase in altitude results in temperature drop of about 6.5ºC. This drop in temperature
and great seasonal variability at higher altitude are a major factor that reduce biodiversity.
(h) The latitudinal and altitudinal gradients of species divesrity are two master gradients.
(i) Also more complex and heterogenous the physical envrironment, more complex and diverse
will be the flora and fauna.
Latitude and types of forest in world and India :

(a) In Northern hemisphere as we moves from equator north world to arctic region consecutive belts of
coniferous.
Tropical rain forest : 0 – 20º N
Tropical deciduous forest : 20 – 40º N
Temperate deciduous / Temperate broad leaf forest : – 40 – 60º N
Temperate coniferous/ temperate needle leaf forest or Alpines : – 50 – 60º N
Tundra biome : 60º N
Ecology [110]

(B) Species Area Relationship
(i) German naturalist and geographer Alexander Von Hemboldt observed that within a region, species richness
increased with increasing explored area, but only upto a limit.
Z
S=CA
Special Richness
Log S = log C + Z logA
Where
S = Species Richness
Z = Slope of line
Area  C = Y – intercept
(ii) Generally the value of Z-line is in range of 0.1 to 0.2 regard less of taxonomic group or region.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION :
Uses of Biodiversity :
(A) Narrowly utilitarian
(B) Broadly Utilitarian / Ecosystem Services
(C) Ethical / Aesthetic and Cultural Benifits
(A) Narrowly utilitarian :
(a) As source of food, medicin, pharmaceutical drugs, fibers, rubber and timber.
(b) As source of food and improved varities. The biodiversity used in modern agriculture in three ways-
(i) As a source of new crops.
(ii) As a source of material for breeding improved varieties.
(iii) As a source of new biodegradable pesticides.
(c) Less than 20 plant species are cultivated to produce about 85% of world food. Wheat, Corn and
Rice are three major carbohydrate crops yield nearly 2/3 of food sustaning the human population.
(d) The commercialy domestiated species are cross breed with their wild relatives to improve their fruits.
(e) Genes of wild species are used to introduce new properties like disease resistance and high yield. for
Example, rice grown in Asia is protected from four main disease by genes received from a single wild
rice species (oryza nivara) from India.
(f) Drugs and Medicines - Biodiversity is rich source of substance with medicinal value.
Morphine - From papaver sominiferum
Quinine - From Cinchona
Taxol - From bark of yew tree (Taxus brevifolia, T.baccata)
(g) 25% of drugs are derived from 120 species of plants.
(h) Botanochemicals - Plant chemicals used in preparation of synthetic products.
(B) Broadly Utilitarian :
(a) Diversity is essental for the maintenance and sustainable utilization of goods and services of ecosystem or
individual species. The ecosystem services are -
(i) Gaseous exchange - Amazon forest is estimated to produce through photosynthesis. 20% of total oxygen
of earth atmosphere. So these forest are considerd as "Lungs of Earth".
(ii) Pollination by bees, bumblebees, birds, bats, ants and various insects.
(iii) Climate control by forest and oceanic ecosystem (Hydrological Cycles)
(iv) Natural pest control.
(v) Protection of soil.
Ecology [111]

(vi) Conservation and purification of water.
(vii) Nutrient cycling.
(b) These ecosystem services have been valued in range of 16 to 54 trillion (1012) (average 34 Trillion) US
dollars per year. Robert Constanza and his colleagues recently tried to put price tag on nature's life support
services, which is about 33 trillian US dollar on an average. Out of total cost of various ecosystem services
the soil formation accounts for - 50%, Recreation & nutrient cycling - < 10%, Climate regulation
- 10%, Habitat for wild life - 6%.
(C) Ethical / Aesthetic and Cultural Benifits -
(a) Ecotourism.
(b) Bird Watching
(c) Wild life
(d) Pet keeping, Gardening.
(e) Cultural and religious beliefs - like in India Ocimum Sactum (Tulsi), Ficus religiosa (Pipal), Prosopis
Cineanaria (Khejri) and many more plants and animals like Rat (Lord Ganesha), Lion (Jai mata di), Owl
(Laxmi ji), Swan (Saraswati ji), Peacock (Kartikaya ji) Snakes (Shiv Ji) are considered as scared and
worshiped.
(g) The plants and animals are symbol of our cultural heritage and national pride.
(h) Philosophically and spiritually we need to realize that every species has an intrinsic value, even if it may not
be of current or any economic value to us. It is our moral duty to care for their well being and pass on our
biological legacy in good order of future generation. as we Indians belives in : **losZHkoUrq lqf[ku% losZ%lUrq%
fujke;k**
Importance of species diversity to the Ecosystem :

(a) The number of species in a community is important for a ecosystem. It is belives that communities with
more species are more stable and with less species are less stable.
(b) A stable community mean-
(i) Not show to much variation in productivity year to year.
(ii) It must be resistant to occasional disturbances (Natural or Man made).
(iii) It must be resistant to invasion by alien species.
(c) How these attributes are linked to species richness in a community?
According to David Tilman's by the long term ecosystem experiment using outdoor plots concluded that
plots with more species shows less year to year variation in total biomass and increased diversity contributed
to higher productivity.
(d) Rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health, but also necessory for survival of human race
on this planet.
(e) How a species extinctintion anywhere on this planet affect the human race is explained by Stanford ecologist
paul Ehrlich by Rivet Popper Hypothesis.
(f) He compare aeroplane as ecosystem joined togather by thousends of rivets as species. If passenger
travelling in it starts popping a rivet to take home (causing species to become extinct) if may not affect
flight safety (proper functioning of ecosystem) initially, but as more or more rivets are removed, the plane
become dangerously weak over a period of time.
(g) The removal of rivat of fan is more dangerous than seat or wind rivets. The rivet of fan means dominant
species of ecosystem.
Ecology [112]

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY/THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY :
The loss in biodiversity in an region may leads to-
(a) Decline in plant production.
(b) Lowered the resistance to environmental changes like draught.
(c) Change the ecosystem processing like plant productivity, water use, pest and disease cycle.
Cause of biodiversity loss :
(a) Habitat loss and Fagmentation.
(b) Over exploitation
(c) Introduction of exotic species/ Alien species.
(d) Co-extinction
(a) Habitat loss and Fragmentation : This is the most important cause driving animals and plants to extinction.
The most dramatic example of habitat loss come from torpical rian forests. Once covering more than 14
percent of the earth's land surface, these rain forests now over no more than 6 percent. they are being
destroyed fast. By the time you finish reading this chapter, 1000 more hectares of rain forest would have
been lost.
(i) The Amazon rain forest (It is so huge that it is called the 'Lungs of the planet'.) harbouring probably
millions of species is being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for conversation to grassland for
raising beef cattle.
(ii) Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of many species.
When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities, mammals and birds
requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population
declines.
(b) Over-exploitation : Human have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but when 'need' turns
to 'greed', it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years
(Stellr's sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due to exploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish
populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the continued existence of some commercially
important species.
(c) Alien species invasions : When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for whatever
purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
(i) The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction of an
ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in lake. You must be familiar with
the environmental damage caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive weed species like
carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia).
(ii) The recent illegal introduction of the Africa Catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is posing
a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
(d) Co-extinctions : When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an
obligatory way also become extinct even the assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate.
Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably
leads to the extinction of the other.
Ecology [113]

Type of Extinction of Species :
(a) Extinction is a natural process. Species have disappeared and new ones have evolved to take their places
over the long geological history of the earth. It is useful to distinguished three types of extinction processes.
Natural Extinction : With the change in environmental conditions, some species diappear and others, which
are more adapted to changed conditions, take their place. This loss of species which occured in the geological
past at a very slow rate, is called natural or background extinction.
Mass extinction : There have been saveral periods in the earth's geological history when large number of
species become extinct because of catastrophes. Mass extinctions occured in millions of years.
Anthropogenic extinction : An increasing number of species are disappearing from the face of the earth
due to human activities. This man-made mass extinction represents a very severe depletion of biodiversity,
particularly because it is occuring within a short period of time.
(b) The World Conservation Monitoring Centre has recorde that 533 animal species (Mostly vertebrates)
and 384 plant species (Mostly flowering plants) have become extinct since the year 1600. More
species have gone extinct from the islands than from the mainland or the oceans.
(c) The current rate of extinction is 1000 to 10000 time higher than the background rate of extinction. Some
interesting observations about the current loss of species are :
(i) From ten high diversity localities in tropical forests covering 300,000 km2, some 17,000 endemic plant
species and 350,000 endemic animal species could be lost in near future.
(ii) The tropical forests alone are losing roughly 14,000-40,000 species per year (or 2-5 species per
hour)
(iii) The earth may lose up to 50% of the species by the end of the 21st century, if the current rate of loss
continues.
Susceptibility to Extinction : The characteristics of species particularly susceptible to extinction are :
large body size (Bengal tiger, Lion and Elephant); small population size and low reproductive
rate (Blue whale and Giant panda). Feeding at high tropic levels in the food chain (Bengal tiger
and Bald eagle), fixed migratory routes and habitat (Blue whale and Whooping crane) and localised
and narrow range of distribution (woodland caribou; many island species) also make the species
susceptibel to extinction.
The IUCN Red List Categoris :

(A) The IUCN Red List (which is started in 1963) is a catalogue of taxa that are facing the risk of exctinction.
It is important to understand that the Red List aims to impart information about the urgency and scale of
conservation problems to the public and policy makers. The uses of the Red List are -
(i) Developing awarness about the importance of threatened biodiversity;
(ii) Identification and documentation of endangered species;
(iii) Providing a global index of the decline of biodiversity;
(iv) Defining conservation priorities at the local level and guiding conservation action.
(B) The World Conservation Union (formerly known as International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resource, IUCN) has recognised eight Red List Categories of species; Extinct, Extinct
in the wild, Critically endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Lower Risk, Data Deficient and Not
Evaluated. These categories are difined in Table below.
Ecology [114]

Red List Category Definition
Extinct A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has
died.
Extinct in the wild A taxon is Extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys, in known and/or expected
habitats, have failed to record an individual.
Critically Endangered A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild in the immediate future.
Endangered A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered, but facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.
Vulnerable A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered, but
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium term future.
Lower Risk A taxon is Lower risk when it has been evaluated and does not satisfy the criteria for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable.
Data Deficient A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct or
indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction.
Not Evaluated A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet been assessed against the above
criteria.
(C) Threatened (T) : The term is used in context with conservation of the species which are in any one of
the above 3 categores (E, V, R).
Threatened = Endagered + Vulnerable + Rare
1. Endangered (E) : Those species which are in the immediate danger of extinction and whose survival is
unlikely whose number have been reduced to a critical level, if the casual factors continue to be operating.
2. Vulnerable (V) : The species likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the casual
factors continue to operate. Their population is still abundant but are under threat throughout their range.
3. Rare (R) : These are species with small population in the world. These are not at present endangerd and
vulnerable, but are at risk due to their less number. These species are usually localised within restricted
geographical areas or habitals.
19 22 21 17 19
36 34
51 48 43 9 10
14 14 15
16 16 21 38 37
Angiosperms Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals
Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Lower Risk
The percentage of threatened angiosperms, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

categories as critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable and at Lower Risk
Ecology [115]

(D) The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including 338 vertebrates, 359
invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years. Some examples of recent extinctions include the dodo
(Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies
(Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27
species. Careful analysis of records shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the
fact that more than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the threat of extinction.
(E) Presently, 12 per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all
amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world face the threat of
extinction.From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, we learn that large-scale loss
of species like the one we are currently witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans appeared
on the scene.
(F) During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five
episodes of mass extinction of species. How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different
from the previous episodes? The difference is in the rates; the current species extinction rates are estimated
to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the faster
rates. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth might be
wiped out within the next 100 years.
Cr. endangered 18 44 Plant

Endangered 54 113 Animal
Vulnerable 143 87
Lower risk 109 73
Data deficient 31 14
0 50 100 150 200 250
The number of plant and animal species of various threat categories in India
Some Important Examples of Threatened species in India
Category Plants Animals

(1) Critically endengered Barberis nilghiriensis Sus salvanius (Pigmyhog)
(2) Endangered Bentinckia nicobarica Ailurus fulgens (Red panda)
(3) Vulnerable Cupressus cashmeriana Antelope cervicapra (Black buck)
Note : Rauwolfia serpentiana (medicinal plant) is endangered.
Ecology [116]

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION :
It is of two types In situ (On site) and Ex situ (Off site) conservation.
Biodiversity
Conservation
In situ Ex situ
Protected Area Network
Sacred Seed banks Botanical

plants Field gene banks gardens
Sacred Biosphere National parks Home Cryopreservation Arboreta
groves reserves Wildlife gardens Zoological
Sacred lakes santuaries gardens
Aquaria
Terrestrial Marine
In situ Conservation Strategies :

The in situ strategies emphasise protection of total ecosystems.The in Situ approach includes protection of
a group of typical ecosystems through a network of protected areas.
(1) Protected Areas : These are areas of land and/or sea, especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance
of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources. These are managed throught leagal
or other effective means. Examples of protected areas are National Parks and Wildlife Sancturies. The
earliest national parks, the Yellowstone in USA and the Royal near Sydney, Australia.
Many similar areas throughout the world now protect rare species or wilderness areas. World Conservation
Monitoring Centre has recognised 37,000 protected areas around the world. As of September 2002,
India has 581 protected areas (89 National Parks and 492 Wildlife Santuries), covering 4.7% of
the land surface, as against 10% internationally suggested norm. The Jim Corbett National Park was
the first National Park established in India.
Some of the main benefits of protected areas are :
(i) Maintaining viable populations of all native species and subspecies.
(ii) Maintaining the number and distribution of communities and habitats and conserving the genetic diveristy of
all the present species.
(iii) Preventing human caused introductions of alien spacies; and
(iv) Making it possible for species/habitats to shift in response to environmental changes.
(2) Biosphere Reserves : Biosphere reserves are special category of protected areas of land
and/or coastal environments, where in people are an integral component of the system. These are
representative examples of natural biomes and contain unique biological communities. The concept of
Biosphere Reserve was launched in 1975 as a part of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme
(MAB), dealing with the conservation of ecosystems and the genetic resources contained therein. Till May
2002, there were 408 biosphere reserves located in 94 countries. There are 13 biosphere reserves
in India and are shown in figure below.
Ecology [117]

Transition Zone
In India, Biosphere Reserve are also notified as
Buffer Zone
National Parks. A Biosphere Reserve consists of
core, buffer and transition zones. The natural Core Area
or core zone comprises an undisturbed and
legally protected ecosystem. The buffer zone Human Settlement
surrounds the core area, and is managed to
accomodate a greater variety of resource use
strategies and research and educational
activities.
The zonation in a terrestrial Biosphere Reserve
Ecology [118]

The transition zone, the outermost part of the Biosphere Reserve, is an area of active cooperation
between reserve management and the local people, wherein activities like settlements, cropping,
forestry and recreation and other economic uses continue in harmony with conservation goals. The main
fucntions of biosphere reserves are :
(i) Conservation : To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, encourages traditional resource
use.
(ii) Development : To promote economic development which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable.
(iii) Scientific research, monitoring and education : The aim is to provide support for research, monitoring,
education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and
development.
(3) Sacred forests and sacred lakes : A traditional strategy for the protection of biodiversity has been in
practice in India and some other Asian countries in the form of sacred forests. These are forest patches
of varying dimensions protected by tribal communities due to religious sanctity accorded to them.
The sacred forests represent islands of pristine forests (most undistributed forest without any human impact)
and have been free from all disturbances; though these are frequently surrounded by highly degraded
landscapes.
In India, sacred forests are located in several part, eg., Karnataka. Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya
etc., and are serving as refugia for a number of rare, endangered and endemic taxa. Similarly, several
water bodies (eg., Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim) have been declared sacred by the people, leading to
protection of aquatic flora and fauna.
Ex-situ Conservation Strategies :

(A) The ex-situ conservation strategies include botanical gardens, zoos, conservation stands and gene,
pollen, seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks. Seed gene banks are the easiest way to store
germplasm of wild and cultivated plants at low temperature in cold rooms. Preservation of genetic resources
is carried out in field gene banks under normal growing conditions.
(B) In vitro conservation, especially by cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of –196ºC, is
particularly useful for conserving vegetatively propagated crops like potato. Cryopreservation is the storage
of material at ultra-low temperature either by very rapid cooling and simultaneous dehydration at low
temperature (used for tissue culture). The material can be stored for a long period of time in compact, low
maintenance refrigeration units.
(C) Conservation of biological diversity in botanical gardens is already in practice. There are more than 1500
botanical gardens and arbsoreta (botanical gardens where specific tree and shrub species are cultivated)
in the world containing more than 80,000 species. Many of these now have seed banks, tissue culture
facilities and other ex situ technologies. Similarly, there are more than 800 professionally managed zoos
around the world with about 3,000 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. Many of
these zoos have well developed captive breeding programmes.
(D) The conservation of wild relative of crops plants and the off-site conservation of crop varieties or cultures
of micro-organisms privdes breeders and genetic engineers with a ready source of genetic material. Plants
and animals conserved in botanical gardens, aroboreta, zoos and aquaria can be used to restore degraded
land, reintroduce species into wild and restock depleted populations.
Hot Spots of Biodiversity :

(A) Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the geographical regions of the earth. Certain regions of the
world are mega diversity zones where a very large number of species are found. For example, India accounts
for only 2.4% of the land area of the world, but it contributes approximately 8% species to the
global diversity.
Ecology [119]

(B) Norman Mayers developed the hot spots concept in 1988 to designate priority areas for in situ
conservation. the hot spots are the plant and animal life on earth. The key criteria for determining a hot
spote are :
(i) Number of endemic species,ie., the species which are found nowhere else, and
(ii) Degree of threat, which is measured in terms of habitat loss.
(C) Twenty five terrestrial hot spots for conservation of biodiversity have been identified worldwide. These
hot spots together, now cover 1.4% of the earth's land area. Tropical forests appear in 15 hot spots,
Mediterranean type zones in 5, and 9 hot spots are completely made up of islands. As many as 16
hot spots are in the tropics. About 20% of the human population lives in the hot-spot regions. Now
total number of hot spots are 34.
(D) Among the 34 hot spots of the world, two (Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas) are found in
India, and these extend into the neighbouring countries also.Srilanka and Indo-Burma These areas are
rich in flowering plants, also in reptiles, amphibians, swallow-tailed butterflies and some mammals;
and also show a high degree of endemism.
(E) The eastern Himalayan hot spot exteds to the north-eastern India and Bhutan. the temperate forests
are found at altitudes of 1780 to 3500 meters. Many deep and semi-isolated valleys found in this region are
exceptionally rich in endemic plant species. Besides being an active centre of evolution and rich diversity
of flowering plants, the numerous primitive angiosperm families (eg., Magnoliaceae and Winteraceae)
and primitive genera of plants, like Magnolia and Betula are found in Eastern Himalaya.
(F) The Western Ghat region lies parallel to the western coast of Indian peninsula for almost 1600 km, in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The forests at low elevation (500m above means
sea level) are mostly evergreen, while those found at 500-1500 meter height are generally semi-
evergreen forests. The Agasthyamalai hills, the Silent Valley and the new Amambalam Reserve,
are the two main centres of diversity.
Ecology [120]

International Efforts for Conserving Biodiversity :
(A) The Earth Summit held in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro result into a Convention on Biodiversity, which
came into force on 29 December, 1993. The convention on has three key objectives:
(i) Conservation of biological diversity.
(ii) Sustainable use of biodiversity and
(iii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.
The World Conservation Union and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) support projects worldwide
to promote conservation and appropriate development of Biosphere Reserve.
Biodiversity Conservation in India :
(B) Indian region has contributed significantly to the global biodiversity. India is a homeland of 167 cultivated
species and 320 wild relatives of crop plants. It is the centre of diversity of animal species (zebu,
mithun, chicken, water, buffalo, camel); crop plants (rice, sugarcane, banana, jackfruit, cucurbits),
edible diascoreas, alocasia, colocasia; spices and condiments (cardamom, black paper, ginger,
turmeric); and bamboos, brassicas, and tree cotton. India also represents a secondary centre of
domestication for some animals (horse, goat, sheep, cattle, yak and donkey) and plants (tobacco,
potato and maize).
(C) In situ conservation of biodiversity is being carried out through Biosphere Reserves, National Parks,
Wild Life Sancturies and other protected areas by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
(D) The joint forest management systems involve forest departments and local communities. This enables
the tribles the tribal people and local communities to have access to non-wood forest products, and at the
same time protect the forest resources.
(E) The National Bureau of Plant, Animal and Fish Genetic Resources has a number of programmes to
collect and conserve the germplasm of plants and animals in seed gene banks, and field gene banks
for in vitro conservation.
(F) Botanical and Zoological gardens have large collections of plant and animal species in different climatic
regions of India.
(G) The land races and diverse food and medicinal plants are also being conserved successfully by the tribal
people and women working individually, or with various non-governmental agencies. The women particularly
have an important role in the conservation of agrobiodiversity.
(H) In India, a programme is underway to develop a system of community registers of local informal innovations
related to the genetic resource, as well as natural resource management in general.
SPECIAL POINTS
(A) India is divided into 10 Biogeographical regions.
(i) Trans - Himalaya (ii) Himalaya (iii) Desert
(iv) Semi - Arid (v) Western ghats (vI) deccan peninsula
(viii) Gangetic plain (viii) Coasts (ix) North east
(x) Islands
Note : Deccan peninsula has maxmum coverage of teh Indian land mass (42%), western ghats 4% and
north-east 5.2%
(B) Endemic Flowering Species of India - 33% of flowering plants recorded in India are endemic.
(C) Endemic fauna (Animals Species) of India - Out of the recorded vertebrates, 60% amphibians, 53%
fresh water fish, 36% reptiles and 10% mammalian.
Ecology [121]

