Electrical Machines I Syllabus

COURSE FILE CONTENTS
S.N. Topics Page No.

1 Vision, Mission, PEO’s, & PO’s & PSO’s
2 Syllabus (University Copy)
3 Course Objectives, Course Outcomes And Topic Outcomes
4 Course Prerequisites
5 CO’s. PO’s Mapping
6 Course Information Sheet (CIS)
a). Course Description
b). Syllabus
c). Gaps in Syllabus
d). Topics beyond syllabus
e). Web Sources-References
f). Delivery / Instructional Methodologies
g). Assessment Methodologies-Direct
h). Assessment Methodologies –Indirect
i). Text books & Reference books
7 Micro Lesson Plan
8 Teaching Schedule
9 Unit wise hand written notes
10 OHD/LCD SHEETS /CDS/DVDS/PPT (Soft/Hard copies)
11 University Previous Question papers
12 MID exam Descriptive Question Papers with Key
13 MID exam Objective Question papers with Key
14 Assignment topics with materials
15 Tutorial topics and Questions
16 Unit wise-Question bank
1 Two marks question with answers 5 questions
2 Three marks question with answers 5 questions
3 Five marks question with answers 5 questions
4 Objective question with answers 10 questions
5 Fill in the blanks question with answers 10 questions
17 Beyond syllabus Topics with material
18 Result Analysis-Remedial/Corrective Action
19 Record of Tutorial Classes
20 Record of Remedial Classes
21 Record of guest lecturers conducted
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1. Vision, Mission, PEO’s, PO’s & PSO’s
Vision
To be renowned department imparting both technical and non-technical skills to the students
through implementing new engineering pedagogy and research to produce competent new age
electrical engineers
Mission
 To transform the students into motivated and knowledgable new age electrical engineers.
 To advance the quality of education to produce world class technocrats with an ability to
adapt to the academically challenging environment.
 To provide a progressive environment for learning through organized teaching
methodologies, contemporary curriculum and research in the thrust areas of electrical
engineering.
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Program Educational Objectives
PEO 1: Apply knowledge and skills to provide solutions to Electrical and Electronics Engineering problems
in industry and governmental organizations or to enhance student learning in educational institutions
PEO 2: Work as a team with a sense of ethics and professionalism, and communicate effectively to manage
cross-cultural and multidisciplinary teams
PEO 3: Update their knowledge continuously through lifelong learning that contributes to personal, global
and organizational growth
Program Outcomes
PO.1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO.2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural science and
engineering sciences.
PO.3 Design/development of solutions: design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal and environmental considerations.
PO.4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: use research based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
PO.5 Modern tool usage: create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
PO.6 The engineer and society: apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.
PO.7 Environment sustainability: understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in the
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
PO.8 Ethics: apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
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PO.9 Individual and team work: function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO.10 Communication: communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO.11 Project management and finance: demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to
manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO.12 Lifelong learning: recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning in the broader context of technological change.
PSO-1:Apply the engineering fundamental knowledge to identify, formulate, design and investigate complex
engineering problems of electric circuits, power electronics, electrical machines and power systems and to
succeed in competitive exams like GATE, IES, GRE, TOEFL, GMAT, etc.
PSO-2: Apply appropriate techniques and modern engineering hardware and software tools in power systems
and power electronics to engage in life-long learning and to get an employment in the field of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering.
PSO-3: Understand the impact of engineering solutions in societal and environmental context, commit to
professional ethics and communicate effectively.
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2. SYLLABUS (University Copy)
EE303ES: ELECTRICAL MACHINES I
B.Tech. II Year I Sem. L T P C
4 1 0 4
Prerequisite: Basic electrical & Electronics Engineering
Course Objectives:
 To study and understand different types of DC generators, Motors and Transformers, their
construction, operation and applications.
 To analyze performance aspects of various testing methods.
Course Outcomes:
 Identify different parts of a DC machine & understand its operation
 Carry out different testing methods to predetermine the efficiency of DC machines
 Understand different excitation and starting methods of DC machines
 Control the voltage and speed of a DC machines
UNIT – I
D.C. Generators: Principle of operation – Action of commutator – constructional features – armature
windings – lap and wave windings – simplex and multiplex windings – use of laminated armature – E.
M.F Equation. Armature reaction – Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing AT/pole – compensating
winding commutation – reactance voltage – methods of improving commutation. Methods of
Excitation – separately excited and self excited generators – build-up of E.M.F - critical field resistance
and critical speed - causes for failure to self excite and remedial measures. Load characteristics of
shunt, series and compound generators
UNIT – II
Motors: Principle of operation – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation – characteristics and application of
shunt, series and compound motors – Armature reaction and commutation. Speed control of D.C. Motors
- Armature voltage and field flux control methods. Motor starters (3 point and 4 point starters) Testing of
7
D.C. machines - Losses – Constant & Variable losses – calculation of efficiency – condition for maximum
efficiency.
UNIT - III
Methods of Testing – direct, indirect, and regenerative testing – Brake test – Swinburne’s test
– Hopkinson’s test – Field’s test - separation of stray losses in a d.c. motor test.
UNIT - IV
Single phase transformers: Types - constructional details-minimization of hysteresis and eddy current
losses- EMF equation - operation on no load and on load - phasor diagrams Equivalent circuit - losses
and efficiency – regulation - All day efficiency - effect of variations of frequency & supply voltage on
iron losses.
UNIT - V
OC and SC tests - Sumpner’s test - predetermination of efficiency and regulation-separation of losses
test-parallel operation with equal and unequal voltage ratios - auto transformers- equivalent circuit -
comparison with two winding transformers. Polyphase transformers - Polyphase connections - Y/Y,
Y/ , /Y, / and open
TEXT BOOKS:
1. “I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari”, “Electric Machines”, Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishers, 3rd edition,
2004.
2. “P.S. Bimbra”, “Electrical Machines”, Khanna Publishers, 7th Edition, 204.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. E. Clayton & N. M. Hancock “The Performance and Design Of Direct Current Machines” 3 rd Edition
Pitman, London 1959.
2. “A. E. Fritzgerald, C. Kingsley and S. Umans”, “Electric Machinary”, McGraw Hill Companies, 6 th
edition, 2003.
3. “Abhijith Chakrabarthi & SubithaDebnath”, “Electrical Machines”, Mc Graw Hill, 2015.
8
3. COURSE OBJECTIVES AND COURSE OUTCOMES AND
TOPIC OUTCOMES
COURSE OBJECTIVES
 Study and understand different types of DC generators, motors and