(D) Maximum endemic amphibian species are found in western ghats.
(E) From ten high-diversity localities in tropical forest some 17,000 endemic plant species and 350,000 endemic
animal species could be lost in near future.
(F) The tropical forests alone are losing roughly 14,000 - 40,000 speices per year (or 2-5 species per hour).
(G) The earth may lose up to 50 percent of the species by the end of the 21st century.
(H) According to IUCN (2004), total number of plant and animal species on the earth is 1.5 million.
(I) According to Robert May global species diversity is about 7 millioin.
(J) More than 70 percent of all species recorded are animals, while plants comprise no more than 22%
(K) Out of 10 animals on this planet 7 are insects.
(L) Indian share of the global spcies diversity is about 8.1 percent.
(M) Some examples of recent extinction include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia),
stellars' sea cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tigers.
(N) According to IUCN Red list (2004), 784 species were extinct in the last 500 year.
(O) The Amazon rain forest is so huge that is called ''Lungs of the Planet''.
(P) Biodiversity Day 22th May.
(Q) Year 2010 is declared as Biodiversity Conservation year by UNO.
THEREATENED ANIMALS OF INDIA :

T = Threatened, R = Rare ; E = Endangered ; V = Vulnerable
MAMMALS
1. Macaca silenus (L.) Lion-Tailed Macaque. E
2. Loris tardigradus (L.) Slender Loris T
3. Hylobates hoolock (Harlan) Hoolock Gibbon E
4. Panthera tigris (L.) Tiger T
5. Panthera leo persica (Meyer) Asiatic Lion T
6. Panthera Pardus (L.) Leopard or Panther T
7. Felis bengalensis Kerr Leopard Cat V
8. Felis temmincki : V Horsfield Golder Cat E
9. Felis manual Pallas Pallas's Cat R
10. Felis silverstris ornate Gray Indian Desert Cat R,E
11. Canis lupus (L.) Wolf E
12. Vulpes bengalensis (shaw) Indian Fox T
13. Ailurus fulgens F.Cuvier Red Panda E
14. Manis crassicaudata Gray The Indian Pangolin T
15. Elephas maximum (L.) Asian Elephant E
16. Rhinoceros unicornis (L.) The great one-horned Rhinoceros E
17. Asinus hemionus khur (L.) Asiatic wild ass E
18. Bos mutus (Przewalski)- Wild Yak R
19. Bubalus bubalis (L.) Wild Buffalo E
20. Cervus elaphus hanglu Wagner Hangul or Kashmir Stag E
Ecology [122]

21. Antelope cervicarpra (L.) Black buck V
22. Maschus moschiferus L. Musk Deer E
23. Gazella Dorcas (L.) Chinkara V
BIRDS
1. Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors) Great Indian Busted E
2. Grus leucogeranus Pallas Siberian Crane T
3. Grus nigricollis Przeyalski Blacknecked Crane E
REPTILES
1. Chelonia mydas (L.) Green Sea Turtle T
2. Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) Gharial R,T
3. Crocodylus porosus Schneider Estuarine Crocodile T
4. Crocodylus palustris (Lesson) Mugger T
5. Varanus bengalensis (Daudin) Common Indian Monitor E
6. Varanus griseus Monitor Indian Desert Monitor T
7. Python molurus *(L.) Indian Rock Python E
8. Python reticulatus (Scheider) Reticulated Python E
AMPHIBIANS
1. Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson Himalyan R
BIOSPHERE RESERVES :
It is a specified protected area in which multiple use of the land is permited.
There are 3 zones of Biosphere Reserve.
1. Core Zone : It lies at the centre where no human activity is allowed.
2. The Buffer zone : Where limited human activity is allosed.
3. Manipulating zone or Transition zone : Where a large number of human activites would go on.
Transition zone
Buffer zone
Core zone
Note : 408 Biosphere reserves are located in 94 countries. In India following 14 sites have been
identified as potential biosphere reserves together with their locations :
Biosphere Reserve State(s)
1. Nanda Devi Uttranchal
2. Nokrek Maghalaya
3. Manas Assam
4. Dibru Saikhowa Assam
Ecology [123]

5. Dehang Debang Arunachal Pradesh
6. Sunderban West Bengal
7. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
8. Nigiri Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
9. Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar
10. Simlipal Orissa
11. Kanchanjunga Sikkim
12. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh
13. Agasthyamalai Kerala
14. Achankamar Madhya pradesh, Chattisgarh
NATIONAL PARKS AND MAIN SANCTUARIES IN INDIA :

National Parks :
In national parks both plants and animals are protected. There are 90 National Parks (in 2004) which
occupy about 4.7% of the country's total geographical area.
Sanctuaries -
The are 448 wildlife Sanctuaries (as on Sept. 2004) which occupy about 3.2% of the country's total
geographical area.
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
1. Marine National Park
2. North Button Island National Park (Andaman)
3. Saddle Peak National Park (Andaman)
4. South Button Island National Park (Andaman)
5. Narcondum Sancutrary (Bay of Bengal)
6. North Reef Island Sanctuary (Bay of Bengal)
7. South Sentinel Island Sanctuary (Bay of Bengal)
ANDHRA PRADESH
1. Coringa Sanctuary (East Godavari)
2. Nagarijunasagar Srisailam Sanctuary (Guntur, Kurnool) [Largest tiger reserve]
3. Pakhal Sanctuary (Warangal)
4. Papikonda Sanctuary (East and West Goddavari)
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
1. Namdapha National Park
2. Pakhui Sanctuary
ASSAM
1. Kaziranga National Park (Sibsagar and Nowgong)
2. Manas National Park (Barpeta)
3. Garampani Sanctuary
JHARKHAND
1. Palamau National Park (Dalton Ganj)
Ecology [124]

CHANDIGARH
1. Sukhna Sanctuary
DELHI
1. Indira Priyadarshini Sanctuary
GOA
1. Cotigao Sanctuary
GUJARAT
1. Gir National Park (Junagarh)
2. Nalsarovar Sanctuary (Ahmedabad)
HARYANA
1. Bhindawas Sanctuary
2. Chotala Sanctuary
3. Sultanpur Sanctuary (Gurgaon)
HIMACHAL PRADESH
1. Great Himalayan National Park
2. Pin Valley National Park
3. Manali Sanctuary (Manali)
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
1. Dachigam National Park (Srinagar)
2. Salim Ali National Park
3. Karakoram Sanctuary
KARNATAKA
1. Bandipur National Park (Mysore)
2. Ghataprabha Sanctuary (Belgaun)
KERALA
1. Periyar National Park (Idukki)
2. Silent Valley National Park (Palghat)
3. Idikki Sanctuary (Idikki)
MADHYA PRADESH
1. Bandhavagarh National Park (Shadol)
2. Fossil National Park
3. Kanha National Park (Mandla and Balaghat)
4. Panna National Park (Panna)
5. Ghatigao-Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
6. Singhori Sanctuary
MAHARASHTRA
1. Chandoli Sanctuary
2. Chaprala Sanctuary
3. Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
Ecology [125]

4. Nagzira Sanctuary
5. Tansa Sanctuary
MEGHALAYA
1. Balphakram National Park
2. Nokrek National Park
MIZORAM
1. Dampa Sanctuary
NAGALAND
1. Fakim Sanctuary
ORISSA
1. Balukhand Sanctuary
PUNJAB
1. Harike Lake Sanctuary
RAJASTHAN
1. Desert National Park (Jaisalmer and Barmer)
2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park (Bharatpur)
3. Ranthambore National Park
(Sawai Madhopur)
4. Sariska National Park (Alwar)
5. Sariska Sanctuary (Alwar)
SIKKIM
1. Kanchanjunga National Park (Gangtok)
2. Van Vihar Sanctuary
TAMIL NADU
1. Guindy National Park (Madras)
2. Marine National Park (Gulf of Mannar)
TRIPURA
1. Trishna Sanctuary
UTTRANCHAL AND U.P.
1. Corbett National Park (Nainital) (Uttaranchal)
2. Dudhwa National Park (Lakhimpur Kheri) U.P.
3. Nanda Devi National Park (Chamoli) (U.P.)
4. Valley of Flowers National Park (Chamoli)
5. National Chambal Sanctuary
WEST BENGAL
1. Sunderban National Park (24-Parganas)
2. Jaldapara Sanctuary (Jalpaiguri)
3. Senchal Sanctuary
Ecology [126]

SOME IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS OF INDIA :
Sr. No. Name and Location Area in Sq. Km. Important Animals Found
Rhinoceros, elephant, wild buffalo, bison,
tiger, leopard, sloth, bear, sambhar, swamp
Kaziranga National Park deer, barking deer, wild bear, gibbon, python
1 430
District Sibsagar (Assam) and birds like pelican, stork and ringtailed
fishing eagles. This is a famous National
Park of famous one-horned rhinocero
Sundarbans (Tiger Reserve) Tiger, wild boar, deer, gangetic dophin,
2 2585
24-Pargana(West Bengal) estuarine crocodile.
Hazaribagh National Park Tiger, leopard, hyaena, wild bear, gaur,
3 186
Hazaribagh Jharkhand sambhar, nilgai, chital, sloth, bear, peafowl
Tiger, elephat, panther, sloth bear, wild bear,
nilgai, sambhar, chital, crocodile, python,
Corbett National Park District
4 525 king cobra, peafowl, partridge. This is the
Nainital (Uttaranchal)
first National Park of India which is famous
for tigers.
Asiatic lion, panther, stripped hyaena,

sambhar, nilgai, chital, 4-horned antelope,
Gir National Park
5 1412 chinkara, wild bear, langur, python,
District Jungarh (Gujarat)
crocodile, green pigeon, partridge. This
National park is famous for the Asiatic loins.
Tiger, panther, chital, chinkara, barking

deer, blue bull, four horned deer, langur,
Kanha National Park
6 940 wild bear, black buck, nilgai, wild dog, sloth
Mandla and Balaghat (M.P.)
bear, sambhar, crocodile, grey horn bill,
egret, pea-fowl.
Tiger sambhar, sloth bear, bison, chital,
Tandoba National Park
7 116 chinkara, barking deer, blue bull, four horned
Chandrapur (Maharashtra)
deer, langur, pea-gowl, crocodile.
Elephant, tiger, leopard, sloth bear, wild
Bandipur National Park dog,chital, panther, barking deer, langur,
8 874
District Mysore (Karnataka) porcupine, gaur, sambhar, malabar squirrel,
green pigoen
Desert National Park
9 3000 Great Indian Bustard, Black buck, chinara.
Jaisalmer (Rajasthan)
SOME IMPORTANT SANCUTARIES OF INDIA :

Name of Location Area in Important Animals
sq.km.
1. Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary 29 Siberian crane, egrets, herons spoon bill etc.
Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Famous for birds
2. Annamalai Sanctuary 958 Tiger, elephant, gaur, spotted deer, wild dog,
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) south bear, sambhar, panther.
Ecology [127]

3. Jaldapara Sanctuary 1155 Rhino, elephant, tiger, leopard, deer,
Madarihat (West Bengal) sambhar, and different kinds of birds.
4. Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary 12 Crane, sarus, spotbill, duck, drake, green
Gurgaon (Haryana) pigeon, wild bear, crocodile, python.
5. Bir Moti Bagh Wildlife Sanctuary 8.3 Nilgai, wild boar, hog deer, black buck, blue
Patiala (Punjab) jackal, peafowl, partidge, sparrow, myna, pigeon,
dove
6. Shikari Devi Sanctuary 213 Black bear, snow leopard, flying fox, barking
Mandi (Himachal Pradesh) deer, musk deer, chakor, partridge
7. Dachigam Sanctuary 89 Hangul or Kashmir stag, musk deer, snow
Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) leopard, black bear, brown bear
8. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary 520 Elephant, gaur, sambhar, chital, barking deer,
Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu) mouse deer, four horned antelope, langur, gaint
squirrel, flying squirrel, wild dog, wild cat, civet,
sloth bear, porcupine, python, rat, snake, monitor
lizard, flying lizard.
9. Nagarjuna Sagar Sanctuary 3,568 Tiger, panther, wild bear, chital, nilgai,
Guntur Kamool and Nalgonda sambar, black buck, fox, jackal, wolf,
(Andhra Pradesh) crocodile.
10. Periyar Sanctuary 777 Elephats, gaur, leopard, sloth bear, sambhar,
(Kerala) bison, black langur, hornbill, egret. It is
famous for elephants
11. Chilka Lake Brid Sanctuary 900 An oasis of bir is like water fowls, ducks,
Balagaon (Orissa) cranes, Golder plovers, sand pipers,
(Largest brackish water flamingoes
lagoon in Asia)
12. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Tiger, panther, rhino, gaur, wild buffalo, sambhar,
Kamrup (Assam) swamp deer, golden langur, wild dog wild bear.
INFORMATION RELATED TO NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES :

India's Famous Tiger Reserve -
(a) Jim Corbett National Park - Nainital (Uttaranchal)
(b) Dudhwa National Park - Lakhimpur Kheri (U.P.)
(c) Kanha National Park - Mandala and Balghat (Madhya Pradesh)
(d) Indrawati National Park - (Chattishgarh)
(e) Simli National Park - (Orissa)
Some Special Animals -
(a) Asiatic wild ass - (Endangered) - Found in runn of Kutch and Pakistan
(b) Red Panda - (Endangered) - Found in Kanchanjunga (Sikkim)
(c) Hangul - Kashmir Stag (Endangered) - Found in Dachigam (Sri-Nagar - Jammu and Kashmir)
(d) Siberian Crane - (Endangered) - Found in Keoladeo (Ghana) National Park
Ecology [128]

(e) The Great Indian Bustard is a huge ground bird with a long and long bare legs. It is an inhabitant of the
semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Hunting for its flesh has reduced its population to
over 800. It is a highly endangered bird.
(f) ''Ex-situ conservation'' is the protection of wild life in zoos and botanical gardens. Other e.g., of Ex-situ
conservation are gene banks, germ plasm bank, seed bank. ''In situ coservation'' is the protection of
species (wild life) in thier natural habitat or National parks.
1. The world's first National Park (America) - Yellow stone National Park
2. India's first National Park - Jim Corbett National Park - Nainital (Uttaranchal)
3. Smallest tiger reserve in India - Ranthambore National Park - Sawaimadhopur (Rajasthan). It is famous
for Asiatic wild ass.
4. Largest Tiger reserve in India - Nagarjuna Sagar Saisailum Sanctuary - Guntoor - Andhra Pradesh.
5. Nandan-Kanan zoo is known for - White tiger.
Note : Tahr and Sunderbans (W. Benal) is also famous for tigers.
6. Periyar wild life Sanctuary (kerala) - Famous for elephant and ohters.
7. Valley of flower National Park - It is situated at Chamoli-Garhwal (Uttaranchal)
8. Flamingoes are protected in Chilka lake Balagaon (Orissa)
9. Rachel carson written a book ''Silent Spring'' - concerned with awareness about ''Nature conservation
and Enviroment'' - 1962.
Note : In it was mentioned the effect of DDT on birds. The population of Lady bird bettle declined.
10. The black buck is one of the most graceful antelopes native of India. The male possesses a pair of spirally
twisted horns. Once abundant in several parts of India. Its population had come untill the enforcement of
the wild life (Protection) Act.
SOME IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS :

1. (i) Natinal Forest Policy revised in - 1988.
(ii) Biodiversity act of India was passed by the Parliament in the year-2002.
(iii) Forest Act-1927.
2. Wild life protection act 1972 (Revised in 1991) :
Objectives :
(1) Restriction and Prohibition on hunting of animals.
(2) Protection of specified plants.
(3) Setting up and managing Sanctuaries and National parks.
(4) Empowering zoo authority.
(5) Control of trade and commerce of wildlife.
3. Chipko Movement was born in March-1973 at Gopeshwar in Chamoli district. The movement had
two leaders - Sundarlal Bahuguna of Silyara in Tehri and Chandi Prasad Bhatt of Gopeshwar.
Appiko Movement - Similar type movement Appiko movement was under taken by Poundurang hegde
in south in 1983.
SPECIAL WILDLIFE PROJECTS IN INDIA :

Project tiger - Running since 1 April 1973 - Central Government.
The Gir Lion Sanctuary Project - Running since 1972-Central Govt. and Gujrat Govt.
Ecology [129]

Himalayan Musk Deer Project - U.P. Govt. IUCN and Central Govt.
The Manipur Brow - Antlered Deer Project - Running since 1977
Project Hangul - Since 1970 - J. & K. Govt. IUCN, WWF.
Crocodile Bredding Project - Since 1975 UNDP, Central Govt.
Project Elephant - Recently started.
ABOUT WILDLIFE :
Red Data Book : This book contains a record of animals and plants which are known be in danger.
This Book is maintained by the IUCN (International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources).
Green Data Book : A book containing a list of rare plants in a protected area like Botanical gardens.
Silent Valley : It is tropical evergreen forest in Kerela (Palghat) declared as National Reserve Forest. It
is called silent valley because there is no noise in the forest during night, even that of cicadas, as they are
not found there. It is related to conservation of forest.
Butterfly Park : India's first and only butterfly park was established in 1992 near Gangtok (Sikkim)
Ecology [130]

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, ISSUES
AND NATURAL RESOURCES
POLLUTION :
"Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristic of air, water and land
which is harmful to the man directly or indirectly through the animals, plants industrial unit or raw
materials is called pollution."
Pollutants : "Any material or product of man or nature which leads to pollution is called pollutants".
Type of Pollutat Usually Pollutants are Divided into Following Categories
1. Nondegradable pollutants : Many of such pollutants are usually not degraded or degraded partially
in environment. Such as aluminium pecks, Mercury compounds of phenols, Glass, D.D.T.,
Benzene, BHC pesticides, etc.
They are collected in the environment and cause polluton. These pollutants are harmful even in low
concentration and harm increases with their increasing concentration. No treatment is found in the
nature for their recycling. There are only two methods by which we can stop the pollution caused by
pollutant.
(i) Such type of substance should be banned by law.
(ii) Use their alternative substance.
2. Biodegradable pollutants - The domestic sewage papers, woods, garbage, live stock wastes,
etc. are easily degraded completely by microorganisms, it becomes useful. But if these materials
enter the environment in such large quantities, that they can not be degraded completely then addition
of these materials cause pollution in environment.
1. Primary pollutants - These perists in the form in which they are added to the environment.
eg., DDT, CO etc.
2. Secondary pollutants - These are formed by chemical reaction amongst primary pollutants.
eg., Photochemical smog, London smog, PAN, O3.
Synergism - Formation of secondary pollutants is known as synergism. Secondary pollutants are more
toxic than primary pollutants.
1. Quantitative pollutants - These are the susbtance which occur in nature but become pollutant when
their concentration reaches beyond a threshold value in the environment.
eg., CO2, Nitrogen oxide.
2. Qualitative pollutants - These are the substance which do not occur in the environment but are passed
in through human activity.
eg., Fungicides, Harbicides, DDT etc.
Other type of pollution :
1. Natural pollution - Caused by natural sources like, CH4 from paddy fields and cattle, marsh, forest
fire.
2. Anthropogenic pollution - Caused by human activities.
Main sources of pollution :
(i) Point source pollution - Where the effluent discharge occur at a specific site.
eg., factory outlet and Municipal sewage
(ii) Line source pollution - It is passed along a narrow belt, Roads,
eg., Rods, Railway tracks.
Ecology [131]

(iii)Diffuse source pollution - It is over a large area.
eg., sprayed fertilizer or pesticides through run off.
(iv) Area source pollution - Industrial estate and mining area.
AIR POLLUTION :
(A) The air pollution is caused due to addition of unwanted substances or gases. The atmospheric pollution
is mainly caused by the activities of man and concentrated to the inhabited and the industrial complexes
in cities.
(B) There are two main categories of air pollutants :
(i) Gases (ii) Particulates
(i) Gases
The gaseous materials include various gases and vapours of volatile substances or the compound
with a boiling point below 200ºC.
Particulate matter :
(a) Particulate matter consist of solid particles or liquid droplets (aerosols) small enough to remain
suspended in air. eg., soot, smoke, dust, asbestos, fibres, pesticides, some metals (including Hg,
Pb, Cu and Fe) and also biological agent like tiny dust mites and flower pollen.
(b) Atmospheric particles having diameter > 10 m, generally settle out in less than a day, whereas
particles with diameters 1 m or less can remain suspended in air for weeks.
(c) Suspended particulate matter in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) causes and aggravates
human respiratory illness, like asthama, chronic bronchitis etc.
(d) According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) particulate size 2.5 micrometers
or less diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing harm to human health as inhaled deep into
lungs can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation, inflammations, damage to lungs
& premature death.
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) -
Source - It is the main air pollutant released from smoke of automobiles.
Effect - Carbon monoxide is highly toxic gas, it combines with haemoglobin of the blood and
blocks the transportation of oxygen. Thus, it impairs repsiration and it causes death due to
asphyxia when inhaled in large amount.
Ecology [132]

2. Unburn Hydrocarbons - (3,4 Benzopyrine, CH4, Benzene)
Source - These are mainly released from automobiles and burning of fossil fuel (coal, petrol,
diesel). Methane (CH4) is the most abundent hydrocarbon in atmosphere and its main source is
marshy area and paddy field.
Effect - Hydrocarbons cause lungs cancer.
Polynuclear hydrocarbon is major hydrocarbon pollutant which cause cancer.
3. Ethylene -
Source - It main sources are automobiles, chimneys.
Effect - Falling of leaves without particular reason, falling of flowering bud before time.
4. Nitrogen oxide (NO, NO2) -
Source - Burning (combustion) of fossil fuel in automobiles.
Effect - These nitrogen oxide form photochemical smog in atmosphere and release ozone. Nitrogen
oxide also responsible for acid rain. Entry of these nitrogen oxide causes respiratory trouble such
as emphysema, bronchitis, swelling of lungs and lungs cancer etc.
5. Sulphur oxide (SO2, SO3)
Source - These are most harmful gaseous pollutants, main source of sulphur oxides are coal
burning, smelters, oil refineries.
Effect - Lichen and mosses do not grow in SO2 polluted areas, Lichen and mosses are
indicator of SO2 pollution. Oxides of sulphur produce acid rain and smog in atmosphere.
6. Smoke - (SO2, SO3, NO2, NO, CO, CO2)
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS :
A. Smog (Smoke + Fog) -
This word was given by Desvoeux. Smog/Smoke is measured by Ringlmann method.
(a) Los Angles Smog or Photochemical smog -
It was first observed in Los Angeles. In this process smoke, fog, nitrogenoxide, hydrocarbons,
oxygen, UV light and high temperature are essential. These components react with each
other and form reddish brown smog (PAN + O3 + Nitrogen oxides) or brown haze/brown air.
Los angeles smog is light induced smog.
Effect -
(i) Due to smog elastic susbtances (rubber/tyres) also affected. Smog causes damage in rubbers.
During smog peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed. PAN stops or inhibits the photolysis
of water in hill reaction of photosynthesis and inhibit the photosystem-II. PAN also inhibit the
chlorophyll formation in plants.
(ii) In animals PAN cause irritation in eyes and harms the lungs.
(iii) Ozone causes harm to mucous membrane.
(b) London smog or sulphur smog -
It was first observed in London. In this process coal, smoke, fog, sulphure oxide and low
temperature are involved. These components react with each other and form vapour (Fog) of
H2SO4 which is known as London smog.
Effect -
Due to inhalation of H2SO4 vapour with fog 4000 people died in London in 1952.
Ecology [133]

B . Acid rain-
This word was given by Robert August. NO2 and SO2 released from different sources in form of
smoke and dissolved in atmospheric water vapour to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid
(H2SO4 + HNO3). These acids come down on earth with rain water, this is called acid rain.
Wet deposition :- If acid comes down on earth with rain, fog and smog, it is known as wet
deposition.
Dry deposition :- If acid settled on earth surface through solid dust particles with nitrate or
sulphate, this is called dry deposition.
Note :
(i) The pH of acid rain is lesser than 5.6
(ii) In acid rain the ratio of H2SO4 and HNO3 is 7 : 3 (70% H2SO4 + 30% HNO3)
Effect -
(i) Due to acid rain acidity of soil and water increases.
(i) Acid rain also cause damage historical monuments. eg., Taj Mahal, Red fort.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Usually carbon dioxide is not considered as pollutant, but its higher concentration forms a thick layer
above the earth's surface, checks the radiation of the heat from the earth surface. Because of this,
temperature of the earth's surface increases, this is called "Greeen House Effect" or Global warming.
The relative contribution of different green house gases

Main green house gases are CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O. These are radiation active gases, Because they
absorb long wave infra red radiations. SO2, NO2, O3 not contribute in green house effect. Water vapour
are also released from industries and agriculture which are responsible to increase the green house
effect.
Ecology [134]

 In this phenomenon cover of CO2 layer around the earth, allow the short wavelength (U.V. rays)
incoming solar radiation to come in but does not allow the long wavelength (IR) of out going heat
radiation from warm surface of earth and surface keep to earth warm. The consequent increase
in the global mean temperature is reffered to as a global warming.
Effects of Green House Gases :
1. It has been observed that in the recent past, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased
from 280 ppm to 368 ppm in 1956 to 2002. If present growth rate is continued then the
amount of CO2 will be doubled upto 2020 century. Even 2-3ºC rise in temperature will be lead
to melting of glaciers and ice caps of polar region and consequently the floods in rivers,
rise in sea level and changes in cycle of rain. Islands may be submerged in sea water. CO2
conc. in 2009-2010 is 385ppm.
2. Carbondioxide fertilisation effect - Due to increased CO 2 concentration the rate of
photosynthesis will increase (up to a few year). The response of the plants to elevated concentration
of CO2 is known as the CO2 fertilization effect, if would be shown by C3 plant, if rest of
environment factors are optimum. The stomatal conductance decrease (due to partial closure
of stomata). Thus transpiration may be reduced and water use effeciency will increase.
It allows many species to grow successfully in regions of water scarcity.
Under high CO2 conc. higher rate of photosynthesis provide high amount of food to roots. This
greater root production enhence mycorrhizal development and N2 fixation in root nodules
and enables the plant to grow in nutrient poor soil.
But all these effects are possible only when the rest of environmental factors are optimum.
3. The global mean temperature has increased by 0.6ºC in 20th century. Depletion of ozone
layer in stratosphere.
4. Sea level has been raised by 1 to 2 mm per year during 20th century.
Control of Global Warming :
1. Reducing the green house gases emission by limiting uses of fossil fuel and developing alternative
renewable sources of enenrgy (wind and solar energy).
2. Increasing the vegetative cover mainly forests for photosynthetic utilization of CO2.
3. Minimizing the use of Nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture for reducing N2O emission.
4. Developing substitute for CFC's.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION Ecology [135]

1. Control of particulate matter - Two devices are use to remove particulate air pollutants.
(a) Arresters (b) Scrubbers
(a) ARRESTERS :
These are used to separate particulate matters from contaminated air.
Arresters are of different types :
(i) Cyclonic separators and Trajectory separators : These are commonly used to separate out
particulate matters from industrial emissions with minimum moisture content. These
separators work on the principle of dust separation by centrifugal force.
(ii) Electrostatic Precipitator : It is the most efficient device to remove fine particulate pollutants.
Electrostatic precipitation device work on the principle of electrical charging of the dust
particles and collecting it on a differently charged platform.
It can remove 99% of particulate matter present in exhaust form a Thermal Power Plant. It
has electrode wire (act as anode) which maintained at several thausend volts, which produce
carona and release electrons.
(a) These electrons attached to dust particles providing them negative charge. The base have
collecting plate (acts as cathod) and attracts the charged dust particles.
(b) The low velocity air is provided between the plates which allow the dust to fall.
(b) SCRUBBERS:
(i) These are used to clean air for both dust and gases. Wet and dry two types of scrubbers are used
for dust separation.
(ii) They can remove gases like sulpher. In scrubber the exhaust is passed through a sprey of water or lime.
Clean Air
Discharge corona
Water line spray

Dirty Air Clean Air
Dirty Air
Dust particles
Collection plate grounded
Scrubber Electrostatic precipitator
2. Control of gaseous pollutants : Combustion, absorption and adsorption technique are used to
control gaseous pollutants.
(a) Combustion - In combustion process, oxidisable gaseous pollutants are completely burnt at
a high temperature. Petrochemical, fetilizer, paints and varnish industries used combustion control of
gaseous pollutants.
(b) Absorption - In this technique, gaseous pollutants are absorbed in suitable absorbent materials.
(c) Adsorption - This technique is applied to control toxic gases, vapours and inflammable compounds
that could not be efficiently removed or transferred by a fore said technique. Such air pollutants are
adsorbed on large solid surface.
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(d) Catalytic converters : Automobiles are a mojor cause for atmospheric pollution in the metro
cities. Proper maintenance of automobiles along with use of lead free petrol or diesel can reduce
the pollutants they emit. Catalytic converters having expensive metals platinum, palladium and
rhodium as the catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing emission of poisonous gases.
As the exhaust passes they catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into CO2
and water, CO and nitric oxide are changed into CO2 and nitrogen gas repectively. Motor
vehicles equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol because lead in the petrol
inactivates the catalyst.
Some other Method -
1. Engines should not be kept started when vehicle is in rest condition.
2. Barium compound mixed with petrol reduce the smoke.
3. It is also very essential to check the quality of gases released from the factories.
4. Industries should not be established at one place.
5. The smoke should be released into the atmosphere after filtration and purification (by cyclone
collector or electrostatic precipitators)
6. To seperate particles larger than 50 m, gravity settling tanks or porous filters are being used.
Controlling Vechicular Air Pollution : (A case study of Delhi)
1. With its very large population of vehicular traffic, Delhi leads the country in its level of air-pollution-
it has more cars than the state of Gujrat and West Bengal put together.
2. In the 1990s, Delhi ranked fourth among the 41 most polluted cities of the world. Air pollution
problems in Delhi becomes so serious that a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed in the Supreme
Court of India. After being censured very strongly by the Supereme Court, under its directives, the
government was asked to take, within a specified time period, appropriate measures, including
switching over the entire fleet of public transport, i.e., buses, from diesel to compressed natural
gas (CNG). All the buses of Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of 2002.
3. Why CNG is better than diesel. The answer is that CNG burns most efficiently, unlike petrol and
diesel, in the automobiles and very little of it is left unburnt. Moreover CNG is cheaper than petrol
or diesel, cannot be siphoned off by thieves and adulterated like petrol or diesel.
4. The main problem with sweitching over to CNG is the difficulty of laying down pipelines to deliver
CNG through distribution point / pumps and ensuring uninterrupted supply.
5. Simultaneously parallel steps taken in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution include phasing out of
old vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur petrol and diesel, use of catalytic
converters in vehicles, application of stringent pollution-level norms for vehicles, etc.
6. The Government of India through a new auto fuel policy has laid out a roadmap to cut down
vehicular pollution in Indian cities. More stringent norms for fuels means steadily reducing the
sulphur and aromatic content in petrol and diesel fuels. Euro-II norm, for example stipulate
that sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per million (ppm) in diesel and 150 ppm in petrol.
7. Aromatic hydrocarbon are to be contained at 42% of the concerned fuel. The goal, accroding to the
roadmap, is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and bring down the level of 35%.
Corresponding to the fuel, vehicle engines will also need to be upgraded.
8. The Bharat Stage-II (equivalent to Euro-II norms), which currently in place in Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai, Banglore, Hyderaba, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra, will be applicable
to all automobiles throughout the country from 1 April 2005.
9. All automobiles and fuel-petrol and diesel- were to have met the Euro-III emission specification
in these 11 cities from 1 April 2005 and have to meet the Euro-IV norms by 1 April 2010.
The rest of the country will have Euro-III emission norm compliant automobiles and fuels by
2010.
Ecology [137]

OZONE DEPLETION
1. Ozone is present in less quantity in atmosphere. But at height of 16 km to 25 km on earth, concentration
of ozone is maximum in stratosphere.
2. Naturally there is bad ozone and good ozone. 'Bad' ozone, formed in the lower atmosphere (troposphere)
that harms plants and animals. There is 'Good' ozone also; this ozone is found in the upper part of the
atmosphere called the stratosphere, and it acts as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
3. UV rays are highly injurious to living organisms since DNA and proteins of living organisms preferentially
absorb UV rays, and its high energy, breaks the chemical bonds within these molecules. The
thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the top of the atmosphere is measured
in terms of Dobson unit (DU).
3. Ozone gas is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen in the stratosphere.
There should be a balance between production and degradation of ozone in the stratosphere. Of late,
the balance has been disrupted due to enhancement of ozone degradation by chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC's), CH4, N2O.
4. CFCs find wide use as refrigerants. CFCs. discharged in the lower part of atmosphere move upward
and reach stratosphere. In stratosphere, UV rays act on them releasing Cl atoms. Cl degrades ozone
releasing molecular oxygen, with these atoms acting merely as catalysts; Cl atoms are not consumed
in the reaction.
(i) In this process one chlorine atom convert one each O3 molecules into O2 by photodissociation.
(ii) The life time of CF2Cl2 (CFC-12) is 139 year while that for CFCl3 (CFC = 11) is about 77 years.
Chemical process of ozone depletion - chain reaction
CF2Cl2(g) + hv  Cl·(g) +·CF2Cl(g)
Cl(g) + O3(g)  ClO·(g) +O2(g)
ClO·(g) + O(g)  Cl·(g) +O2(g)

Active chlorine
5. Hence, whatever CFCs are added to the stratosphere, they have permanent and continuing affects on
Ozone levels. Although ozone depletion is occuring widely in the stratosphere, the depletion is particularly
marked over the Antarctic region. This has resulted in formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer,
commonly called as the ozone hole.
6. For making these discoveries related to ozone depletion or O3 destructruction. Sherwood Rowland,
Mario Molina, Paul Curizen honoured with Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1995.
7. U.V. radiation of wavelengths shorter than UV-B, are almost completely absorbed by Earth's atmosphere,
given that the ozone layer is intact. But, UV-B damages DNA and mutation may occur. It causes
aging of skin, damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers (Melanoma). In human
eye, cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea,
called snow blindness, cataract, etc. Such exposure may permanently damage the cornea.
8. Recognising the deleterious affects of ozone depletion, and international treaty, known as the Montreal
Protocol, was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the emission
of ozone depleting substances.
9. Subsequently many more efforts have been made and protocols have laid down definite roadmaps,
separately for developed and developing countries, for reducing the emission of CFC's and other ozone
depleting chemicals.
10. At normal temperature and pressure thickness of ozone layere is 3 mm. (But at poles thickness of ozone
layer is 4 mm).
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11. Ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica by Nimbus-7 satalite. It is also confirmed
at Arctic in 1990.
12. The aerosols like C.F.C (Chloro flouro carbon) release into the atmosphere from the refrigerators, air
conditioners and jet planes deplete or reduce the ozone layer. This is called ozone depletion and
these substance are called O.D.S. (ozone depleting substance). This thin layer ozone is also known
as ozone holes. (The decline in ozone thickness in spring time (Feb-April) is called ozone hole.)
U.V.
O3 C.F.C.
 O + O
2
13. Number of pollutants like CFCs (14% of total depletion), Nitrogen oxide [3.5%], CH4 and halogens
(chlorine) cause depletion of ozone layer. Maximum ODP (ozone depleting potential) is of CFCs due
to release of chlorine.
Some other Informations :

1. Thickness of ozone layer is measured by Dobson unit (1 DU = 1ppb)
Year Thickness of ozone layer
1979 225 DU.
1985 136 DU.
1994 94 DU.
2. Ozone hole occurs mainly during (July - October) and lowest during spring time (Feb. - Apr).
Means concentration of O3 is highest in stratosphere in Feb.-April (spring season) and lowest during
July-October (Full season).
SOUND POLLUTION / NOISE POLLUTION
1. Air (Preventation and Control of pollution) Act. 1981 amended in 1987 to include noise as Air pollution.
Noise is undesired high level of sound.
2. Increase in the noise in the atmosphere is called noise pollution or sound pollution. Noise is a loud and
unwanted or unpleasant sound. The common things which are responsible for noise pollution are-
industries and mills, means of transportation, television, stereo, loud speakers and jet plane etc.
Intensity : The intensity of sound is measured in bel or decibel [1 bel = 10 decibel]. A man can hear
at 0-decibel. Normally at 25 decibel, the atmosphere may be peaceful. Above 80 decibel intensity
of sound is called noise pollution.
Effect : It causes drousyness, irritation, weakness and 130-140 decibel causes heart palpilation
and pain. Noice pollution reduces the capacity of hearing and result in headache. Sudden excitation
in skin, constriction of gastric muscles starts above the 90 decibel. It also produces excitation in
habit of man and anger. Noise pollution causes ulcers, heart disease, high blood pressure, higher
secretion of adrenal hormones etc. Excluding these, high intensity of sound can also break down the
walls of the houses.
Control : Noise pollution can be control by the use of such type of apparatus which can decrease the
intesity of sound at place or origin. Sound absorbents must be used to minimise the sound. Growing
of more plants can also minimise the noise pollution, by Muffling.
3. Strict following of laws like delinitation of horn free zones around Hospitals, Schools, permissible sound
level of crackers and loud speakers, timing after which loud speakers not played etc.
Day time Night time
Industrial 75 dB 70 dB
Commercial 65 dB 55 dB
Residential 55 dB 45 dB
Silence zone 50 dB 40 dB
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Very Quiet 20-30 dB Sound quiet place is - 20 dB,
Motion Picture Studio, Broadcasting studio
Silence/Quiet 30/35 - 50 dB Hospitals (30 - 35), Schools (45 - 50),
Libraries (45 - 50), Offices (40 - 50)
Normal Voice 55 dB
Conversational speech 60 dB
Moderately Loud 70 dB - 90 dB Factories (60 - 65 dB)
Average traffic - 70 dB
Heavy city traffic - 90 dB
Uncomfortable above 100 dB Air craft (120 dB)
Painful above 130 dB Rocket (180 dB)
Jet plane (150 dB)
WATER POLLUTION
The water pollution is caused by the addition of organic and inorganic chemicals as well as the biological
materials which change the physical and chemical properties of water. This harmful process is called
water pollution.
The water pollution is caused by many sources such as sewage matter, industrial wastage, agriculture
wastage, domestic wastage, hot water of thermal plant and nuclear reactors etc.
(i) Water having D.O. (Dessolved Oxygen) content below 8.0 mgL –1 may be cosidered as
contaminated and below 4.0 mgL–1 heavily polluted.
(ii) D.O. is measured by oximeter.
1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) :
(i) The water pollution by organic wastes is measured in term of Biochemical oxygen demand. It
is the amount of dissolved oxygen (D.O. = Dissolved Oxygen) needed by bacteria in
decomposing the organic wastes present in water.
B.O.D. increased = water polluted B.O.D.  input of organic wastes
(ii) If B.O.D. is increased dissolved oxygen is decreased in water. Higher amount of organic
waste increase the rates of decomposition in water. O2 is rapidly consumed by microbes, thereby
causing drop in D.O. content in water.
(iii) Dophnia is the indicator of B.O.D.
(iv) Biochemical oxygen demand [BOD] is the amount of oxygen taken up by the micro organisms
present in water. BOD is measured by keeping a sample of water containing known amount
of oxygen for 5-days at 20ºC in the dark. At end of this period the oxygen content is again
measured. A high BOD indicates intense level of microbial pollution.
Dissolved oxygen
BOD
Direction of flow
Sewage
discharge
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2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) :
It is the oxygen requirement by chemicals for oxidation of total organic matter (biodegradable
+ non biodegradable) in water.
Note : C.O.D. value is always higher than B.O.D. value.
3. Biological magnification :
(i) The non biodegradable heavy metals (Density > 5g/cm3) pollutant like Al, Hg, Fe, D.D.T.,
Pesticides, Phenolic compound ABS (Alkyl benzene sulphonate) are not decomposed by
micro-organisms.
(ii) They get accumulated in tissue in increasing concentration along the food chain at successive
trophic levels is called biological magnification. The highest concentration occur's in top consumer.
(iii) It occurs as the toxic substances accumulated by organisms cannot be metabolised or excreted
and pass on to next higher trophic level. The most common biomagnification is of Hg and DDT.
The DDT concentration is starts from 0.003 ppb in water, it can ultimatly reach 25 ppm in fish
eating birds through biomagnification.
(iv) High concentration of DDT distrub calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of
egg shell and their permature breaking, eventually causing decline in bird populations.
4. Eutrophication :
(i) The process of nutrient enrichment of water and consequent loss of species diversity
(or death of aquatic animals) is reffered to as eutrophication and lake is known as eutrophic
lake. In this process presence of nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) in lake stimulates
growth of algae (algal bloom) increase organic loading and bring about reduction in the oxygen
content of water causing death of aquatic animals.
(ii) Eutrophication is the natural aging of a lake by biological enrichment of its water.
Natural aging of a lake span thousands of years and lake finally converted into land due to
deposition of silt. Pollutants from man's activities like effluents from the industries
and homes can radically accelerate the aging process, this phenomenon is called
accelerated eutrophication.
(iii) In past century many lakes are eutrophicated by sewage and agricultural and industrial waste.
The prime contaminations are nitrate and phosphate. Which acts as plant nutrients, which
over stimulate the growth of algae causing unsightly scum & unpleasent order and depletes
oxygen dissolved in water which harm aquatic life. The other pollutants flowing in lake may
poison whole population of fishes, whose deposition also depletes dissolved oxygen and ultimately
leads to death of lake.
(iv) B.O.D. of Eutrophic lake is very high.
Water Pollution can be caused by the following man made sources
1. Household Detergents : The house hold detergents include the compounds of phosphate, nitrate,
ammonium and alkyl-benzene sulphonate (ABS) etc. harmful substances which are gathered in
water. Alkyl benzene sulphonate is non degradable, so its concentration increase which is harmful
for aquatic life.
Inorganic phosphorus and Nitrogen : The growth of algae is very fast due to presence of higher
concentration of these susbtance. After the death of algae their carbonic material decomposed and
deprived of oxygen, which causes death of aquatic organisms. The presence of large amount of organic
material leads to eutrophication because of this, amount of oxygen in water decreases. Some of the
algae also secrete toxic materials. The drinking of such polluted (toxic) water causes death of the cattles.
For the control of this pollution, lime ferric chloride, etc. are used to precipitate the phosphate.
Zirconium considered best for this purpose.
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2. Industial waste : The wastes of industries are discharged into the running water of rivers and canals
Industrial waste mainly contains inert suspended particles such as dust, coal, toxins like acid, base
phenol cyanides, mercury, zinc etc. inorganic reduced material like-ferrous salts sulphide, oil
and other residues of organic material and hot water. The water polluted by mercury, lead etc. metals
when used which caused disorganisation of nervous system. It means it produces insanity. The minamata
disease was caused in Japan by eating of polluted fishes from the water polluted by mercury.
So, many humans died because of this disease.
For the control of the industrial wastes and toxic components should be purified before draining
into rivers lakes and ponds or sea. So the water pollutions by industrial effluents can be controlled by
suitably treating the pollutants.
3. Sewage : Sewage contains highest amount of carbonic materials and biological material, as pollutants.
These carbonic materials increase the number of decomposers like bacteria and fungus. The rate of
reoxygenation is reduced as compared to deoxygenation in a water reserviors. The acceleration of
microbial activity increases BOD of water. This indicates the essential amount of oxygen required for
decomposition by bacteria.
Method of water purification :
Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act. 1974 passed by Government of India.
The industrial and municipal waste water are treated in "Effluent Treatment Plant" (ETP) Generally
following treatments are given in ETP.
1. Primary treatment : This physical process involves the separation of large debris (particles),
followed by sedimentation in tanks.
2. Secondary treatment : This is a biological process and is carried out by microorganism. In this
process, the waste water is pumped in shallow stablisation or oxidation ponds or activated sludge
chamber, where the microbes oxidise its organic matter. The process results in release CO2 and this
CO2 is used by algae in photosynthesis. In photosynthesis process algae release O2.
3. Tertiary treatment : This physiochemical process removes turbidity in waste water caused by the
presence of nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus etc.), dissolved organic matter, metals, pathogens.
(i) This step involves chemical oxidation of waste water by strong oxidising agents, such as
chlorine gas, perchlorate salts, ozone gas and UV radiations.
(ii) After tertiary treatment, the wast-water can be discharged into natural water sources or used for
irrigation.
Daphnia, trout fishes and larva of stone fly are sensitive to water pollution and show the
intensity of water pollution.
A Case Study of Intergrated Waste Water Treatment :
(i) Waste water including sewage can be treated in an integrated manner, by utilising a mix of
artificial and natural processes. An example of such an initiative is the town of Arcata, situated
along the northern coast of California.
(ii) Calloborating with biologists from the Humboldt State University, the towns people created an
integrated waste water treatement process within a natural system.
(iii) The cleaning occurs in two stages - (a) The conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorine
treatements are given. After this stage, lost of dangerous pollutants like dissolved heavy metals
still remains. To combat this, an innovative approach was taken and (b) the biologists developed
a series of six connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland.
(iv) Appropriate plants, algae, fungai and bacteria were seeded into this area, which neutralise, absorb
and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, as the water flows through the marshes, it gets purified
naturally.
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(v) The marshes also constitute a santuary, with a high level of biodiversity in the form of fishes,
animals and birds that now reside there. A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh
(FOAM) are responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project.
(vi) All this time, we have assumed that removal of wastes requires water, i.e, the reaction of sewage.
But what if water is not necessary to dispose off human waste, like excreta? Can you imagine
the amount of water that one can save if one didn't have to flush the toilet? Well. This is already
a reality. Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human excreta, using dry
composting toilets.
(vii) This is a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal. The key
point to note here is that with this compositing method, human excreta can be reycled into a
resource (as natural fertiliser), which reduces the need for chemical fertilisers. There are working
'EcoSan' toilets in many areas of Kerala and Sri Lanka.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTIONS
The property of sudden emmission of the different particles (charged) and radiation (rays) by
the decay of atomic nuclei is called radioactivity and the elements are called as radiactive
elements. The radioactivity of the atmosphere is increased by Atomic power stations and Atomic tests.
Radioactivity contributes to the pollution of air, water as well as soil and it proves extremely harmful to
the organisms.
The various sources of radioactive materials as follows
(i) Natural sources : Cosmic rays, radiation from the earth such as Radium-224, Uranium-235,
Uranium-238, Thorium-232, Radon-222, Potassium-40 and Carbon-14.
(ii) Man made Radiation : The radiations are released in the atmosphere during mining and purification
of Thorium and Plutonium, and in producing nuclear weapons etc.
(iii) Nuclear reactor and nuclear fuel causes pollution by radioactive radiation. The nuclear fuel and
coolants are the sources of radioactive radiation. Radioactive waste is also most important radio
active pollutants because these wastes are not dumped at particular or right place.
(iv) Other sources : Some of the radioactive elements (isotops) are used in experimental laboratories
for scientific researches which causes radio active pollution. X-rays are also proved to have harmful
effects. In month of April 2010, 6 peoples at Delhi affected by such radioactive pollution by coablt-60.
Harmful radiation are divided into two categories
(a) Non ionising components : Non ionising components such as UV radiation. UV radiations are
harmful for living beings. These radiations causes harm to the DNA, RNA and protein. Higher
concentration of U.V. radiation can causes xeroderma pigmentosum disease. UV radiations
causes destruction of hydrogen bonds in DNA.
(b) Ionising components : X-rays, -particles,  -particles etc are ionising components. Ionising
radiations are high energy radiations which release electrons from atoms and form a pair of negative
and positive ions.
Ionising radiations cause physical weakness and sudden death of living beings. The effects like
hereditary changes, mutations, tumours, cancer and developmental changes are seen due to
radiations.
 Excluding these, Iodine-131, Stronstium-90 are spreading in the environment through nuclear
explosion and their effects remains for long duration. Iodine-131 reaches in the human body
through the food chain and causes harm to the bone marrow, WBC, Lymph nodes and spleen.
Similarly, the lead to skin cancer, sterility and poorer eye sight. Stronstium-90 leads to bone
cancer and degeneration of tissues.
Control Measures : The competition of nuclear weapons should be completely banned to prevent
radioactive pollution. An atomic bomb was first used in Hiroshima and then in Nagasaki in 1945 during
Ecology [143]