transformers, their construction, operation and applications.
 Analyze performance aspects of various testing methods.
 Explain different excitation and starting methods of DC machines
 Control the voltage and speed of a DC machines
COURSE OUTCOMES
After this course, the student will be able to
CO1: Identify different parts of a DC machine & understand its operation

CO2: Carry out different testing methods to predetermine the efficiency of DC
machines
CO3: Explain different excitation and starting methods of DC machines
CO4: Control the voltage and speed of a DC machines
9
TOPIC OUTCOMES
LECTURE TOPIC TO BE COVERED TOPIC OUTCOME
NO.
(Upon the completion of this topic the student
will be able to)
L1 Over view of course Outline the topics of electrical machines

course
L2 Unit-I: Introduction Identify the importance of the dc generators
L3 Energy Conversion (Gaps in Get knowledge on the energy conversions
syllabus)
L4 Principle of Operation Explain the operation of dc generators
L5 Constructional Features List and explain the parts of dc generator
L6 Armature windings Draw the lap and wave windings
L7 Armature windings Draw the lap and wave windings
L8 EMF equation Derive the EMF equation of dc generator
L9 Armature Reaction Explain the effect of armature reaction
L10 Tutorial Practice the learning with collaborative
approach
L11 Methods of improving Lit the methods of improving commutation
commutation
L12 Types of generators Classify different types of dc generators
L13 Critical resistance and critical Define critical resistance and critical speed
speed
L14 Characteristics of shunt Draw the characteristics of shunt generators
generators
L15 Characteristics of series Draw the characteristics of series generators
generators
L16 Characteristics of compound Draw the characteristics of compound
generators generators
approach
L18 Unit-II: Principle of operation Demonstrate the working principle of dc
of DC Motors motors
L19 Back EMF Derive the expression of back EMF
L20 Torque Equation Derive torque equation
L21 Applications of Motors List the applications of dc motors
L22 Armature reaction and Explain Armature reaction and Commutation
Commutation
10
NO.
will be able to)
approach
L24 Speed control of DC motors Control speed of DC motors
L25 Speed control of DC motors Control speed of DC motors by various
methods
L26 3 and 4 point starters Explain 3 and 4 point starters
L27 Testing of DC machines Test dc machines performance
L28 Losses of dc machine Study the losses of dc machine
L29 Constant and variable losses Study the constant and variable of dc
machine
L30 Calculation of efficiency Calculate the efficiency of dc machine
L31 Condition for maximum Obtain the condition for maximum efficiency
efficiency
approach
L33 Unit-III: Methods of testing Identify the methods of testing dc machines
L34 Methods of testing Explain the methods of testing dc machines
L35 Brake test Perform the brake test on dc machine
L36 Swinburnes test Perform the swinburnes test on dc machine
I MID EXAMINATION
L37 Hopkinsons test Perform the Hopkinsons test on dc
machine
L38 Fields test Perform the Fields test on dc machine
approach
L40 Seperation of stray loss Discuss the Seperation of stray loss
L41 Unit-IV: Constructional Details of Describe the Constructional Details of a
a transformer transformer
L42 Hysterisis and eddy current loss calculate the losses in transformer
L43 EMF Equation of transformer Derive the EMF equation of transformer
L44 Operation on no load and on load Explain the Operation on no load and on
load
approach
L46 Equivalent Circuit of 1-Ph Draw the Equivalent Circuit of 1-Ph
transformer transformer
11
NO.
will be able to)
L47 Regulation of single phase Check the Regulation of single phase