the second world war and due to that genetic disorders are present even today therefore, such type of
atomic blast should be avoided. Leakage of nuclear reactions has been totally plugged. Transportation,
use and disposal of the radioactive fuels and wastes has to be handled carefully.
SOIL POLLUTION
(A) Soil is also polluted through water and air. These pollutants are mixed into the soil through the rain
water.
(B) Such as H2SO4 acid formed by mixing of SO2 with rainy water in
the air. The fertilizers, pecticides and weedicides are being
sprayed over the crops. All these are mixed with soil to produce
harmful effects. The growth of plants is inhibitated or reduced
due to this type of pollution and sometime their death also take
place.s Excluding these, soil pollution also caused by the disposal
of house hold detergent sewage, flowering oils, radio active
substances and hot water etc. The main pollutants of soil are
D.D.T. and weedicides [2, 4D (2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic
acid), 2, 4, 5-T (2, 4, 5-Trichlorophenoxy acid.)].
Case Study of Organic Farming
(a) Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste
procedure, where waste products from one process are cycled
in as nutrients for other processes. This allows the maximum
utilisation of resource and increases the efficiency of production.
(b) Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana,
is doing just this. He includes bee-keeping, dairy management,
water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of
processes, which support each other and allow an extremely
economical and sustainable venture.
(c) There is no need to use chemical fertilisers for crops, as
cattle excreta (dung) are used as manure. Crop waste is used
to create compost, which can be used as a natural fertiliser or
can be used to generate natural gas for satisfying the energy
needs of the farm.
(d) Enthusiastic abut spreading infromtation and help on the practice of integrated organic farming.
Dagar has created the Haryana Kisan Welfare Club, with a current memebership of 5000 farmers.
(C) Plant indicators : "Such type of plants which give additional information about the environment or
habitat are called plant indicators". eg., Growing of Viola plants indicates the presence of Zinc in
soil.
(D) Ocimum shows presence of copper in soil. Silene (a plant) indicate presence of cobalt. The
presence of Lichens shows that atmosphere is free from the pollutants like CO and SO2.
SOLID WASTES
(A) Solid wastes means everything that goes out in trash. Muncipal solid wastes are waste from homes,
offices, stores, schools, hospitals etc. which are collected and disposed by municipality. It comprise
mainly paper, food waste, plastics, glass, metals, rubbers, leather, textiles etc.
(B) Generally, these wastes are burned. Sanitary landfills are adopted as the substitute for openbring dumps
in which wastes are dumped in depression or trench and covered with dirt.
(C) But also cause harm as it cause danger of seepage of chemicals and cause pollution of underground water.
(D) Whole solid waste can be categorised as :
(1) Biodegradable (2) Recyclable (3) Non-biodegradable
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(E) Plastic is non-biodegradable, so it use should be minimize by minimum use of plastic bag or use of
ecofriendly packaging material.
(F) Electronic waste or e-waste are the irreparable computers, mobiles, electronic goods. E-waste are
buried in landfills or incinerates.
(G) Over half of e-waste of developed world are exported to developing countries mainly China, India,
Pakistan where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickle and gold are recovered during recycling process.
(H) In these countries the peoples participate in recycling of e-waste are exposed to toxic substance present
in e-waste.
(I) The ecofriendly recycling is only treatment of e-waste.
Case Study of Remedy for Plastic Waste :
(A) A plastic sack manufacturr in Bangalore has managed to find the ideal solution to the ever-
increasing problem of accumulating plastic waste. Ahmed Khan, aged 57 years old, has been
producing plastic sacks for 20 years. About 8 years ago, he realised that plastic waste was a real problem.
Polyblend, a fine powder of reycyled modified plastic, was developed then by his company.
(B) This mixture is mixed with betumen that is used to lay roads. In collaboration with R.V. Collage
of Engineering and the Banglore City Corporateion, Ahmed Khan proved that blends of
Polybend and betumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced the bitumen's water repellant properties,
and helped to increase road life by a factor of three.
(C) The raw material for creating Polyblend is any plastic film waste. So, against the price of
Rs. 0.40 per kg that rag pickers had been getting for plastic waste, Khan now offers Rs. 6.
(D) Using Khan's technique, by the year 2002, more than 40 kms of road in Bangalore has already been
laid. At this rate, Khan will soon be running short of plastic waste in Banglore, to produce Polyblend.
(E) Thanks to innovations like Polyblend, we might still avoid being smothered by plastic waste.
NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR CONSERVATION
Natural Resources
Inexhaustible Exhaustible
* Solar energy
* Wind power
* Rainfall
* Power of tides Renewable Non-Renewable
* Hydro-power
* Water * Biological species
* Soil fertility * Minerals
* Natural vegetation
* Wild life
* Aquatic animals
* Humans
The materials or any component, that can be utilised by man and are necessary for welfare of life, which is
available in the natural environment in Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere is called natural resources.
e.g. O2, Land, Soil water, Forest, Animals, Soil, microorganism.
Classification of natural resources :
1. Inexhaustible resources : Available in unlimited quantities, and the earth quantity may reamin unchanged
by human impact.
e.g. Solar Energy, Wind Power, Tidal power, Air, Geothermal Energy.
Its quality can be affected due to continuous increase in human population. e.g. Air pollution
Ecology [145]

2. Exhaustible resources : These are likely to be finished by human use or unsustainable uses.
It is further divided in two groups
(i) Renewable resources : Those which are being continuously consumed by man but renewed
continuously by nature, always available if managed in a proper way, otherwise they may even get
totally exhausted.
e.g. Biotic resources, forest, grazing animals, Rangeland, wild life, Agriculture crop system and fresh
water yield, soil etc.
(ii) Non renewable resources : They are not renewable after use and are not replaced by nature, can
not be regained.
e.g. Fossil fuel (Coal, Petroleum), Natural Gas, Nuclear energy, Biotic species, Minerals etc.
Nuclear energy is non renewable and unlimited resources.
HYDROSPHERE OR WATER RESOURCES
1. Water is the major constituent of the hydrosphere and covers 3/4 of the earth's surface.
2. The total volume of water in the hydrosphere is 1.4 bilion cubic kilometer [Km3], about 97.5 % is the ocean
water, unsuitable for human use. Only 2.5 % is available as fresh water. About 1.97 % is stored in ice
ocean (Polar ice) and glaciers and 0.5 % is ground water and soil mositure (0.01 %). The rest a [about
0.36 percent] is distriuted in lakes swamps, river and streams.
3. About 84 % of the total global evaporation occurs from ocean surface and 16 % from land surface.
4. Kelps and a few marine animals are used as human food. Various chemicals are extracted as iodine and
industrial gums from seaweeds. Agar-agar is produced from the red algae-Gracilaria and Gelidium.
Alginin is derived from Sargassum and Turbinaria species.
LAND REOURCES
1. Earth's one-fourth area is formed by land.
2. About 4/5 of the land area is covered by soil.
3. At the beginning of 20th century, about 30 % of land in India was covered with forest but the end of the 20th
century, the forest cover reduced to 19.4 %. Out of 19.4 %, only 12 % area covered by dense forest.
(i) Per capita forest area available in India is = 0.06 hec.
(ii) Per capita forest area avialble in world is = 0.64 hec.
(iii) In India 33 % forest area is recommended by national forest policy (1988).
MINERAL RESOURCES :
Table - Some Important Mineral and some of their uses
1. Metallic
Minerals Us es
Uranium Nuclear bombs, electricity, tinting glass
Thorium Nuclear bombs, electricity, gas mantles
Iron Steel
Manganese Alloy steels, disinfectants
Cobalt Alloy, catalysts, radiography, therapeutics
Columbium Stainless steel, nuclear reactors
Chromium Metallurgy, refractory, chemicals
Molybdenum Alloys steels
Nickel Alloys
Tungsten Alloy and chemicals
Vanadium Alloys
Copper Electrical products, alloys
Ecology [146]

Lead Batteries, gasoline, paints, alloys
Tin Tin plate, solder, chemicals
Zinc Galanising, solder, die-materials, electrical wiring, utensils
Aluminium Aircraft, rockts, building materials, electrical wiring, utensils
Magnesium Structural refractories
Titanium Pigments, aircraft, alloys
Zirocnium Refractories, ceramics, metals, chemicals
Beryllium Copper alloys, refractories, atomic energy field
Gold Monetary purposes, jewellery,
Radium Medical and industrial uses, radiography
2. Non-metallic Minerals
M ine ra ls Use s
Asbestos Insulation, textiles, roofings, glass, ceramic, gasoline, solid propellants
Corundum Abrasives
Feldspar Ceramic flux, artificial teeth
Fluorspar Flux, acid, refringerants, propellants
Phosphates Fertilisers, chemicals
Salt Chemicals, glass, metallurgy
Sulphur Fertilisers, acid iron and steel industries
SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil is the mixture of living and nonliving materials. Soil is only responsible for anchorage and sustainance of
the plants. The fertility of soil is reduced due to growing of plants again and again. Natural factors like water,
air etc. are also responsible for transporting the top soil and decrease fertility. This is called soil erosion.
Soil Erosion
The structure of soil is different at the different depths of land. Its some upper part is called top soil. This
region is very essential for the growth of the plants. Its thickness is about 15-20 cm. This top soil contains
humus and various micro-organisms which increase the fertlity of the soil. When this top soil removed
by fast wind, fast rain, cyclone and running water then it is called soil erosion. The following reasons are
responsible to minimise the fertility power of soil in nature.
1. Shortage of mineral substance.
2. Leaching : The dissolved minerals go into the depth (lower layers) with water. Roots of the plants ususally
remain in top soil so the minerals are not available to the plants.
3. Erosion is divided into the following types on the basis of erosing factors.
(A) Wind Erosion :- This type of erosion is carried by fast air, wind, cyclon etc. It is very harmful in dry
places.
It is of three types
(a) Suspension : The air blows away the fine particles of soil in the form of dust in the atmosphere.
(b) Saltation : The medium size and medium weight particles of soil colliding with each other during the
transfer through the air.
(c) Surface Creep : The heavy particles of soil screeping on the surface of the earth by the force of air.
(B) Water Erosion : The top soil transfer to the another place due to the fast water currents and heavy rains.
Ecology [147]

It is of three types
(a) Rill erosion : The net of groove are formed in the surface due to continuous irregular flow of
water.
(b) Sheet erosion : A similar upper layer is removed on the surface through the water.
(c) Gully erosion : If the rill erosion takes place for long time then the groove are wider and deeper and
are called gullies.
(C) Land Slides : Such type of erosion is found in such places where heavy rain takes place. Becuase of
heavy rain, water flows in gullies which becomes more deeper and water is absorbed in higher amount. So
that big pieces of land break off and slide. This type of erosion occurs in hilly areas.
(D) Stream bank or Riparian Erosion : The fast flow of water collides with the bank of river during the
flood. So that soil is removed from the banks and by which the direction of flow of river may be changed.
(E) Overgrazing and Deforestation : Over grazing also removes the top soil and decrease the fertility of
the soil. The formation of desert in Rajasthan has the main reason as over grazing. Simultaneously
deforestation in the catchment areas in the hilly regions causes floods on the plain areas which destroys
the useful part of the soil. Excluding all reasons, water fall erosion and soil pollution etc also reduce the
fertility of soil.
Soil conservation
Some management measures are essential to check the soil erosion. Accordiing to this some principle are
as follows :-
(i) To protect the soil form the drops of rainy water.
(ii) To stop the accumulation of water as well as stop the flow of water on the slopes.
(iii) To prevent the transportaion of soil particles.
(iv) To slow down the wind velocity on the surface of the earth.
Method of soil conservation :
Generally, two methods are used for soil conservation :-
(A) Biological Method : In which soil erosion is checked by the use of plants.
(B) Mechanical Method : These methods are also useful as biological methods in which soil erosion is
prevented by dams, water reservoir etc.
(A) Biological Method : The following techniques are used in biological methods :
(i) Reforestation or Afforestation : Afforestation is the main measure to control the soil erosion,
floods. Forest are very useful in dry places and deserts to prevent wind erosion. Plants are growing as
wind breaker or wind barriers agains the direction wind currents. This method is sucessful in
Rajasthan to prevent the spreading of desert in east direction. The plants used as wind breaks are as
follows :-
Lawsonia alba (Mehandi), Oak, Calotropis gigantata, Agave americana,
Ber = Zizypus jujuba,
Kattha = Acacia catechu, Shisham = Dalbergia sisso and Mango = Mangifera indica etc.
(ii) Dry farming : This farming has been carried in low rain fall regions. Only few crops are grown in
these places. Excluding this, grass land have also been developed for grazing of animals.
(iii) Contour farming : The ridges and furrows are formed in the field during the sowing of seed crops.
Rain water accumulates in furrows which is absorbed by soil. The flow of water is minimised due
to presence of ridges. Therefore soil erosion is checked.
(iv) Mulching : Stubble are left during the harvesting of crops in this method. These stubbles from a
protective layer. The stalks of Maize, Bajara, Potatoes, Tobbaco are spreading in the field in the
form of a layer, by which evaporation decrease and water holding capacity of soil increases. This
method is useful in both-wind erosion and water erosion.
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(v) Crop rotation : The repeated growing of the same crops in each year like Wheat and Maize,
removes some of the specific (N2) elements in the soil, so that this reduces its fertility. Changing of
crops in each season is to maintain the fertility of soil. The leguminous crop plants increase
content of nitrogen compounds, which improve the fertility of soil.
(vi) Strip cropping : The crops are grown in lines. These lines may be situated at 90º angle to the
direction of wind or it may be parallel. The leaves of one type of plants stop the blowing of soil
particles, such plants are known as erosion checking plants. The other line is having small plants
which are unable to check the erosion are called erosion permitting plants. In this, alternation of
two different type of leaves takes place.
(vii) Ley Farming : The grasses grow along with the crops in various season alternatively.
(viii) Growing of grass on land : The binding of soil particles is the main and special feature of grasses.
So that the grasses becomes the permanent vegetation in grassland areas which minimise the erosion
through the rains.
(B) Mechanical Methods : The following techniques are coming under the mechanical methodsd.
(i) Dam Building : THe dams are built to stop the fast flowing water which is used later on according
to the needs.
(ii) To control the over grazing of animals.
(iii) Basin Listing : Small catchment area of water are formed for the collection of water during the
rain.
(iv) Contour Terracing : The canals are formed along the terraces on the slopes of hills. This reduce
the speed of higher amount of water and changes the direction of water.
(v) Gully Control : The bonds dams and canals formed to control the high speed of water and to
prevent the soil erosion.
FOREST CONSERVATION
It is conducted by two methods
1. Protection or conservation foresty : By making national park and Biosphere Reserve.
2. Production or commerical forestry : It is two types
(a) Social forestry : To grow trees and shrubs on unused farmland, raod sides, rail sides, community land etc.
(b) Agro Forestry : woody species are grown in combination with herbaceous crops either at the same time
or in time sequence.
Taungya system : Growing agricultural crops between rows of planted trees.
Shifting Cultivation or Jhum Cultivation : It is a major cause of deforestation. Many tribal communities
practise slab and burn agriculture in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Africa and Oceania. This consists
cutting down trees and setting them or fire and raising crops on the resulting ash called “Juming” in north
estern India.
WET LANDS :
Low lying area's covered with shallow water are called wet land's. The wet lands are transitions, zones
between terrestrial and aquatic area's. 6% of the world land surface is occupied by wet lands.
(i) Marshes : Wetlands where grass - like plants dominate.
(ii) Swamps : Wetlands where trees or shrubs dominate.
(iii) Reverine forest : Periodically Flooded forest found in lowland along streams.
(iv) Mangrove is saltly water swamp
Siginificance of Wet lands :
(i) Wetland are higly productive, provide food and habitat.
(ii) Wetlands helps to control flooding by holding excess water.
(iii) Ground water recharging area.
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(iv) Help to clean and purify water run-off.
(v) Provides sites for fishing, boating, nature study.
Weltands conservation measures :
(i) Preparation of wetland inventories.
(ii) Checking waste disposal in wetland.
(iii) Reduction of excessive inflow of nutrients and silt into wetlands.
Grassland management measures :
(i) Protection from grazing.
(ii) Use of rotational grazing.
(iii) Removal of woody bushes or shrubs and weeds.
(iv) Conservation of soild and water of grasslands.
(v) Use of controlled burning to promote recycling of nutrients.
Some Other Information related to Grass land -
(a) India has 16 recognised forest types, which represent a rich diversity.
(b) In India, the Grass cover area including fallow and waste land is 18% of total land area.
(c) 37% of land are avaialable for grazing including forest.
(d) Grassland is also called rangeland.
(e) The conversion of grassland or forest to desert is called desertification.
(f) The average annual production of dry grass or hay in India is about 250 million tonnes.
Conservation and management of water :
Main approcaches for conservation of water are :
(i) Reducing agricultural water wastage by increasing efficiency of irrigation.
(ii) Reducing water wastage in industry by recycling the used water.
(iii) Reducing domestic water wastage by cnstructing waste water treatment.
(iv) Rainwater harvesting by employing practices to store rainwater and recharge ground water.
(v) Afforestation and protection of water sheds to improve water economy. Approaches to provide a
sustainable supply of high quality water are :
(a) Construction of dams and reservoirs to ensure year-round supply of water, in addition, controlling
flood and generating electricity.
(b) Desalinisation of sea water and saline ground water and making it fit for drinking and other
purposes.
F orest C o ver in Ind ia (1999 E stim ate)
C lass Area (sq. km .) % G eograp hic area
D ense forest 1 377358 11.5
2
O pen forest 255064 7.8
3
M angrove 4871 0.1
S ub-total 637293 19.4
3
S crub 5896 1.6
N on-forest (other land use) 2598074 69.0
T o tal 3287263 100
1
C anopy cover >40 percent of land
2
C anopy cover 10-40 percent of land
3
C anopy cover <10 percent of land
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DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION AND MAINTENANCE
 The degradation of natural resources can occur, not just by the action of pollutants but also by improper
resource utilisation practices.
(i) Soil erosion and desertification : The development of the fertile top-soil takes centuries. But, it
can be removed very easiy due to human activities like over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing,
deforestation and poor irrigation practices, resulting in arid patches of land. When large, barren
patches extend and meet over time, a desert is created. Internationally, it particularly due to increased
urbanisation.
(ii) Water logging and soil salinty : Irrigation without proper drainage of water leads to waterlogging
in the soil. Besides affecting the crops, waterlogging draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt
then is deposited as a thin crust on the land surface or starts collecting at the roots of the plants.
This increased salt content is inimical to the growth of crops and is extremely damaging to agriculture.
Waterlogging and soil salinity are some of the problems that have come in the wake of the Green
Revolution. This leads to 'sem' problem in many canal irrigated areas of India.
Deforestation :
(A) Deforestation is the converstion of forested areas to non-forested ones. According to an estimate, almost
40% forests have been lost in the tropics, compared to only 1% in the temperate region. The present
scenario of deforestation is particularly grim in Inida.
(B) At the beginning of the twentieth century, forests covered about 30% of the land of India. By the end
of the century, it shrunk to 19.4%, whereas the National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended
33% forest cover for the plants and 67% for the hills.
(C) How does deforestation occur? A number of human activities contribute to it. One of the major reasons
is the conversion of forest to agricultural land so as to feed the growing human population. Trees are axes
of timber, firewood, cattle ranching and for several other purposes.
(D) Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as Jhum cultivation in the north-eastern state of India,
has also contributed to deforestation. In slash and burn agriculture, the farmers cut down the trees of the
forest and burn the plant remains.
(E) The ash is used as a fertiliser and the land is then used for farming or cattle grazing. After
cultivation, the area is left for several years so as to allow its recovery. The farmers then move on
to other areas and repeat this process. In earlier days. when Jhum cultivation was in prevalence,
enough time-gap was given such that the land recovered from the effect of cultivation. With
increasing population, and repeated cultivation, this recovery phase is
done away with, resulting in deforestation.
(F) What are the consequences of deforestation? One of the major effects is enhanced carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere because trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their biomass are
lost with deforestation. Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction,
disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion, and may lead to desertification in extreme cases.
(G) Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed but was removed at some point
of time in the past. Reforestation may occur naturally in a deforested area. However, we can speed
it up by planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity that earlier existed in that area.
Case study of People's Participation in Conservation of Forest
(A) People's participation has a long history in India. In 1731, the king of Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked
one of his ministers to arrange wood for constructing a new place. The minister and workers went
to a forest near a village, Khajadli inhabited by Bishnois, to cut down trees.
Ecology [151]

(B) The Bishnoi community is known for its peasful co-existance with nature. The effort to cut down
trees by the kings was thwarted by the Bishnois.
(C) A Bishnoi women Amrita Devi showd examplary courage by hugging a tree and daring king's men
to cut her first before cutting the tree. The tree mattered much more to her than her own life.
(D) Sadly, the king's men did not heared to her pleas, and cut down the tree along with Amrita Devi.
Her three daughter and hundreds (total 363 peoples of other Bishnois followed her, and thus lost their
lives saving trees.
(E) Nowhere in history do we find a commitment of this magnitude when human beings sacrificed their
lives for the cause of the environment. The Government of Rajasthan has recently instituted the
Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for individuals or communities from rural areas
that have shown extraordinary courage and dedication in protecting wildlife.
(F) Government of India in situated Indra Gandhi Priydarshni; Vraksh Mitra Award for forest
conservation.
(G) You may have heard of the Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas. In 1974, local women
showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from the axe of contractors by hugging them. People
all over the world have acclaimed the Chipko movement.
(H) Realising the siginificane of participation by local comunities, the Government of India in 1980s
has introduced the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the
local communities for protecting and managing forests. In return for their services to the
forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products (e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine
etc.) and thus the forest can be conserved in a sustainable manner.
SPECIAL POINTS
WILDLIFE ORGANISATIONS
I.U.C.N. = The Intenational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. (Switzerland)
W.W.F. = The World Wildlife Fund.
I.B.W.L. = India Board for Wildlife.
B.N.H.S. = The Bombay Natural History Society.
W.P.S.I. = The Wildlife Preservation Society of India.
C.P.C.B. = Central Polution Control Board.
I.B.P. = International Biology Programme.
M.A.B. = Man and Biosphere Programme.
U.N.E.P. = United Nation Environment Programme.
N.M.N.H. = National Museum of Natural History.
U.N.D.P. = United Nations Development Programme.
B.R.P. = Biosphere Reserve Programme.
Z.S.I. = Zoological Survey of India.
B.S.I. = Botanical Survey of India.
C.A.Z.R.I. = Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur.
C.I.T.E.S. = Convention and International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.(1976)
F.R.I. = Forest Research Institute, Deharadun.
W.I.I. = Wild Life Institute of India, Deharadun.
U.N.E.S.C.O. = United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.
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Ecology [152]

28th February - Science Day
21st March - World Forest Day
22nd April - Earth Day
5th June - World Environment Day
7th July - Van Mahotsav Day
11th July - World Polulation Day
16th September - World Ozone Day
3rd October - World Animal Day
4th October - World Habitat Day
1st Week of October - Wild life week
2nd December - National Pollution prevention day or National environment day
3rd Decemebr - World Conservation Day
22th May - World Biodiversity Day
(A) MIC Methyl Isocyanate] was released in Bhopal gas tragedy on 3rd December 1984.
Which is used in the production of "Savin" insecticide in Union Carbide.
(i) Tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl lead are formed by combustion of petroleum. They are known to
hamper haemoglobin formation.
(ii) The disease produced by use of lead polluted water is called as plumbism.
(iii) Lead caused nervousness anaemia in human beings. It also damages kidney.
(iv) Lead concentration in blood is considered alarming if it is 10 µg/500 ml.
(B) Common dust disease is known as Pneumoconiosis.
(i) Disease due to cotton dust in testile workers is - Lung fibrosis or Byssinosis.
(ii) Disease due to coal dust - Anthracosis.
(iii) Disease due to asbestos dust - Asbestosis.
(iv) In stone grinders disease due to silica dust - Sillicosis.
(v) In iron mill disease due to iron dust - Siderosis.
(vi) Cadmium causes anaemia, hypertension, damage to liver and kidneys. In Japan it caused bone
softning or skeleton deformitcis called Itai-Itai disease or Ouch-Ouch.
(C) Stone leprosy is caused due to acid rain because due to acid rain outer surface of metals,
marbels and stone destroyed.
(D) Blue Baby disease : This disease is caused by the high amount of nitrate in water. It is also known
as Methaemoglobinaemia or cyanosis.
(E) Hypertension and Uremia : Caused by Copper.
(F) Arsenic : It causes black-foot disease and poisoning in fodder plants which are eaten by live
stock and causes their death.
(G) Fluorides : The higher concentration of flouorides causes chlorosis or necrosis in tips and margin
of leaf (leaf lamina). The compounds of fluorine reach in the animals through the fodder and causes
abnormal calcification of teeth, this is called Fluorosis.
Note : The experts hold that the maximum level of fluoride which the human body can tolerate is 1.5
parts per million (ppm). When ingested in excess over a long period of time causes "Fluorosis".
(H) EL Nino effect : It is the process in which water of Pacific ocean get warm, in this process warm
water currect flow to equator & peru in between 5 to 8 year at christmas time. Effect of EL Nino
is flood, drought and masnsoon damage in India.
Ecology [153]

(I) Cesium (Cs) accumulates in muscles and causes muscular pain.
(J) Strontium-90 is radioactive element which causes Leukamia and bone cancer.
(K) Iodine isotope-131[I131] causes damage of RBC, bone marrow, Lymphnodes and Skin cancer.
(L) Tobacco and smoke contain seven poly cyclic hydrocarbon and Radio active Polonium-210, which is
carcinogen and causes Lung cancer.
(M) Aldehydes produce irritation in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract.
(N) Phenols caused damage to spleen, Kidney, liver and lungs.
(O) D.D.T. caused Cerebral haemorrhage and malfunctioning of sexual maturtity.
(P) Largest source of air pollution (80%) caused by automobiles in the cities i.e., CO(77.2%).
Nitrogen oxide (7.7%), Hydrocarbons (13.7%), SO2, NH3, Aldehyde and Lead [in the
form of Pb(C2H5)4 and Pb[(CH3)4 as antiknocking agent]. Lead is an air pollutant. Automobiles
also reduce atmosphereic O2 which is utilised in oxidation.
(Q) Particulate pollutants [soot] are Carcinogenic [Cancer causing].
(R) The particulate matter released to the atmosphere by mechanical operations include a number of trace
metals contained in the flyash. Some of harmful trace metals are Antimony, Arsenic, Beryllium,
Cadmium, Germanium, Lead, Mercury, Nickel, Selenium, Vanadium and Yttrium.
ENVIRONMENT LAW FOR CONTROLLING POLLUTION

1. The National Environment (Protection) Act (NEPA) 1986 : This act clearly brings the protection
of water and soil quality, and the control environmental pollutants.
2. The insecticide Act, 1968 : This act deals with the regulation of import, manufacture, sale,
transport, distribution and use of insecticides with a view of preventing risk to human health and other
organisms.
3. The water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act. 1974 : This act deals with the preservation
of water quality and the control of water pollution with a concern for the detrimental effects of water
pollutants on human health.
4. The air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. 1981 : This act deals with the preservation
of air quality and the control of air pollution with a concern for the detrimental effects of air pollutants
on human health and also on the biological world.
5. In 1987, important amendments to the air Act.1981 were made and noise was recognised as an air
pollutants.
(S) Conference on human environment in 1972 held at Stockholm.

(T) In 1987, 27 industrialised contries signed the Montreal protocol to protect stratospheric ozone.
Till date more than 175 contries have signed the montreal protocol.
(U) UNCED (United Nations Conference on Enivronment and Development) Earth Summit helt at
Rio-de-Jenerio (Brazil) in 1992 for reducing green house gases and biodiversity
conservation and make Agenda-21.
(V) Kyoto protocol conference held in Kyoto (Japan) for climate change (1997). This protocol
requires countries to take appropriate measures to reduce their overall green house gas emisson
to a level at 5 percent below the 1990 level by the commitment period 2008-2012.
(W) Earth Summit or world summit on sustainable development (2002) was held in Johanncsburg
(S.Africa).
(X) International Biological Programme (IBP) 1967-74.
(Y) The united Nations, conference on desertification was held in Nairobi (Kenya) in 1977 under the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Ecology [154]

Type of Lakes -
(i) Eutrophic lake - They are shallow water lakes which contain high amount of organic materials
and nutrients. They have little O2 because decomposers rapidly use it up. Chironomous larva are
commonly present in it.
eg., Dal lake of Kashmir
(ii) Oligotrophic lakes - These are deep lakes which have less amount of organic materials and
nutrient.
(iii) Dystrophic lake - Maximum amount of undecomposed organic matter is present.
eg., Marshy lake.
(A) Third pollution or land scape pollution : To make Fertile-land barren by dumping wastes.
eg., ash, insustrial waste.
(B) Incineration : Solid wastes burning in presence of oxygen.
(C) Pyrolysis : Solid wastes burning (combution) in the absence of oxygen.
(D) Flu gas : Gas which release of from chimnies.
(E) Plume : Smoke which release from chimnies.
(F) Hydro thermal vents : These are hot water springs in the deep ocean having high concentration of
H2S, ocean water oxidizes H2S producing energy which is used by bacteria, Filter-Feeders (clams)
eat the bacteria so that this food chain based on chemical energy.
(G) Phytotrons : A such type of house where plants are grown in controlled environment.
(H) Hydrocarbon : Are also known as volatile organic carbons (VOC).
(I) Snow blindness : In human eye cornea absorbs U.V.-B radiation, and a high dose of U.V.-B
radiations causes inflammation of cornea, called snow-blindness cataract.
(J) Electronic wastes is also called e-wastes.
(K) Ganga Action plan for controlling pollution in ganga (1985) included city : (i) Kolkata (ii) Kanpur.
(i) Maximum NO2 polluiton in Ahmdabad.
(ii) Maximum SO2 pollution in Kolkata.
(iii) Maximum SPM pollution in Kolkata.
(iv) Land of maximum wind mills - Netherland.
(v) Largest wind will complex in India, Lamba (Gujrat)
(L) At 50 ppm, CO converts 7.5% of haemoglobin in to carboxy haemoglobin with in 8 hours.
(M) Maximum grean house gas released by - USA
(N) Cotton dust is an important pollutant in Ahmedabad.
(i) CEPHERI : An institution established in India to check pollution i.e., "Central Environmental
and Public Health Engineering Research Institute" (CEPHERI).
This institution submits the measures on the basis of results of detailed survey.
(ii) NEERI : National Environmental Engineering Research Institute - Nagpur.
(Environmental plannig organisation is related with NEERI)
(iii) IPCC : The "Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change".
(iv) I.A.P. : Index of atmospheric pollution prepared with the help of lichens.
(v) I.W.P. : Index of water pollution, prepared by Daphnia, E.coli, Trout.
(vi) M.P.N. : Most probable number of E.coli in water.
Ecology [155]

Ecology [156]

EXERCISE - 1
Q.1 Which of the following would be a natural Q.9 Main air pollutant is –
pollution – (1) N2 (2) CO
(1) Occurence of NO2 in atmosphere (3) Sulphur (4) CO2
(2) Forest fires Q.10 The PAN blocks –
(3) Eutrophication (1) ATP synthesis (2) Hill reaction
(4) Occurence of smog
(3) Glycolysis (4) CO2 fixation
Q.2 Freon is –
Q.11 Which of the following is a photochemical
(1) Metal fluoride
reaction product –
(2) Iron containing polycyclic hydrocarbons
(1) Fluorides (2) CO and CO2
(3) Chlorofluorocarbon
(3) SO2 (4) O3
(4) Ferrous sulphide pollutant
Q.12 P.A.N. stands for –
Q.3 In addition to SO2, metals and textiles are
damaged by – (1) Peroxy acetyl nitrite
(1) Fluorides (2) Carbon monoxide (2) Peroxy acetyl nitrate
(3) Aldehydes (4) Nitrogen oxides (3) Peroxy aceto-nitrile
Q.4 Pollutant of automobile exhausts that affects (4) Pyridine aceto-nitrite
nervous system/produces mental diseases is- Q.13 Which of the atmospheric pollutant cause
(1) Sulphur oxide (2) Mercury general chlorosis i.e. destruction of chlorophyll–
(3) Lead (4) Nitrogen oxide (1) SO2 (2) Hydrocarbons
Q.5 In what way, the fossil fuel burning is
(3) CO (4) CO2
damaging–
Q.14 The C.F.C. pollution sources include –
(1) It generates lot of smoke and smog in
atmosphere (1) Fire extinguishers and jet air crafts
(2) It causes depletion of fossil reserves (2) Refrigerators and jet air crafts
(3) It generates more CO2 in atmosphere (3) Jet air crafts only
(4) It causes green house effect and acid rain (4) All of these
Q.6 Pollution is – Q.15 PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) is an important
(1) Release of toxic/undesirable materials in constituent of ‘Photochemical smog, is a –
environment (1) Corollary pollutant
(2) Conservation of energy (2) Primary pollutant
(3) Removal of top soil (3) Natural pollutant
(4) All the above
(4) Secondary pollutant
Q.7 Ozone layer is disturbed by –
Q.16 Smog is produced due to –
(1) Large number of factories
(1) Smoke and fog
(2) Supersonic jets
(2) Air and metal dust
(3) Large number of automobiles
(4) None of above (3) Water and nitrogen oxide
Q.8 Air pollution is caused by – (4) None of above
(1) Smoke Q.17 Which human disease becomes aggravated by
atmospheric pollution –
(2) Automobile exhausts
(1) Bronchitis (2) Leucoderma
(3) Thermal Power Exhaust
(3) Haemophilia (4) Rheumatism
(4) All of the above
Ecology [157]

Q.18 The gas released in Bhopal tragedy was – Q.28 Through food chain radioactive Sr (Sr90) is
(1) Phosgene (2) MIC deposited in which part of human body –
(3) COCl2 (4) None of above (1) Muscles (2) Thyroid
Q.19 Lichens are best indicators of – (3) Kidneys (4) Bones
(1) Water pollution Q.29 Atomic bomb was used during world war II in-
(2) Soil pollution (1) 1939 (2) 1945
(3) SO2 pollution (3) 1941 (4) 1943
(4) All types of pollution Q.30 The ultimate environmental hazard or the most
Q.20 Which of the following damages WBC, bone- outstanding danger for the survival of living
marrows and lymph nodes – beings on this planet is –
(1) Ca40 (2) I131 (1) Radiation hazard or nuclear pollution
(2) Glaciation
(3) Sr90 (4) Cs137
(3) Deforestation
Q.21 Spraying of DDT produces pollution of –
(4) Desertification
(1) Air and soil
Q.31 The first effect of noise is –
(2) Air, water and soil
(1) Anxiety and stress reactions
(3) Air
(2) Increased heart beat
(4) Air and water
(3) Digestive spasm
Q.22 Which of the following is extreme example of
(4) Constriction of blood vessels
noise pollution –
Q.32 One of the most dangerous radioactive
(1) Sonic booms produced by aircraft
pollutant is –
(2) Rock music
(1) C14 (2) S35
(3) Noise produced by industrial operations
(3) Sr90 (4) P32
(4) Noise produced by traffic
Q.33 Which of the following is a rich source of
Q.23 Radioactive pollution along Kerala coast is due energy but never causes atmospheric pollution–
to – (1) Solar energy
(1) Zinc (2) Thorium (2) Nuclear energy
(3) Caesium (4) Plutonium
(3) Coal
Q.24 Which disease in children is caused by the
(4) Wood
intensive use of nitrate fertilizers –
Q.34 Noise pollution is measured in –
(1) Jaundice
(1) Nanometres (2) Decibles
(2) Septicaemia
(3) Fathoms (4) Hertz
(3) Mumps
Q.35 Indiscriminate use of DDT is undesirable
(4) Methaemoglobinemia because –
Q.25 The noise created at the launching of space (1) It is harmful
rocket measures around –
(2) It is degradable
(1) 180 db (2) 240 db
(3) It causes mutation
(2) 120 db (4) 150 db
(4) It is accumulated in food chain
Q.26 Inadequate drainage in a soil will lead to –
Q.36 Chief source of water and soil pollution is–
(1) Salination (2) Floods
(1) Thermal power plant
(3) Soil erosion (4) Aridity
(2) Agroindustry
Q.27 Leukaemia is caused by –
(3) Mining
(1) Sr90 (2) Iodine
(4) All the above
(3) Ca40 (4) Caesium
Ecology [158]

Q.37 Which of the following is a land pollution – Q.44 The Mathura refinery smoke is thought to
(1) Soil erosion reduce the shine of Tajmahal by –
(2) Accumulation of litter (1) Increasing U.V radiations
(3) Humus formation and accumulation (2) Acid rain
(4) Accumulation of animal waste (3) 3, 4 benzpyrene
Q.38 Some reliable indicators of air pollutants (SO2 (4) All of these
and noxious gases) are – Q.45 Lichens do not like to grow in cities because
(1) Lichens and mosses of the –
(2) Ferns and Cycas (1) SO2 pollution
(3) ‘Neem’ tree and Eichhornia (2) Absence of the right type of algae and fungi
(4) Green algae and aquatic liverworts (3) Absence of natural habitats
Q.39 Labours working in a cement factory suffers (4) Lack of moisture
from – Q.46 In the polluted water, the values of –
(1) Cytosilicosis (1) C.O.D. slightly higher than B.O.D ( 2 )
(2) Bone marrow cancer C.O.D. much higher than B.O.D.
(3) Cardiac disease (3) B.O.D. slightly higher than C.O.D.
(4) Asbestosis (4) B.O.D. much higher than C.O.D.
Q.40 When DDT was applied in an orchard as a Q.47 A very harmful fibrous component causing
pesticide, the fruit production decreased . This pollution and an inflicting disease of lungs in
happened because – human beings is –
(1) DDT killed the pollinating insects along (1) Asbestos (2) Eichhornia roots
with the pests (3) ABS micelle (4) Grease
(2) DDT inhibited flowering Q.48 A rapid growth of photosynthetic algae in water
(3) DDT is a growth retardant develops ‘bloom’. How would it affect the
(4) DDT disturbed hormonal balance essential environment of water –
for fruit setting (1) The environment become comfortable to
Q.41 Ozone is a secondary pollutant because – all forms of life
(1) It is formed by the oxidation of O2 of the (2) O2 level is decreased (OR) BOD becomes
atmosphere high
(2) It is formed by the transformation of NOx (3) O2 level of water is increased
in sun light (4) Fish production is increased
(3) It is not primarily important Q.49 When huge amount of CO2 is dumped into a
(4) It develops secondary effects on living river the BOD will –
organisms (1) Increase
Q.42 C.O.D. stands for – (2) Slightly decrease
(1) Chemical oxygen demand (3) Remain unchanged
(2) Control of diesel (4) Decrease
(3) Caesium oxide deposition Q.50 The atmospheric U.V. radiations are absorbed
(4) Chemistry of depositions in the zone called –
Q.43 The common refrigent chlorofluoro- (1) Stratosphere (2) Mesosphere
methane(freon) and NOx are serious pollutants (3) Thermosphere (4) Troposphere
because – Q.51 Photochemical smog is also called as –
(1) Destroys haemoglobin (1) California type smog
(2) Disrupts O3 layer (2) Tokyo type smog
(3) It lowers atmospheric temperature (3) Los Angeles type smog
(4) Prevents cloud condensation (4) New York type smog
Ecology [159]