transformer transformer
L48 All day efficiency Calculate the all day efficiency
L49 Effect of variations of frequency Describe the effect of variations of
and supply voltage on iron losses frequency and supply voltage
L50 Practical applications of the Identify the practical applications of the
transformers (Lecture beyond transformers
syllabus)
approach
L52 Unit-V: Testing of 1-phase Test the single phase transformers
transformers
L53 OC and SC tests Conduct the oc and sc tests on 1-ph T/F’s
L54 Sumpner’s test Conduct the sumpners test on 1-ph T/F
L55 Predetermination of efficiency and Predetermination of efficiency and regulation

regulation
L56 Separation of losses test Conduct Separation of losses test
L57 Parallel operation with equal an Conduct Parallel operation
unequal voltage ratios
L58 Problems Solve problems on 1-ph transformers

approach
L60 Auto-transformers Discuss about auto transformers
L61 Equivalent circuit Draw the equivalent circuit of 1-ph
transformer
L62 Comparison with two windings Compare transformers with different windings
transformers
L63 Polyphase connections-y/y, y/∆, Illustrate Polyphase connections-y/y, y/∆,
∆/y, ∆/∆ and open∆ ∆/y, ∆/∆ and open∆
L64 Revision Recall the topics in Electrical machines-I
L65 Revision
II MID EXAMINATION
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4. COURSE PRE–REQUISITES
1. Physics
2. Fundamental laws
3. Electromagnetism in Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
5. CO’S, PO’S MAPPING
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 - - - 2 - - - - - - -
CO2 3 - - - 3 - - - - - - 1
CO3 3 - - - - - - - - - - -
CO4 3 - - 3 2 - - - - - - -
1-Low, 2-Medium, 3-High
6. COURSE INFORMATION SHEET

6.a). COURSE DESCRIPTION:
PROGRAMME: B. Tech. (EEE.) DEGREE: BTECH

COURSE: ELECTRICAL MACHINES - I YEAR: II SEM: I
CREDITS: 4
COURSE CODE: A70232 COURSE TYPE: CORE
REGULATION: R15
COURSE AREA/DOMAIN: CONTACT HOURS: 4+ 1(L+T))
hours/Week.
CORRESPONDING LAB COURSE CODE (IF ANY): LAB COURSE NAME: NIL
NIL
6.b). SYLLABUS:
Unit Details Hours

D.C. Generators: Principle of operation – Action of commutator –
constructional features – armature windings – lap and wave windings –
I 17
simplex and multiplex windings – use of laminated armature – E. M.F
Equation.
13
Armature reaction – Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing AT/pole –
compensating windingcommutation – reactance voltage – methods of
improving commutation. Methods of Excitation – separately excited and self
excited generators – build-up of E.M.F - critical field resistance and critical
speed - causes for failure to self excite and remedial measures. Load
characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
Motors: Principle of operation – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation –

characteristics and application of shunt, series and compound motors –
Armature reaction and commutation. Speed control of D.C. Motors -
II Armature voltage and field flux control methods. Motor starters (3 point and 10
4 point starters) Testing of D.C. machines - Losses – Constant & Variable
losses – calculation of efficiency – condition for maximum efficiency.
Methods of Testing – direct, indirect, and regenerative testing – Brake test –