Q.52 Which of the following pollutant is released in Q.59 The main causative agent of Minamata disease
larger quantity from the exhaust emission of a is atmospheric pollution by alkyl mercury which
petrol/diesel automobile – comes from –
(1) CO2 (1) Water contaminated with effluents of vinyl
(2) NO2 , SO2 & Pb industries
(3) Hydrocarbons & Pb (2) Piggery & poultry raised on open
(4) CO grasslands
Q.53 Which of the following air pollutant is (3) Chimney waste of plastic industries
carcinogenic – (4) Exhaust emissions of automobiles
(1) 3, 4 – Benzpyrene Q.60 Minamata disease was traced to atmospheric
(2) PAN pollution caused by –
(3) Ethylene (1) Inorganic mercury compounds
(4) N2O (2) Metallic/elemental mercury
Q.54 Which of the following are bio-pollutants – (3) Organic mercury compounds
(1) Spores and pollen grains (4) All the above together
(2) Sewage and garbage Q.61 The ‘Environment Protection Act’ was
promuglated in India in the year –
(3) Protozoans
(1) 1981 (2) 1986
(4) Dairy and poultry waste
(3) 1988 (4) 1974
Q.55 What immediate hazard is likely to occur if the
temperature of the earth rises by 5°C – Q.62 The particulate matter dispersed in the
atmosphere is –
(1) Increase in productivity
(1) Non-gaseous
(2) Melting of polar ice
(2) Mainly non-gaseous
(3) Destruction of phytoplanktons
(3) Mainly gaseous
(4) Inundation of coastal towns
(4) Gaseous
Q.56 For how long and at what temperature an
experiment is run to determine the value of Q.63 Major pollution causing agent is –
BOD of a water body – (1) Animals
(1) 10° C for 10 days (2) Hydrocarbon gases
(2) 20°C for 5 days (3) Man
(3) 50°C for 2 days (4) None of the above
(4) 5°C for 20 days Q.64 Ultra-violet light causes –
Q.57 The automobile emission can be reduced by (1) Destruction of hydrogen bonds between
adding the following in the petrol – complementary DNA strands
(1) Barium salts (2) Calcium salts (2) Photodynamic action
(3) Cobalt salts (4) Silicon oil (3) Sticky metaphases
Q.58 Which of the following could be used in (4) Formation of pyrimidines
purification of sewage – Q.65 Effect of pollution is first marked on –
(1) Fungi (1) Natural balance of the ecosystem
(2) Blue-green algae (2) Geological cycle
(3) Unicellular green algae (3) Rainfall and climate
(4) All plants (4) Fauna of a place
Ecology [160]

Q.66 Addition of phosphates and nitrates/ fertilizers Q.74 Ultraviolet radiations are lethal because of
into water leads to – inactivation of –
(1) Increased algal growth (1) Minerals, air and water
(2) Nutrient enrichment/eutrophication (2) Water, carbon dioxide and oxygen
(3) Increased growth of decomposers (3) Proteins, nucleic acids and pigments
(4) Reduced algal growth (4) Carbohydrates, fats and vitamins
Q.67 Jet air lines produce fluoro-carbons in the form Q.75 Which of the following is the most dangerous
of – environment hazard to mankind–
(1) Mist (1) Noise pollution
(2) Fog (2) Water pollution
(3) Photochemical smog (3) Nuclear waste
(4) Aerosol (4) Air pollutions
Q.68 Non-ionising radiations with specific biological Q.76 The most polluted city of the world is –
effects are – (1) Mexico (2) Calcutta
(1) Beta - rays (2) Gamma rays (3) Tokyo (4) New York
(3) X-rays (4) UV radiations Q.77 The gases which develop green house effect
Q.69 Which of the following statements is not true– (OR) contributes to global warming are –
(1) Nitrogen and Magnesium are serious (1) N2O, CH4, CI, CFC, CO2
pollutants of our environment (2) CH4, CO2, SO2, NOx, NH3
(2) Lichens are affected by SO2 (3) CFC, CO2, SO2 , NH3,H2S
(3) All pollutants are not waste (4) CO2, CO, SO2, N2O, N2
(4) Carbon monoxide is a serious pollutant Q.78 Which is not a pollutant from exhaust of motor
Q.70 Fluoride pollution produces necrosis or chlorosis vehicle –
of – (1) SO2 (2) CO
(1) Midrib (3) Fly ash (4) Hydrocarbon gas
(2) Leaf margin and tip Q.79 What is the potential danger of ‘Green House
(3) Stem effect’ –
(4) Petiole but not lamina (1) Poor photosynthesis
Q.71 Which of the following does not contributes to (2) Heavy rainfall
“Green house effect” – (3) Coastal flooding
(1) Carbon dioxide (4) More humidity in environment
(2) Carbon monoxide Q.80 Effect of to-day's radioactive fall out will be
more on future children than children living to-
(3) Chloro-fluoro carbon and Methane
day due to –
(4) Refrigerant freon
(1) Radiations have delayed effect
Q.72 SO2 and NO2 produce pollution by increasing–
(2) Mutated genes are usually recessive
(1) Acidity (2) Neutrality
(3) Infant susceptibility to radiations
(3) Buffer action (4) Alkalinity
(4) Increase of susceptibility to radiations with age
Q.73 What is environmental consequence of 25%
increase of CO2 level in our atmosphere – Q.81 One of the effects of dust pollution is to cause–
(1) Death of all animals (1) Yellowing of leaves
(2) Green house effect (2) Opening of stomata
(3) Direct pollution (3) Closure of stomata
(4) Death of all plants (4) Folding of leaves
Ecology [161]

Q.82 If water pollution continues at its present rate, Q.91 Silent velley is located in
it will eventually – (1) Kerala (2) Assam
(1) Prevent precipitation (3) J & K (4) Rajasthan
(2) Stop the water cycle Q.92 Tree hugging or chipko movement is associated
(3) Make oxygen molecules unavailable to with
aquatic life
(1) H.N. Bahuguna (2) S.L. Bahuguna
(4) Make nitrates unavailable to aquatic life
(3) Vinoba Bahave (4) None of these
Q.83 Which of the following enhances B.O.D. of
Q.93 Approximately 1.5 million species have been
water –
identified. Which group contains the most
(1) Sugar mill effluents species world wide
(2) Algae (1) Fungai (2) Vascular plant
(3) Sand (3) Insects (4) Mammals
(4) Moss Q.94 Domesticated crop plants rarely become
Q.84 Stiff back and fixed joint disease in human aggresive weeds, because
beings is due to – (1) They are not grown in habitat favourable
(1) The use of fluoride contaminated water for rapid colonization
(2) Bacterial infection (2) Their high seed production is not adaptive
(3) Viral infection for an invading species
(4) Mycoplasmal & fungal infection (3) They possess traits with low survival value
Q.85 Major air pollutants in Bombay and Calcutta in wild
are – (4) They are genetically uniform
(1) Hydrocarbons and hot air Q.95 One of the following is not a wild life
(2) Ozone conservation effors
(3) CO and oxides of sulphur (1) Project Kaiga (2) Project Tiger
(4) Marsh gas and algal spores (3) Project Hangul (4) Project elephant
Q.86 Only ape found in India is Q.96 Introduction of Nile perch into lake victoria
(1) Gorilla (2) Chimpanzee leads to extinction of
(3) Hoolock gibbon (4) Leaf monkey (1) Cat fish (2) Cichlid fish
Q.87 An endangered indian bird is (3) Shark fish (4) Doplhin
(1) Passenger pigeon Q.97 Which of the following group of animal is the
(2) Great Indian bustard most vulnerable to extinction
(3) Vulture (1) Amphibia (2) Aves
(4) Pink headed duck (3) Insect (4) Mammals
Q.88 Smallest national tiger project National park is- Q.98 Which of the following group of plants is the
most vulnerable to extinction
(1) Jim Corbett (2) Rajaji
(1) Angiosperm (2) Bryophytes
(3) Ranthambhore (4) Sariska
(3) Gymnosperm (4) Pteridophyta
Q.89 Animals and plant can be best protected in
Q.99 Which equation is correct for species area
(1) National Park (2) Zoo
relationship
(3) Botanical Garden (4) Sacred forest
(1) S = CAZ
Q.90 Which one of the following agriculatural
(2) A = SCZ
practices is ecofriendly
(3) log S = log C + Z log A
(1) Organic farming (2) Jhum cultivation
(4) 1 & 3 Both
(3) Monoculturing (4) 2 & 3 Both
Ecology [162]

Q.100 Species area relationship equation was given Q.109 Which of the following is narrow utility of
by biodiversity
(1) Mayer (2) Ehrlich (1) Fiber production
(3) Hemboldt (4) Wilson (2) Taxol production
Q.101 Rivet popper hypothesis was given by ...... to (3) O2 production
explain importance of biodiversity (4) 1 & 2 Both
(1) Mayer (2) Paul Eherlich Q.110 Who coined the term wild life
(3) Hemboldt (4) Wilson (1) Mayer (2) Humboldt
(3) Wilson (4) Hornday
Q.102 Total number of Biodiversity Hot spot in india
are Q.111 Which of the following is state animal of
Rajasthan
(1) 1 (2) 2
(1) Gazella (2) Black buck
(3) 3 (4) 4
(3) Tiger (4) Red panda
Q.103 Total number of Biodiversity Hot spots in world
Q.112 Gir National park is famous for
are
(1) Tiger (2) Lion
(1) 25 (2) 9
(3) Wid Ass (4) Elephant
(3) 34 (4) 32
Q.113 Who proposed hot spot concept for region of
Q.104 Silent valley of kerala is preserved because high ecological diversity
(1) It contain rare species of animals and (1) IUCN (2) Mayer
plants (3) Odum (4) Cormandii
(2) Soil is rich in minerals Q.114 Which of the following is a correct match of
(3) Land were use extensively for agricultural animal and its habitat
purpose (1) Elephant - Ranthambhore
(4) It has pine tree (2) Flamingo - Runn of Kutch
Q.105 Ramsar convention is related to conservation of (3) Wild ass - Dachigam
(1) Wetland biodiversity (4) Indian tailor bird - Assam
(2) Terrestrial biodiversity Q.115 Which of the following bird is extinct recently
(3) Tiger & Elephant (1) Carollina parrokeit
(4) Plant (2) Parrot

(3) Siberian crane
Q.106 Which bird is symbol of Bombay Natural
History Society (4) 1 & 3 Both
(1) Hornbill (2) Spoonbill Q.116 Total biodiversity present in India is .....% of
total world biodiversity
(3) Egret (4) Sunbird
(1) 8.1% (2) 6.1%
Q.107 Which year was annouced as year of Tiger
(3) 2% (4) 16%
conservation by WWF-
Q.117 Which of the following is present in green book
(1) 1998 (2)1996
(1) List of endangered plant
(3) 1991 (4) 2006
(2) List of extinct plant
Q.108 State bird of Rajasthan is
(3) List of rare plant grown in botanical garden
(1) Parrot (2) Bustard
(4) List of plant group of an area
(3) Peacock (4) None
Ecology [163]

Q.118 Which of the following species is endangered Q.125 Which of the following is a method of in-situ
(1) Bustard (2) Rhinoceros conservation
(1) National Park (2) Cryopreservation
(3) Asiatic ass (4) All of the above
(3) Botanical Garden (4) All
Q.119 India's Ist butterfly park is located in
Q.126 Which of the following are parts of Biosphere
(1) Sikkim (2) Rajasthan reserves
(3) Nagaland (4) Assam (1) Transition zone (2) Buffer zone
Q.120 Silent valley is a type of (3) Core Zone (4) All of the above
(1) Tropical forest (2) Temperate forest Q.127 Which of the following plant species is critically
(3) Deciduous forest (4) All of the above endangered
Q.121 Which of the following is a Ramsar site (1) Podophyllum

(2) Barbexis nilghiriensis
(1) Chelka lake (2) Sukna lake
(3) Both
(3) Sariska (4) 1 & 2 Both
(4) None
Q.122 The biodiversity of a given region is an
Q.128 Which of the following is thought to be an
outcome of
indicator of ecological balance
(1) Climate & topography (1) Deer (2) Black Buck
(2) Possibility for dispersal (3) Elephant (4) Tiger
(3) Evolutionary history Q.129 Which of the following convention is related to
(4) All of the above conservation biodiversity
Q.123 More biodiversity on large island than small (1) Rio de Janeiro Convention
island at same distance from source, this effect (2) Montreal protocol
is known as (3) Kyoto protocal
(1) Jump effect (2) Distance effect (4) All
(3) Area effect (4) Edge effect Q.130 Which of the following is an endangered
species present in Rajasthan
Q.124 Biological diversity day is celebrated on
(1) Guggal (2) Nepenthes
(1) 3rd December (2) 22nd May
(3) A & B Both (4) None
(3) 4th October (4) 3rd October
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 4 3 3 1 2 4 2 2 4 2 1 4 4 1 1 2 3 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 3 1 2 4 4 1 1 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 3 4 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 3
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 1 3 1 1 2 4 4 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 1 3 3 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 3 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 4 4 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 4 1 1
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130
Ans. 4 4 3 2 1 4 3 4 1 1
Ecology [164]

EXERCISE - 2
Q.1 Sewage water can be purified for recycling Q.9 Which of the following plants shows insecticidal
with the action of – properties –
(1) Micro-organisms (2) Aquatic plants (1) Dalbergia sissoo
(3) Fishes (4) Penicillin (2) Ocimum basilicum
Q.2 National Environmental Planning Engineering (3) Azadirachta indica
Organisation at Nagpur is – (4) Both (2) and (3)
(1) ICAR (2) NEERI Q.10 The classical smog was first observed in –
(3) CSIR (4) CPHER (1) London (2) Tokyo
(3) Paris (4) New York
Q.3 Which of the following does not cause
atmospheric pollution – Q.11 The light of cities is reduced in comparison to
villages due to the presence of –
(1) Automobiles
(1) Hydrocarbons
(2) Nuclear power plants
(2) Particulate matter
(3) Hydroelectric power plants
(3) SO2 and SO3
(4) Thermal power plants
(4) SO2 and oxides of nitrogen
Q.4 Problem associated with nuclear power plants Q.12 Plants are known to be purifiers of air due to–
is –
(1) Nitrogen fixation
(1) Emmission of hazardous radionucleides
(2) Photo-transpiration
(2) Disposal of radioactive waste (3) Photorespiration
(3) Thermal pollution (4) Photosynthesis
(4) All the above Q.13 In human beings, anoxia is caused due to –
Q.5 The extent of darkness caused due to smoke (1) CO2 (2) N2O
can be determined by the help of – (3) SO2 (4) CO
(1) Horizontal microscopes Q.14 Soil erosion means -
(2) Smoke filters (1) Breaking up of rocks by water streams
(3) Ringelmann's charts (2) Deposition of new soil layers by rivers
(4) All of these (3) Removal of top soil layers by wind
Q.6 The average conc of CO2 in the atmosphere (4) Decomposition of organic matter and
is – development of the soil
(1) 100 ppm (2) 300 ppm Q.15 The cutting of trees from the forests of hill
near a catchment area -
(3) 1000 ppm (4) 10 ppm
(1) Will have no effect on causing floods in
Q.7 The term smog was coined by – plain
(1) Des Voeux (2) Tansley (2) May cause flood in plains in rainy season
(3) Odum (4) Clements
(3) Will have no effect on climatic condition of
Q.8 Increasing concentration of DDT in organisms that area
of a food chain in higher trophic levels is (4) Will benefit the mankind for more area for
known as – cultivation
(1) Biological chain Q.16 A slopy land on account of continued rainfall
(2) Biotic potential initially undergoes -
(3) Biological value (1) Sheet erosion (2) Gully erosion
(4) Biological magnification (3) Rill erosion (4) All of these
Ecology [165]

Q.17 The term riparian erosion is applied to - Q.26 Soil conservation is the process where -
(1) Gully erosion (1) Sterile soil is converted into fertile soil
(2) Slip erosion (2) Soil is protected against loss
(3) Wind erosion (3) Soil erosion is allowed
(4) Stream bank erosion (4) Soil is aerated
Q.18 Which occurs under normal conditions - Q.27 The soil bindings is done in the best way by-
(1) Geological erosion (1) Algae (2) Grasses
(2) Surface creep (3) Mycorrhizae (4) All of these
(3) Both of these Q.28 An important agrostological technique to check
(4) Accelerated erosion soil erosion in the initial stages is -
Q.19 Odum has described soil erosion as - (1) Land retirement (2) Ley farming
(1) Soil pollution (3) Contour farming (4) Basin listing
(2) Creeping death of soil Q.29 Which of the following functions performed
(3) Loss of living stratum by a forest helps most in controlling drought-
(4) Loss of feeding zone (1) Forests act as watersheds
Q.20 Soil erosion in plains consequent to rainfall is (2) Forest prevents rainfall in monsoon
initiated by - (3) Forests bring rainfall in monsoon
(1) Rill erosion (2) Sheet erosion (4) Forests have lot of water plants
(3) Gully erosion (4) All of these
Q.30 One of the following is associated with the
Q.21 The soil erosion on slopes proceeds in the conservation of forests –
following manner -
(1) Kaziranga (2) Bharatpur
(1) Gully  Rill  Ravine
(3) Silent valley (4) Gir
(2) Rill  Ravine  Gully
Q.31 Major forest types in India are -
(3) Rill  Gully  Ravine
(1) Tropical evergreen and tropical thorn
(4) Ravine  Rill  Gully
Q.22 Soil erosion can be prevented by - (2) Temperate mixed and tropical deciduous
(1) Allowing herbivorous animals to graze (3) Tropical dry deciduous and tropical moist
excessively deciduous
(2) Increasing fertility (4) Tropical evergreen and tropical moist
deciduous
(3) Making the land slopy
(4) Growing plants to form a soil cover Q.32 The main causes of deforestation are -
Q.23 Soil erosion on hills can be prevented by - (1) Explosion of human and livestock
(1) Removal of vegetable cover (2) Increased requirements of timber and fuel
wood
(2) Leaching
(3) Terrace cultivation (3) Expansion of cropland and overgrazing
(4) Overgrazing (4) All of these
Q.24 Which of the following plants is used as wind Q.33 "Chipko Movement" is world's most known eco
break - development programme started by Sunder Lal
(1) Delonix (2) Eucalyptus Bahuguna (1973). It is related with -
(3) Mangifera (4) Prosopis (1) Conservation of Forests
Q.25 To prevent wind and water erosion, the crop (2) Afforestation
is sometimes harvested in such a way that a (3) Planting
basal stub of the plant is left behind. This (4) Population
technique is called as - Q.34 Percentage of land mass in India under forest
(1) Basin listing (2) Mulching cover is -
(3) Ley farming (4) Strip cropping (1) 33% (2) 23% (3) 17% (4) 19%
Ecology [166]

Q.35 Afforestation with the purpose of environmental Q.42 Forests called Nation's Green Gold, are impor-
aesthetic and economic development is known tant as -
as - (1) They prevent erosion of soil by binding soil
(1) Agroforestry particles and increasing the fertility and
prevent pollution
(2) Forest conservation
(2) They provide timber and medicines
(3) Intergrated afforestation
(3) They provide shelter to animals
(4) Social forestry (4) All of the above
Q.36 Forests contribute to all the following except- Q.43 What is added to correct an alkaline and acidic
(1) Reduction in atmospheric pollution soil –
(2) Increased amount of carbon dioxide (1) Limestone and dolomite powder
(3) Improvement of soil structure (2) Gypsum and sulphur powder
(4) Prevention of soil erosion (3) Dolomite and charcoal
(4) Ammonium sulfate and sulphur powder
Q.37 Shifting cultivation is being practised by some
Q.44 Bloom occurs in -
tribals in Assam and Europe. It is one of the
cause of deforestation as a forest area is (1) Oligotrophic lake (2) Eutrophic lake
cleared by cutting and burning of trees for (3) Fast flowing river (4) Rain water
cultivation for 3-5 years and then a new forest Q.45 Which of the following plant has become a water
area is cleared. The abandoned area invites weed in this country -
erosion and wild vegetation. This cultivation is (1) Typha (2) Trapa
also called - (3) Cyperus (4) Eichornia
(1) Jhuming cultivation (2) Mulching Q.46 What is not useful to increase agriculture
production -
(3) Swidden cultivation (4) All of these
(1) Mechanisation of agriculture
Q.38 Silent valley of Kerala is preserved as -
(2) Enhanced irrigation facilities
(1) It is reservoir of wild life
(3) Use of fertilizers
(2) It contains timber trees (4) Deforestattion
(3) It represents tropical rain forests Q.47 Environmental Planning organisation is -
(4) All of the above (1) CSIR (2) CPHERI
Q.39 When was the National Forest Policy (3) ICAR (4) NEERI
formulated - Q.48 Which is normally not an air pollutant -
(1) 1980 (2) 1964 (1) CO (2) SO2
(3) 1952 (4) 1948 (3) Hydrocarbons (4) CO2
Q.40 When was the Forest Conservation Act passed Q.49 Acidic rains are due to -
in India - (1) O3 (2) SO2 + NO2
(1) 1960 (2) 1970 (3) CO (4) CO2
Q.50 What is found in photochemical smog -
(3) 1950 (4) 1980
(1) CO (2) NO2
Q.41 The famous forest conservation movement in
(3) Ozone (4) 2 and 3 both
India is -
Q.51 Lichens in a habitat indicates -
(1) Silent valley movement
(1) Zinc in soil
(2) Chipko Andolan
(2) Copper in soil
(3) Both (1) and (2) (3) Carbon monoxide in air
(4) MAB and IBP (4) Lack of air pollution
Ecology [167]

Q.52 Green house effect mainly due to - Q.61 Removal of the soil by the action of wind and
(1) SO2 (2) CO2 water is known as -
(3) CO (4) O2 (1) Erosion(2) Fossilization
Q.53 Which pollutant exhibits biomagnification in food (3) Leaching (4) Calcification
chain - Q.62 Eutrophication refers to -
(1) DDT (2) SO2
(1) High production in an aquatic ecosystem
(3) CO (4) PAN
(2) Low production in an aquatic ecosystem
Q.54 Which will not cause any atmospheric
pollution - (3) Low production in a terrestrial
(1) Hydrogen (2) Sulphur dioxide (4) Stable production in a terrestrial ecosystem
(3) Carbon dioxed (4) Carbon monoxide Q.63 Photochemical smog was first observed in -
Q.55 Which of the following is the main factor of water (1) London(2) Los Angeles
pollution - (3) Paris (4) Tokyo
(1) Smoke (2) Industrial waste Q.64 Domestic waste will lead to -
(3) Detergent (4) Ammonia (1) Biodegradable pollution
Q.56 Main air pollutant among the following is -
(2) Nondegradable pollution
(1) CO (2) CO2
(3) Thermal pollution of soil
(3) N2 (4) Sulphure
(4) Air pollution
Q.57 Pollution can be controlled by -
(1) Sewage treatment Q.65 The major source of BOD in the river Ganga is-
(2) Checking atomic blasts (1) Leaf litter (2) Fishes
(3) Manufacturing electrically operated (3) Human waste (4) Auatic plants
vehicles Q.66 If a lake is contaminated with DDT, its highest
(4) All the above concentration would be found in -
Q.58 In cities like Bombay and Calcutta the major air (1) Primary consumer
pollutants are - (2) Secondary consumer
(1) Ozone (3) Tertiary consumer
(2) Carbon monoxide and oxides of Sulphur
(4) None of these
(3) Hydrocarbons and not air
Q.67 The most harmful air pollutant produced by
(4) Algal spores and march gas
automobiles is -
Q.59 Recent reports of acid rains industrial cities are due
to the effect of atmospheric pollution by - (1) HNO2 (2) NO (3) SO2 (4) CO
(1) Excessive release of NO2 and SO2 by burning Q.68 Major pollulant in jet plane emission is -
of fossil fuels (1) SO2 (2) CFC (3) CO (4) CCl4
(2) Excessive release of CO2 by burning of fuel Q.69 It is said that Tajmahal may be destroyed due to -
like wood and charcoal, cutting of forests and (1) Flood in Yamuna river
increased animal population (2) Air pollutants released from oil relinery of
(3) Excessive release of NH3 by industrial plants Mathura
and coal gas
(3) Decomposition of Marble as a result of high
(4) Excessive release of CO in atmosphere by
temperature
incomplete combustion of coke, charcoal and
other carbonaceous fuels is pancity of oxygen (4) All the above
Q.60 Which is the greatest air pollutant these days- Q.70 Melting of the ice caps might result from -
(1) factories (1) Depletion of ozone layer
(2) Motor vehicles (2) Excess CFC in atmosphere
(3) Domestic appliances (3) Excess CO2 in the atmosphere
(4) animals (4) Excess water rain
Ecology [168]

Q.71 Cotton dust is an important pollutant in - Q.81 B.O.D. is connected with -
(1) Delhi (2) Ahmedabad (1) Hg (2) Cd
(3) Madras(4) Calcutta (3) Pb (4) Cu
Q.72 Some effects of SO2 and its transformation Q.82 Soil erosion is greater when -
products on plant include - (1) No rain occurs
(1) Chlorophyll destruction (2) Winds do not blow
(2) Plasmolysis (3) The rainfall is evenly distributed
(3) Golgi body destruction (4) The Rainfall is received in heavy down
(4) None pour
Q.73 Non ionising radiations damaging to DNA are- Q.83 Soil erosion can be prevented by -
(1) X-rays (2) U.V. rays (1) Over grazing
(3) Gamma rays (4) Beta rays (2) Removal of vagetation
Q.74 Radiation is health hazard because it cause - (3) Afforestationi (Plantation)
(4) Increasing bird population
(1) Pneumonia (2) Leukaemia
Q.84 Soil conservation is the process where -
(3) Hemophilla (4) Anaemia
(1) Soil is aerated
Q.75 What is B.O.D. -
(2) Soil erosion is allowed
(1) The amount of O2 utilised by organism in
(3) Soil is protected against loss
water
(4) Sterile soil is converted into fertile soil
(2) The amount of O2 utilized by micro organisms
for decomposition Q.85 In hilly regions, erosion can be minimised by -
(3) The toal amount of O2 present in water (1) Terracing (2) Ploughing effectively
(3) Manuring (4) Strip cropping
Q.86 Who is known as tiger man of Rajasthan
Q.76 What is the intensity of sound in normal
conversation - (1) Jim Corbett (2) Kailash Sankhla
(1) 10 - 20 decibal (2) 30 - 60 decibal (3) Salim Ali (4) Bahuguna
(3) 70 - 90 decibal (4) 120 - 150 decibal Q.87 Which of the following hot spots are present
in India
Q.77 Which of the following is absent in polluted
(1) Western Ghat & SRI Lanka
water -
(2) Indo-Burma
(1) Hydrilla (2) Water hyacinth
(3) Himalaya
(3) Larva of stone fly(4) Blue green algae
Q.78 Maximum green house gas relased by which
Q.88 Which of the following are cause of biodiversity
country -
loss
(1) India (2) France
(1) Habitat loss
(3) U.S.A. (4) Britain
(2) Over exploitation
Q.79 Ozone layer of upper atmosphere is being
(3) Alien species invasion
destroyed by -
(4) All
(1) Sulphurdioxide
Q.89 Which of the following become extinct due to
(2) Carbondioxide
over exploitation
(3) Chlorofluorocabon
(1) Passanger pegion (2) Steller's Sea cow
(4) Smog
(3) Cichlid fish (4) 1 & 2 Both
Q.80 Most hazardous metal pollutant of autombile Q.90 Out of more than 1.5 million known species
exhaust is - insects are — of the total animals
(1) Hg (2) Cd (1) 70 % (2) 25 %
(3) Pb (4) Cu (3) 50 % (4) 75 %
Ecology [169]

Q.91 Which is not true regarding genetic dervesity? Q.99 The species which are likely to be in danger
(1) It enables a population to adapt to its of extinction in the medium term future if the
environment factors threating their extinction continue are
(2) It is also bais of speciation known as
(3) Ecotype formation (1) Threatened species
(4) Higher diversity increases uniformity (2) Rare species
Q.92 Regional diversity is also called (3) Vulnerable species
(1) Alpha diversity (4) Endangered species
(2) Beta diversity Q.100 In India, forests constitute about
(3) Gamma diversity (1) 19.4% of the land area
(4) Ecosystem diversity (2) 38.7% of the land area
Q.93 Which of the following biogeographical regions (3) 33% of the land area
in India has highest lnad coverage? (4) 67% of the land area
(1) Deccan peninsula (2) N.E. Himalayas Q.101 Select an incorrect statement w.r.t. biodiversity
(3) Western ghats (4) Gangetic plains (1) Moutain peaks are more diverse than foot
Q.94 Which is not a reason of maximum diversity in hills
tropics ? (2) Valley's are more diverse than mountain
(1) Higher pest pressure peaks
(2) Evolutionary older zone (3) Shade sides are more diverse than sun
sides of mountains
(3) High rate of out crossing
(4) Western ghats are more diverse than
(4) Greater environmental variations
eastern ghats
Q.95 Threats to biodiversity comes from
Q.102 85% of world's food comes from
(1) Habitat loss
(1) < 20 plant species
(2) Over exploitation
(3) Intensive agriculture
(4) All of these
Q.96 Disappearance of cheetah from India and its
Q.103 A population characteristic of a species
existence in other part of world is an example
susceptible to extinction is
of
(1) Low trophic level in food chain
(1) Extinction
(2) Inability to switch over to alternate food
(2) Extirpation
source
(3) Back ground extinction
(3) Wide range of distribution
(4) Anthropogenic extinction
(4) High biotic potential
Q.97 Silent valley of Kerala is being preserved
Q.104 Number of red list categories prepared by
because it has
WCU (IUCN) is
(1) Rare plants and animals
(1) 6 (2) 7
(2) Only natural forest of India
(3) 8 (4) 9
(3) Crostly timber plants
Q.105 According to IUCN, when a taxon is facing
(4) Recreational value
an extremely high risk of extinction in the
Q.98 Anti-forest conservation is immediate future, it is
(1) Selective felling (1) Extinct in wild
(2) Control of forest fire (2) Endangered
(3) Large scale plantation (3) Critically endangered
(4) Ban on hunting (4) Vulnerable
Ecology [170]

Q.106 Protected areas are example of Q.113 Which of the following exotic species has
(1) In-situ conservation become menace to many water bodies in
India?
(2) Ex-situ conservation
(1) Lantana camara
(3) Cryopreservation
(2) Eichhornia crassipes
(4) Green Houses (3) Panthenium hysterophorus
Q.107 The zone of biosphere reserve where no (4) Eupatorium odoratum
human activity is permitted is known as Q.114 Which is not a criteria used for determining
(1) Buffer zone (2) Core zone hot spots
(3) Manipulation zone (4) None of these (1) Number of endemic species
Q.108 Mark the tree recommended for social forestry (2) Degree of habitat destruction
purpose (3) Having traditional strategy for protection
of biodiversity
(1) Prosopis juliflora
(4) Degree of exploitation
(2) Prosopis chilensis
Q.115 Which anticancerous botano-chemical is
(3) Capparis decidua obtained from a Gymnosperm ?
(4) Leucaena leucocephala (1) Ephedrine (2) Strychnine
Q.109 The Indian rhinoceros is the most important (3) Taxol (4) Reserpine
protected species in Q.116 Find odd one out w.r.t. endangered plants
(1) Gir National Park (1) Berbesis nilghiriensis
(2) Bandipur National Park (2) Bentinckia nicobarica
(3) Corbett National Park (3) Podophyllum
(4) Kaziranga National Park (4) Nepenthes khasiana
Q.117 A few years ago, the brown plant hopper
Q.110 Government of India has provided the private
(Nilaparvata lunges) threatened the cultivation of
ownership rights in
(1) Wheat (2) Rice
(1) A national park
(3) Maize (4) Millets
(2) A sancturay
Q.118 An important international effort of convention
(3) A biosphere reserve for biodiversity conservation is
(4) Zoo (1) UNESCO (2) WWF
Q.111 Wild populations of plants and animals and (3) IBWL (4) NBPGR
tradiational life styles of tribals are protected in Q.119 Find the odd one out (w.r.t. weed)
(1) Biosphere Reserve (1) Lantana camara
(2) Sanctuary (2) Eichornia
(3) National Park (3) Parthenium argentatum
(4) Parthenium hysterophorus
(4) None of these
Q.120 How many species became extinct in last 500
Q.112 Man made mass extinction of species represent
years
a very severe depletion of biodiversity called
(1) 338 (2) 359
as
(3) 784 (4) 2000
(1) Mass extinction
Q.121 How many hot spots cover India's high
(2) Natural extinction biodiversity regions ?
(3) Anthropogenic extinction (1) 25 (2) 3
(4) Human extinction (3) 34 (4) 2
Ecology [171]

Q.122 Overexploitations has resulted in the extinction Q.127 Among the following a plant species of medicinal
of value is endangered -
(1) Steller's cow (1) Butea frondosa
(2) Lantana (2) Rauwolfia serpentina
(3) Passenger pigeon (3) Cocus nucifera
(4) Both (1) & (3) (4) Mangifera land slides
Q.123 Species diversity in an ecosystem mainly depends Q.128 The method by which endangered plant species
on - are conserved in a botanical garden or in some
(1) Light intensity (2) Temperature controlled circumstances -
(3) Rain fall (4) Soil type (1) Afforestation
Q.124 Red data book is famous for - (2) In situ conservation
(1) Extinct plants and animals (3) Ex situ conservation
(2) Extinct plants only (4) None of the above
(3) Endangered plants and animals Q.129 Which one of the following may be the reason
(4) Extinct animals only for extinction of plant species due to human
activities -
Q.125 Green book contains -
(1) Earthquakes
(1) The list of endangered plants
(2) Pollution
(2) The list of extinct plants
(3) Diseases
(3) The list of rare plants grown in botanical
gardens (4) Evolution
(4) Flora of certain area Q.130 The main aim of plant conservation is -
Q.126 Of the followings plants which one would you (1) To conserve the necessary ecological activities
consider an endangered plant, due to over and life supporting systems
exploitation - (2) To conserve species diversity and range of
(1) Dioscorea (2) Maize genetic meterial
(3) Wheat (4) Rice (3) Both the above
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 4 4 1 2 4 4 3 2 3 4 1 1 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 4 3 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 1 4 4 2 1 4 3 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 1 1 2 1 4 2 1 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 4 3 3 1 2 4 4 4 1 4 3 1 4 4 2 1 1 3 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
Ans. 1 1 2 3 3 1 2 4 4 2 1 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 3
Ques. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130
Ans. 2 4 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 3
Ecology [172]

EXERCISE - 3 PREVIOUS YEAR'S QUESTIONS
Q.1 Minerals, metals and fossil fuels are which type Q.9 Sewage water is purified for recycling by the
of resources of energy ? action of - [C.G. PMT 2005]
[UTTARANCHAL 2004] (1) Light (2) Micro-organisms
(1) Renewable (2) Non-renewable (3) Aquatic plants (4) Fishes
(3) Biodegradable (4) Degradable Q.10 Which one is not dangerous -
Q.2 Thermal pollution is caused by - (1) Biopollutants (2) Ozone layer
[UTTRANCHAL 2005]
(3) Nuclear blast (4) Deforestation
(1) Power plants (2) Industries
Q.11 Which of the following set is green house
(3) Automobiles (4) All the above
gases ? [JHARKHAND 2006]
Q.3 The addition of any substance to water which
(1) CFC, CH4, CO2, N2O
leads to change in its physical and chemical
characteristic it is defined as water pollution. It (2) CO2, CH4,N2, O2
results in - [UTTRANCHAL 2006] (3) CO2, CH4, N2O3
(1) Decrease turbidity (4) CO2, CFC, N2, O2
(2) Increase oxygenation Q.12 Acid rain is due to the pollution by -
(3) Increase photosynthesis [JHARKHAND 2005]
(4) Increase turbidity dexoygenation (1) CO2 (2) SO2 and NO2
Q.4 Which of the following is not a green house (3) Dust particles (4) Automobiles
gas ? [WEST BANGAL JEE 2007]
Q.13 Which of the following is biodegradable
(1) CH4 (2) N2O pollutant ?
(3) H2O (4) CO2 (1) Sewage (2) Plastic
Q.5 High BOD indicates -
(3) Polythene (4) DDT
[WEST BANGAL JEE 2007]
Q.14 Most hazardous metal pollutant of automobile
(1) Highly polluted water
exhaust is - [JHARKHAND 2004]
(2) Less pollution in H2O
(1) Cadmium (2) Lead
(3) Less sewage
(C Mercury (4) Copper
(4) Less microoganism
Q.15 Air quality indicator is - [BIHAR 2005]
Q.6 Increasing concentration of accumulated pollutant
along food chain is - (1) Lichen (2) Moss
[WEST BANGAL JEE 2007] (3) Algae (4) None of these
(1) Biomagnification (2) Bioaccumulation Q.16 Blood haemoglobin has high affinity for -
(3) Eutrophication (4) Biodiversity [BIHAR 2004]
Q.7 Which one of the following is a renewable source (1) CO2 (2) CO
of energy ? [C.G. PMT 2004] (3) O2 (4) H
(1) Petroleum (2) Coal Q.17 Minamata disease caused due to water pollution
(3) Nuclear fuel (4) Trees is due to - [BIHAR 2003]
Q.8 Spraying of DDT produces pollution of - (1) Lead poisoning
[C.G. PMT 2004] (2) Arsenic chloride poisoning
(1) Air only (2) Air and soil only (3) Mercury poisoning
(3) Air, soil and water (4) Ammonia pollution
(4) Air and water only
Ecology [173]

Q.18 Effect of pollution is first marked on - Q.26 If the Bengal 'Tiger becomes extinct -
[UP CPMT 2002] [AIIMS 2004]
(1) Micro-organisms (1) Hyanas and wolves will become scare
(2) Green vegetation of an area (2) The wild areas will be safe for man and
domestic animals
(3) Food crop
(3) Its gene pool will be lost for ever
(4) None of these
(4) The populations of beautiful animals like deers
Q.19 Pollution is not caused by - [UP CPMT 2002]
will get stabilized
(1) Thermal power plant Q.27 If high altitude birds become rare or extinct, the
(2) Automobile plants which may disappear along with them are-
(3) Radioactive power plant [AIIMS 2004]
(4) Hydroelctric power plant (1) Pine (2) Oak
Q.20 Taj Mahal marble is affected by - (3) Orchids (4) Rhododrons
[UP CPMT 2002] Q.28 Which one of the following pairs of geographical
(1) SO2 (2) O2 areas show maximum biodiversity in our country-
(3) O3 (4) NO2 [AIIMS 2005]
Q.21 Minimata disease first occurred in - (1) Sunderbans and Rann of Kutch
(2) Eastern Ghats and West Bengal
[UP CPMT 2002]
(3) Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats
(1) Japan (2) China
(4) Kerala and Punjab
(3) Korea (4) Russia
Q.29 One of the ex situ conservation methods for
Q.22 Increase in BOD of water reservior is due to-
endangered species is - [AIIMS 2005]
[AIPMT-2004]
(1) Wildlife Sanctuaries
(1) Algae (2) Soil (2) Biosphere Reserves
(3) Moss (4) Waste product (3) Cryopreservation
Q.23 Number of wild life is continuously decreasing. (4) National Parks
What is the main reason of this -
Q.30 Reason for elimination of wild life is -
[CPMT 2002] [AIPMT 1998]
(1) Predation (1) Deforestation (2) Forest fire
(2) Cutting down of forest (3) Floods (4) Less Rain fall
(3) Destruction of habital Q.31 Main reason of disturbance of biological diversity-
(4) Hunting [AIPMT 1998]
Q.24 One of the following is associated with the (1) Green house effect
conservation of forests - [DPMT 87] (2) Hunting
(1) Kaziranga (2) Ghana (3) Soil erosion
(3) Silent valley (4) Gir (4) Destruction of natural habitats
Q.25 Which one of the following is a pair of endangered Q.32 Best method to preserve the wild relatives of
species - [AIIMS 2004] plants - [AIPMT 1999]
(1) Garden lizard and Mexican poppy (1) By growing them in natural habitats
(2) Rhesus monkey and Sal tree (2) Gene library
(3) Indian peacock and carrot grass (3) By storing seeds
(4) Hornbill and Indian Aconite (4) Cryopreservation
Ecology [174]

Q.33 Species diversity is maximum in - Q.40 One of the most important functions of botanical
[AIPMT 1999] gardens is that - [AIPMT 2005]
(1) Tropical rain forest (1) they provide a beautiful area for recreation
(2) Temperate forest (2) one can observe tropical plants there
(3) they allow ex-situ conservation of germ plasm
(3) Deserts
(4) they provide the natural habitat for wild life
(4) Hill slops
Q.41 Which of the following pairs of an animal and a
Q.34 According to forestory comission report-1997 the
plant represents endangered organisms in
total forest cover fo India - [AIPMT 1999]
India ? [AIPMT 2006]
(1) 11 % (2) 19.5 %
(1) Cinchona and Leopard
(3) 17 % (4) 18.7 % (2) Banyan and Black buck
Q.35 What shall be the effect of destruction of wild (3) Bentinckia nicobarica and Red Panda
life - [AIPMT 2000] (4) Tamarind and Rhesus monkey
(1) Wild gene of disease resistance will not be Q.42 Which one of the following is not included under
obtained in - situ conservation ? [AIPMT 2006]
(2) Soil erosion (1) Biosphere reserve
(3) Floods (2) National park
(4) Green house effect (3) Sanctuary
Q.36 Occurence of endemic species in south america (4) Botanical garden
and Australia due to - [AIPMT 2001] Q.43 Which one of the following is the correctly
(1) There species has been extinct from other matched pair of an endangered animal and a
regions National Park ? [AIPMT 2006]
(2) Continental separation (1) Wild ass - Dudhwa National Park
(3) There is no terrrestrial route to these places (2) Great Indian - Keoladeo National Park
Bustard
(4) Restrogressive evolution
(3) Lion - Corbett National Park
Q.37 In your opinion, which is the most effective way
(4) Rhinoceros - Kaziranga National Park
to conserve the plant diversity of an area-
Q.44 Which of the following is considered a hot-spot
[AIPMT 2004]
of biodiversity in India ? [AIPMT 2006]
(1) By creating biosphere reserve
(1) Eastern Ghats (2) Aravalli Hills
(2) By creating botanical garden (3) Western Ghats (4) Indo-Gangetic Plain
(3) By developing seed bank Q.45 Identify the odd combination of the habitat and
(4) By tissue culture method the particular animal concerned -
Q.38 Biodiversity Act of India was passed by the [AIPMT 2007]
Parliament in the year - [AIPMT 2005] (1) Rann of Kutch - Wild Ass
(1) 2002 (2) 1992 (2) Dachigam national - Snow Leopard Park
(3) 1996 (4) 2000 (3) Sunderbans - Bengal Tiger
Q.39 According to IUCN Red List. What is the status (4) Periyar - Elephant
of Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) ? Q.46 Which one of the following pairs of organisms
[AIPMT 2005] are exotic species introduced in India ?
(1) Critically species [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Nile perch, Ficus religiosa
(2) Vulnerable species
(2) Ficus religiosa, Lantana camara
(3) Extinct species
(3) Lantana camara, Water Hyacinth
(4) Endangered species
(4) Water hyacinth, Prosopis cinereia
Ecology [175]