Swinburne’s testHopkinson’s test – Field’s test - separation of stray losses in a
III d.c. motor test. 6
Single phase transformers: Types - constructional details-minimization of

hysteresis and eddy current losses- EMF equation - operation on no load
IV and on load - phasor diagrams.Equivalent circuit - losses and efficiency – 11
regulation - All day efficiency - effect of variations of frequency & supply
voltage on iron losses.
OC and SC tests - Sumpner’s test - predetermination of efficiency and
regulation-separation of losses test-parallel operation with equal and unequal
V voltage ratios - auto transformers- equivalent circuit - comparison with two 11
winding transformers. Polyphase transformers - Polyphase connections -
Y/Y, Y/ , /Y, / and open
Contact classes for syllabus coverage 55
Lectures beyond syllabus 01
Tutorial classes 8
Classes for gaps& Add-on classes 01
Total No. of classes 65
6.c). GAPS IN THE SYLLABUS - TO MEET INDUSTRY/PROFESSION REQUIREMENTS:
14
S.NO. DESCRIPTION PROPOSED No. of Classes
ACTIONS
1 Energy conversion PPT 01
6. d). TOPICS BEYOND SYLLABUS / ADVANCED TOPICS:
S.NO. DESCRIPTION PROPOSED ACTIONS No. of Classes
1 Practical applications of Transformers NPTEL 01
6. e). WEB SOURCE REFERENCES:

Sl. No. Name of book/ website
a. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108101037/
b. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108102043/
c. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g53tqrBjIgc&list=PL5105727DD6E8DE98&index=1
6. f). DELIVERY / INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGIES:
 CHALK & TALK  STUD. ASSIGNMENT  WEB RESOURCES
 LCD/SMART BOARDS  STUD. SEMINARS ☐ ADD-ON COURSES
6.g). ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES - DIRECT
 ASSIGNMENTS  STUD.  TESTS/MODEL  UNIV.

SEMINARS EXAMS EXAMINATION
 STUD. LAB  STUD. VIVA ☐ MINI/MAJOR ☐

PRACTICES PROJECTS CERTIFICATIONS
☐ ADD-ON ☐ OTHERS
COURSES
15
6.h). ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES - INDIRECT
 ASSESSMENT OF COURSE OUTCOMES  STUDENT FEEDBACK ON

(BY FEEDBACK, ONCE) FACULTY (TWICE)
☐ASSESSMENT OF MINI/MAJOR ☐ OTHERS
PROJECTS BY EXT. EXPERTS
6.i). TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS:
T/R BOOK TITLE/AUTHORS/PUBLICATION

Text Book 1.“I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari”, “Electric Machines”, Tata
Mc Graw Hill Publishers, 3rd edition, 2004.
Text Book 2.“P.S. Bimbra”, “Electrical Machines”, Khanna Publishers, 7th Edition, 204.
Reference 2.E. Clayton & N. M. Hancock “The Performance and

Book Design Of Direct Current Machines” 3rd Edition
Pitman, London 1959.
Reference “Abhijith Chakrabarthi & SubithaDebnath”, “Electrical

Book Machines”, Mc Graw Hill, 2015.
16
7. Topic wise Coverage [Micro Lesson Plan]
S.No. Scheduled Actual date
Topic date
1 Over view of course
2 Unit-I: Introduction
3 Principle of Operation
4 Constructional Features
5 Armature windings
6 Armature windings
7 EMF equation
8 Armature Reaction
9 Methods of improving commutation
10 Types of generators
11 Critical resistance and critical speed
12 Characteristics of shunt generators
13 Characteristics of series generators
14 Characteristics of compound generators
15 Unit-II: Principle of operation of DC Motors
16 Back EMF
17 Torque Equation
18 Applications of Motors
19 Armature reaction and Commutation
20 Speed control of DC motors

17
21 Speed control of DC motors
22 3 and 4 point starters
23 Testing of DC machines
24 Losses of dc machine
25 Constant and variable losses
26 Calculation of efficiency
27 Condition for maximum efficiency
28 Unit-III: Methods of testing
29 Methods of testing
30 Brake test
31 Swinburnes test
32 Hopkinsons test
33 Fields test
34 Seperation of stray loss
35 Unit-IV: Constructional Details of a transformer
36 Hysterisis and eddy current loss
37 EMF Equation of transformer
38 Operation on no load and on load
39 Equivalent Circuit of 1-Ph transformer
40 Regulation of single phase transformer
41 All day efficiency
42 Effect of variations of frequency and supply voltage on