Q.47 Which one of the following is not observed in Q.53 Petrolium resource is - [CBSE PMT 92]
biodiversity hotspots ? [AIPMT 2008] (1) Renewable
(1) Lesser inter-specific competition (2) Non renewable
(2) Species richness (3) Synthetic & biodegradable
(3) Endemism (4) Infinite & unconventional
(4) Accelerated species loss Q.54 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is measure
Q.48 The table below gives the populations (in of - [AIIMS 2003]
thousands) of ten species (A – J) in four areas (a (1) Industrial wastes poured into water bodies
– d) consisting of the number of habitats given (2) Extent to which water is polluted with organic
within brackets against each. Study the table and compouds
answer the question which follows-
(3) Amount of Carbon monoxide inseparably
Area Species and their populations (in thousands) in combined with haemoglobin
and the areas
Number (4) Amount of oxygen needed by green plants
of A B C D E F G H I J during night
habitats
a (11) 2.3 1.2 0.52 6 - 3.1 1.1 9 - 10.3
Q.55 In almost all Indian metropolitan cities like Delhi,
b (11) 10 - 0.62 - 1.5 3 - 8.2 1.1 11.2 the major atmospheric pollutant(s) is/are -
c (13) 11 0.9 0.48 2.4 1.4 4.2 0.8 8.4 2.2 4.1 [AIIMS 2003]
d (12) 3.2 10.2 11.1 4.8 0.4 3.3 0.8 7.3 11.3 2.1
(1) Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
Which area out of a tod shows maximum species (2) Oxides of sulphur
diversity ? [AIPMT 2008]
(3) Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
(1) d (2) a
(4) Oxides of nitrogen
(3) b (4) c
Q.56 Nitrogen oxides produced from the emission of
Q.49 Tiger is not a resident in which one of the following automobiles and power plants, are the source of
national park ? [AIPMT 2009]
fine air borne particles which lead to -
(1) Jim Corbett (2) Ranthambhor
[AIIMS 2004]
(3) Sunderbans (4) Gir
(1) Photochemical smog
Q.50 Which one of the following is an example of ex-
(2) Dry acid depposition
situ conservation? [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(3) Industrial smog
(1) Wild life centurary
(4) Wet acid deposition
(2) Seed bank
Q.57 A lake with an inflow of domestic sewage rich in
(3) Sacred groves
organic waste may result in - [AIIMS 2004]
(4) National Park (1) Drying of the lake very soon due to algal
Q.51 The Indian Rhinoceros is a natural inhabitant of bloom
which one of the Indian states - (2) An increased production of fish due to lot of
nutrients
[AIPMT Pre 2010]
(3) Death of fish due to lack of oxygen
(1) Uttar Pradesh (2) Himachal Pradesh
(4) Incrased population of aquatic food web
(3) Assam (4) Uttarakhand organisms
Q.52 Which of the following is the non conventional Q.58 Minamata disease was caused due to the
source of energy - [DPMT 86] consumption of - [AIIMS 2004]
(1) Coal (1) Sea food containing lot of cadmium
(2) Petroleum (2) Fish contaminated with mercury
(3) Electricity from nuclear power plants (3) Oysters with lot of pesticide
(4) Solar radiations (4) Sea food contaminated with selenium
Ecology [176]

Q.59 Which one of the following statements pertaining Q.67 Concentration of DDT is highest in -
to pollutants is correct - [AIIMS 2005] [AIPMT-1999]
(1) DDT is a non-biodegradable pollutant (1) Primary consumer
(2) Excess fluoride in drinking water causes
(2) Producers
osteoporosis
(3) Top consumer
(3) Excess cadmium in driking water causes black
foot disease (4) Decomposers
(4) Methylmercury in water may cause "Itai Itai" Q.68 Lichens can be used as - [AIPMT-1999]
disease (1) Bio-indicator for water and air pollution
Q.60 If CO2 is absent in atmosphere of earth then - (2) Initial vegetation for waste lands
[AIPMT-1998]
(3) Source of wood
(1) Temperature will decrease
(4) To check the air pollution
(2) Temperatuer will increase
Q.69 What is phytotron - [AIPMT-1999]
(3) Plants will flourish well
(4) No effect (1) A device to grow the plants in controlled
Q.61 CO is harmful because - [AIPMT-1998] environment
(1) It forms stable compound with haemoglobin (2) Growing plants in green house
(2) It blocks mitosis (3) Radiation chamber to induce the mutations
(3) It is mutagenic (4) Apparatus to study the effect of light on plants
(4) It causes defloation Q.70 Which of the following is secondary pollutant-
Q.62 Beside CH4 and CO2 other green house gas from
[AIPMT-1999]
agriculture area - [AIPMT-1998]
(1) PAN (2) CO
(1) SO2 (2) NH3
(3) NO2 (4) CFC (3) NO2 (4) SO2
Q.63 Temperature variation in Pacific ocean in present Q.71 Maximum DDT in birds feeding on -
time is called - [AIPMT-1998] [AIPMT-1999]
(1) Cyclone effect (2) Alnino effect (1) Fishes (2) Meat
(3) Green houe effect (4) Gaudikov's effect (3) Insects (4) Seeds
Q.64 Sewage purification is performed by -
Q.72 Which one is associated with occupational
[AIPMT-1998]
hazard is - [AIPMT-1999]
(1) Microbes (2) Fertilisers
(1) Fluorosis (2) Pneumoconiosis
(3) Antibiotics (4) Antiseptics
(3) Silicosis (4) Asthama
Q.65 Best eocnomic method to harvest the solar
energy- [AIPMT-1999] Q.73 Green house effect is - [AIPMT-1999]
(1) Solar cell (1) Garderning outside the house
(2) Energy plantation (2) Global cooling
(3) Cultivation of sugar cane then energy obtain (3) Global warming
by burning it (4) Green colour house
(4) solar cooker
Q.74 What is B.O.D. - [AIPMT-2001]
Q.66 Bhopal gas tragedy is related with -
(1) The of O2 utilised by organisms in water
[AIPMT-1999]
(1) Methan (2) The amount of O2 utilized by micro organisms
(2) Carban monooxide for decomposition
(3) Methyl Iso cyanate (MIC) (3) The toal amount of O2 present in water
(4) SO2 (4) All of the above
Ecology [177]

Q.75 What is the intensity of sound in normal Q.83 Identify the correctly matched pair -
conversation - [AIPMT-2001] [AIPMT-2005]
(1) 10 – 20 decibal (2) 30 – 60 decibal (1) Kyoto Protocol - Climatic change
(2) Montreal Protocol - Global warming
(3) 70 – 90 decibal (4) 120 – 150 decibal
(3) Basal Convention - Biodiversity Conservation
Q.76 Which of the following is absent in polluted (4) Ramsar Convention - Ground water pollution
water - [AIPMT-2002] Q.84 Prolonged liberal irrigation of agricultural fields
(1) Hydrilla (2) Water hyacinth is likely to create the problem of -
(3) Larva of stone fly (4) Blue green algae [AIPMT-2005]
Q.77 Maximum green house gas released by which (1) Acidity (2) Aridity
country - [AIPMT-2002] (3) Salinity (4) Metal toxicity
Q.85 Which of the following is not used for disinfection
(1) India (2) France
of drinking water - [AIPMT-2005]
(3) U.S.A. (4) Britain (1) Chlorine (2) Ozone
Q.78 Lead concentration in blood is considered (3) Chloramine (4) Phenyl
alarming if it is - [AIPMT-2004] Q.86 Limit of BOD prescribed by Central Pollution
(1) 30 g/ 100 ml (2) 4-6 g/100 ml Control Board for the discharge of industrial and
(3)10 g/100 ml (4) 20 g/100ml municipal waste waters into natural surface
waters, is - [AIPMT-2006]
Q.79 In 1984, the Bhopal gas tragedy took place
(1) < 100 ppm (2) < 30 ppm
because methyl isocyanate - [AIPMT-2001]
(3) < 3.0 ppm (4) < 10 ppm
(1) Reacted with ammonia Q.87 The 'blue baby' syndrome results form -
(2) Reacted with CO2 [AIPMT-2006]
(3) Reacted with water (1) excess of dissolved oxygen
(4) Reacted with DDT (2) excess of TDS (total dissolved solids)
(3) excess of chloride
Q.80 Blood analysis of a patient reveals an unusually
(4) methaemoglobinaemia
high quantity of carboxyhaemoglobin content.
Q.88 Montreal Protocol which calls for appropriate
Which of the following conclusion is most likely
action to protect the ozone layer from human
to be correct ? the patient has been inhaling activities was passed in the year -
polluted air containing unusually high content of- [AIPMT-2001]
[AIPMT-2004] (1) 1988 (2) 1985
(1) Carbon monoxide (2) Carbon disulphide (3) 1986 (4) 1987
(3) Chloroform (4) Carbon dioxide Q.89 Photochemical smog pollution does not contain-
[AIPMT-2006]
Q.81 Common indicator organism of water pollution
(1) Carbon dioxide
is- [AIPMT-2004]
(2) PAN (peroxy acyl nitrate)
(1) Entamoeba histolytica (3) Ozone
(2) Lemna pancicostata (4) Nitrogen dioxide
(3) Eichhornia crassipes Q.90 In a coal fired power plant electrostatic
(4) Escherichia coli precipitators are installed to control emission of-
Q.82 Which one of the following pairs in mismatched- [AIPMT-2007]
[AIPMT-2005] (1) CO (2) SO2
(3) NO8 (4) SPM
(1) Nuclear power - radioactive wastes
Q.91 Which one of the following is not a bioindicator
(2) Solar energy - greenhouse effect
of water pollution ? [AIPMT-2007]
(3) Fossil fuel burning - release of CO2
(1) Sewage fungus (2) Sludge - worms
(4) Biomass burning - release of CO2
(3) Blood-worms (4) Stone flies
Ecology [178]

Q.92 Which one of the following is the correct Q.98 Chipko movement was launched for the
percentage of the two (out of the total of 4) green protection of - [AIPMT-2009]
house gases that contribue tothe total global (1) Wet lands (2) Grasslands
warming ? [AIPMT-2008] (3) Forests (4) Livestock
(1) N2O 6 %, CO2 86 % Q.99 Steps taken by the government of India to control
(2) Methane 20 %, N2O 18 % air pollution include - [AIPMT-2009]
(3) CFCs 14 %, Methane 20 % (1) Use of non-polluting Compressed Natural Gas
(4) CO2 40 %, CFCs 30 % (CNG) only as fuel by all buses and trucks
Q.93 World summit on sustainable Development (2002) (2) Compulsory mixing of 20 % ethyl alcohol with
was held in - [AIPMT-2008] petrol and 20 % biodisel with disesel
(1) Argentina (2) South Africa (3) Compulsory PUC (Pollution Under Control)
(3) Brazil (4) Sweden certification of petrol driven vehicles which
Q.94 About 70 % of total global carbon if found tests for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
in - [AIPMT-2008] (4) Permission to use only pure diesel with a
(1) Ocean (2) Forests maximum of 500 ppm sulphur as fuel for
vehicles
(3) Desert (4) Rain forest
Q.95 A lake near a village suffered heavy mortlity of Q.100 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in a river
water - [AIPMT-2009]
fishes within a few days. Consider the following
reasons for this ? [AIPMT-2008] (1) Increases when sewage gets mixed with river
water
(a) Lots of urea and phosphate fertilizer wer used
in the crops in the vicinity (2) Remains unchanged when algal bloom occurs
(b) The area was sprayed with DDT by and (3) Has no relationiship with concentration of
aircraft oxygen in the water
(c) The lake water turned green and stinky (4) Gives a measure of salmonella in the water
(d) Phytoplankton populations in the lake declined Q.101 DDT residues are rapidly passed through food
initially thereby greatly reudcing chain causing biomagnification because DDT is-
photosynthesis [AIPMT-2009]
Which two of the above were the main cause of (1) Water soluble
fish mortality in the lake ? (2) Fat soluble
(1) a, c (2) a, b (3) Moderately toxic
(3) b, c (4) c, d (4) Non-toxic to aquatic animals
Q.96 According to Central Pollution Control Board Q.102 Global agreement in specific control strategies to
(CPCB), which particulate size in diameter (in reduce the release of ozone depleting substances,
micrometers) of the air pollutants is resposible was adopted by - [AIPMT-2009]
for greatest harm to human health ? (1) The Vienna Convention
[AIPMT-2008] (2) Rio Janerior Conference
(1) 1.0 or less (2) 5.2 – 2.5 (3) The Montreal Protocol
(3) 2.5 or less (4) 1.5 or less (4) The Koyoto Protocol
Q.97 Montreal Protocol aims at - [AIPMT-2009] Q.103 Breeding of crops with high levels of minerals,
(1) Control of CO2 emission vitamins and proteins is called-
(2) Reduction of ozone depleting substances [AIPMT Pre 2010]
(3) Biodiversity conservation (1) Somatic hybridation (2) Biofortification
(4) Control of water pollution (3) Biomagnification (4) Micropropagation
Ecology [179]

Q.104 The two gases making highest relative contribution Q.108 Which one of the following is a wrong statement?
to the green house gases are- [AIPMT Pre 2012]
[AIPMT Pre 2010] (1) Ozone in upper part of atmosphere is harmful
(1) CO2 and CH4 (2) CH4 and N2O to animals.
(3) CFCs and N2O (4) CO2 and N2O (2) Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon.
Q.105 A renewable exhaustible natural resource is- (3) Eutrophication is a natural phenomenon in
[AIPMT Pre 2010] fresh water bedies.
(1) Coal (2) Petroleum (4) Most of the forests have been lost in tropical
areas.
(3) Minerals (4) Forest
Q.109 Which one of the following areas in India is a
Q.106 When domestic sewage mixes with river water-
hotspot of biodiversity ?
[AIPMT Pre 2010]
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) The increased microbial activity releases
(1) Gangetic Plan (2) Sunderbans
micro-nutrients such as iron
(3) Western Ghats (4) Eastern Ghats
(2) The increased microbial activity used up
Q.110 Select the correct statement about biodiversity :
dissolved oxygen
[AIPMT Mains 2012]
(3) The river water is still suitable for drinking as
impurities are only about 0.1% (1) The desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat
(4) Small animals like rats will die after drinking have a very high level of desert animal
river water species as well as numerous rare animals.
Q.107 Measuring Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (2) Large scale planting of Bt cottn has no adverse
is a method used for : [AIPMT Pre 2012] effect on biodiversity.
(1) working out the efficiency of oil driven (3) Western Ghats have a very high degree of
automobile engines. species richness and endemism.
(2) measuring the activity of Saccharomyces (4) Conservation of biodiversity is just a fad
cerevisae in producing curd on a commercial pursued by the developed countries.
scale.
(3) working out the efficiency of R.B. Cs. about
their capacity to carry oxygen.
(4) estimating the amount of organic matter in
sewage water.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE –3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 4 3 1 1 4 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 4 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 1 4 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 4 4 3 2 3 1 1 4 2 3 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 4 2 1 3 4 2 4 4 1 4 4 3 2 1 1 3 2 3 1 1
Ques. 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Ans. 2 3 2 1 4 2 4 1 3 3
Ecology [180]

EXERCISE - 4 AIIMS SPECIAL
These questions consist of two statements each, printed as “ASSERTION” and “REASON”.
While answering these Questions you are required to choose any one of the following responses.
(1) If both Assertion and Reason are True and the Reason is a correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(2) If both Assertion and Reason are True but Reason is not correct explanation of the
Assertion
Q.1 Assertion : Degree of water pollution is Q.10 Assertion : Grazing animal are the renew-
measured in terms of BOD. able resources.
Reason : BOD value is low when water is Reason : It is exhaustible resources.
highly polluted. Q.11 Assertion : Los Angles somg is a photochemical
Q.2 Assertion : Rill erosion is caused by running smog requires high temperature.
water. Reason : Los Angles smog occurs mainly due
Reason : It is biological method of soil to sulphure oxide.
conservation. Q.12 Assertion : Plants and animals are renewable
Q.3 Assertion : Long chain phenolic compounds, resources.
glass and plastic etc. are persistent pollutants. Reason : These are exhaustible resources.
Reason : These pollutants are not Q.13 Assertion : The global mean temperature has
decomposed naturally or by activity of micro- increased by 0.6ºC during 20th century.
organisms thus are not recycled back into the Reason : There has been a progressive
environment. increased combustion of fossil feuls generating
Q.4 Assertion : D.D.T. is biologically magnified. more green house gases.
Reason : D.D.T. causes water, soil and air Q.14 Assertion : Ozone protects the earth from
pollution. U.V. radiations from sun.
Q.5 Assertion : In the presence of Chlorella in Reason : Ozone is Tropospheric pollutant.
water, water become free from bacteria. Q.15 Assertion : Ozone is the Tropospheric
Reason : It shows protocooperation. pollutnat.
Q.6 Assertion : Natural gas is a pollution free Reason : Ozone protects us from the harmfull
source of energy. U.V. radiation.
Reason : In India natural gas is maximum Q.16 Assertion : Air pollutants are always gaseous.
utilised source. Reason : Because it is always released from
Q.7 Assertion : B.O.D. value is low when water chimmeys.
is highly polluted. Q.17 Assertion : Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
Reason : High amout of fertilizer found in is an important pollutant released by diesel
oligotrophic lake. vehicles.
Q.8 Assertion : PAN is secondary pollutant Reason : Catalytic converters gretly reudce
Reason : PAN is formed by chemical reaction pollution caused by automobiles.
of secondary pollutants. Q.18 Assertion : Presently, the global atmosphere is
Q.9 Assertion : Oxygen is very less in amount in warming up.
nutrient rich lake. Reason : The depletion of stratospheric ozone
Reason : B.O.D. is high in such lakes. layer has resulted in increase in ultraviolet
radiations reaching the earth.
Ecology [181]

Q.19 Assertion : In In-situ conservation speices Q.27 Assertion : Alpha diversity is diversity with
are protected in botanical gardens in a community.
Resason : In-situ conservation also take place Resason : Diversity depends upon the rate of
in zoos replacement of species along a gradient of
Q.20 Assertion : Desert shows poor biodiversity habitats.
and their productivity is minimum Q.28 Assertion : In per unit area maximum
Resason : Annual rain fall is very less in productivity occur in tropical rain forest.
desert. Resason : Maximum number of producers
Q.21 Assertion : In India, Mangrove vegetation is found in Tropical rain forest in per unit area.
found in Sunderban. Q.29 Assertion : Western ghats are included
Resason : Marshy land of Sunderban is among the hot spots of biodiversity.
physically dry. Resason : Western ghats have greater
Q.22 Assertion : Sunderbans have mangrove amphibain diversity than eastern ghats.
community. Q.30 Assertion : Tropical regions are more diversity
Resason : Only mangrove vegetation present rich in comparison to temperate areas.
in it. Resason : Availability of more solar energy
Q.23 Assertion : Corals are responsbile to form indirectly affects the presence of more species
rocks in the sea. in these areas.
Resason : Coral reef is the best example of Q.31 Assertion : Process of extinction is random.
stable marine ecosystem. Resason : Any species not adapted to
Q.24 Assertion : There is no noise in the forest environmental conditions cannot survive.
during night in silent valley. Q.32 Assertion : Habitat distruction is the main
Resason : Animals are not found there. reason of loss of biodiversity.
Q.25 Assertion : Seed, gene banks come under Resason : This actually cause the increase in
ex-situ conservation. edge area and reduction in core area.
Resason : This is the conservation of plants Q.33 Assertion : Pristine forests are among in situ
outside their habitat. conservation strategies.
Q.26 Assertion : The silent valley is so called Resason : These are sacred grooves where
because it is silent during the night. biota is protected on site.
Resason : There is no human activity is
allowed in night time.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE –4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 1 2 4 3 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 4 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Ans. 3 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 4
Ecology [182]

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
Ecology [183]

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Bansal Classes

Organism & Environment

Biodiversity & Conservation

AIMS & SCOPE :

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Types of world biome : From the poles towards the equators.

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Major forest Biomes of India :

Biome Latitude Altitude Vegetation

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Temp. Decrease with height

Traposphere Temp. Decrease with height

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–200ºC –100ºC 0ºC 100ºC 200ºC

6. ATMOSPHERIC AIR – Atmospheric air contain these gases -

X-Rays Ultraviolet Infrared

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,00

Diagram-I : Showing the electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation

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(c) Type -III – On the basis of environment :

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Summer stratification Autumn turnover

Spring turnover Winter stratification

(ii) Type of plants and animals on the basis of temperature :

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O-Horizon, Litter layer

B-Horizon, Dark brown clay

C-Horizon, Glacial diposits C-Horizon

(d) Soil Organic Matter :

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11. OTHER ABIOTIC COMPONENT

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Lower limit of tolerance Upper limit of tolerance

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Type Examples Processes and activities

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Xerophytic plants are of many types on the basis of Habitat

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HYDROPHYTES, MESOPHYTES, XEROPHYTES & HALOPHYTES

4. Aerenchymas present Aerenchyma absent. Aerenchyma absent. Aerenchyma some time

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11. Gaseous exchange Gaseous exchange is Gaseous exchange is Gaseouse xchange is

SOME ECOLOGICAL TERMS

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Local population Local population

(ii) Sex ratio :

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(iv) Population Density or Population size :

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