iron losses
43 Unit-V: Testing of 1-phase transformers
18
44 EMF equation of transformer
45 Operation on no load and on load
46 Tutorial
47 Equivalent circuit of 1-ph transformer
48 Regulation of single phase transformer
49 All day efficiency
50 Effect of variations of frequency and supply voltage on

iron losses
51 Application of Machines (Lecture beyond the syllabus)
52 Unit-V: Testing of 1-ph transformers
53 OC and SC tests
54 Sumpners test
55 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation
56 Separation of losses test
57 Parallel operation with equal and unequal voltage ratios
58 Problems
59 Auto Transformers
60 Equivalent Circuit
61 Comparision-2 winding transformers
62 Tutorial
63 Polyphase connections-y/y, y-delta, delta-delta and open

delta
64 Revision
65 Revision
19
8. TEACHING SCHEDULE
Subject ELECTRICAL MACHINES -I
Text Books (to be purchased by the Students)
Book 1 1.“I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari”, “Electric Machines”, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Publishers, 3rd edition, 2004.
Book 2 2.“P.S. Bimbra”, “Electrical Machines”, Khanna Publishers, 7th Edition, 204.
Reference Books
Book 3 1.“Abhijith Chakrabarthi & SubithaDebnath”, “Electrical Machines”, Mc
Graw Hill, 2015.
Book 4 2.E. Clayton & N. M. Hancock “The Performance and Design Of Direct
Current Machines” 3rd Edition Pitman, London 1959.
Chapters Nos No of
Unit Topic classes
Book 4
Book 1 Book 2 Book 3
5 4 3
Introduction
Working principle
I and construction of 3 4 7
dc generators
3
characteristics 4 6
DC Motors types 4 5 5 5
Characteristics 2 4 5 6
II
Methods of testing 1 6 1 6
III
Single phase Transformers 6 8 7 7
IV Phasor diagrams 8 7 5
Transformer tests 8 7 6
Poly phase Transformers
V 7 7 4
Contact classes for syllabus coverage 55

Tutorial classes, Gaps, Lecture beyond Syllabus 10
Total No. of classes 65
20
10.
PPTS
21
11. UNIVERSITY PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS
22
23
24
25
12. MID EXAM DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION PAPERS WITH KEY
K. G. Reddy College of Engineering &Technology
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH)
Name of the Exam: Mid Examinations 2018
Year-Sem & Branch: II-I-EEE Duration: 60 Min
Subject:EM-I Date & Session
Answer ANY TWO of the following Questions 2X5=10
Course
Q.NO QUESTION Bloom’s level
Outcome
1 List and Explain the parts of a DC Generator Understanding CO1
2 Definition of Pole Pitch, Coil Span and Coil Span Remembering CO1
3 Derive An Emf Equation Of Dc Generator Apply CO2
4 Explain the swinburnes test on DC Machine Understanding CO3
Answers (Key)
1. List and Explain the parts of a DC Generator
A DC generator has the following parts
 Yoke
 Pole of generator
 Field winding
 Armature of DC generator
 Brushes of generator and Commutator
 Bearing
 Yoke of DC Generator
Yoke are the outer frame of DC generator serves two purposes,

It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.
It carries the magnetic field flux.
26
In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than
steel. But for large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned,
lighter cast steel or rolled steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes of DC Generator
Let's first discuss about pole core of DC generator. There are mainly two types of construction
available.
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of a solid single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of annealed steel
which are riveted together.
The pole shoes are so typically shaped, that, they spread out themagnetic flux in the air gap and
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Armature Core of DC Generator
The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low reluctance path
for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator provides
direct current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature.
Armature Winding of DC Generator
Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors
of the coils are insulated from each other.
Commutator of DC Generator
The commutator plays a vital role in DC generator. It collects current from armature and sends
it to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts it
to direct current and then send it to external load.
Brushes of DC Generator
The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function of these
carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes
are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder or brush box. As shown in figure, the
brush face is placed on the commutator segment which is attached to the brush holder.
Bearing of DC Generator
27
For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller bearing is used.
The bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
2. Define Pole Pitch, Coil Pitch and Coil Span
The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance between centers of two adjacent poles in DC
machine.
Coil Span or Coil Pitch
Coil of dc machine is made up of one turn or multi turns of the conductor. If the coil is made up
of single turn or single loop of conductor, it is called single turn coil.
Definition of Coil Span
Coil span is defined as peripheral distance between two sides of a coil, measured in terms of
number of armature slots between them.
3. Derive the EMF equation of DC generator
E. M.F Equation
The derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:
 Induced EMF of one conductor
 Induced EMF of the generator
Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature Conductor
For one revolution of the conductor,
Let,Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)

And P = number of poles in the DC generator.
therefore,Total flux produced by all the poles
And, Time taken to complete one revolution
Where, N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.
Therefore,
Induced emf of one conductor is
28
Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths
Then,Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore,Inducedemf of DC generator
E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced emf of DC generator is
Simple wave wound generator
Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for wave type of winding generator is
Simple lap-wound generator
Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one path

i.e. P = A,
Therefore, Induced emf for lap-wound generator is
4. Explain the swinburnes test on DC machine
Swinburne Test of DC Machine

This method is an indirect method of testing a DC machine. It is named after Sir James
Swinburne. Swinburne's test is the most commonly used and simplest method of testing of
29
shunt and compound wound DC machines which have constant flux. In this test the efficiency
of the machine at any load is pre-determined. We can run the machine as a motor or as a
generator. In this method of testing no load losses are measured separately and eventually we
can determine the efficiency.
The circuit connection for Swinburne's test is shown in figure below. The speed of the
machine is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of the shunt regulator R as shown in figure.
Advantages of Swinburne's Test

The main advantages of this test are:
 This test is very convenient and economical as it is required very less power from supply
to perform the test.
 Since constant losses are known, efficiency of Swinburne's test can be pre-determined
at any load.
Disadvantages of Swinburne's Test
The main disadvantages of this test are :
 Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss from no load to full load due to
armature reaction.
 We cannot be sure about the satisfactory commutation on loaded condition because the
test is done on no-load.
 We can’t measure the temperature rise when the machine is loaded. Power losses can
vary with the temperature.
 In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test cannot be done to find its efficiency as it is a
no load test.
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13. MID EXAM OBJECTIVE QUESTION PAPERS WITH KEY
31
32
33
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14. ASSIGNMENT TOPICS WITH MATERIAL
1. Explain the working principle of DC Generators

There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator. Whatever may
be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power.
An AC generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of
these generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic
field it cuts magnetic lines of force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line
force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit
is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

 Magnetic field
 Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Single Loop DC Generator
In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.
35
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic
field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD
of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and
BC) of the loop
Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split
ring are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated
from each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are
rest on these split slip ring segments.
Working Principle of DC Generator
It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush
no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the
induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b
are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the
current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through
the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.
36
This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a
and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the
plane of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
2. Explain the parts of a DC Machine

 Yoke
 Field winding
 Bearing

available.
37
3. Explain the demagnetizing and cross magnetizing effects

Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Conductors:
The conductors which are responsible for producing demagnetizing and distortion effects are
shown in the Fig.1.
38
Fig. 1
The brushes are lying along the new position of MNA which is at angle θ from GNA. The
conductors in the region AOC = BOD = 2θ at the top and bottom of the armature are carrying
current in such a direction as to send the flux in armature from right to left. Thus these
conductors are in direct opposition to main field and called demagnetizing armature conductors.
The remaining armature conductors which are lying in the region AOD and BOC carry current
in such a direction as to send the flux pointing vertically downwards i.e. at right angles to the
main field flux. Hence these conductors are called cross magnetizing armature conductors
which will cause distortion in main field flux.
Fig. 2
Calculation of Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Amp-Turns
Let us the number of demagnetizing and cross magnetizing amp-turns.
Let Z = Total number of armature conductors
P = Number of poles
I = Armature conductor current in Amperes
= Ia/2 for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P for simplex lap winding
θm = Forward lead of brush in mechanical degrees.
39
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature. The commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation in
DC generator is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature winding of a
dc machine is converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the
stationary brushes.
Again in DC Motor, the input DC is to be converted in alternating form in armature and that is
also done through commutation.
This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC machine to the stationary
brushes needs to maintain continuously moving contact between the commutator segments and
the brushes. When the armature starts to rotate, then the coils situated under one pole (let it be N
pole) rotates between a positive brush and its consecutive negative brush and the current flows
through this coil is in a direction inward to the commutator segments.
Then the coil is short circuited with the help of a brush for a very short fraction of time (1⁄500
sec). It is called commutation period. After this short-circuit time the armature coils rotates
under S pole and rotates between a negative brush and its succeeding positive brush. Then the
direction is reversed which is in the away from the commutator segments. This phenomena of
the reversal of current is termed as commutation process.
We get direct current from the brush terminal.
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is
completed by the end of the short circuit time or the commutation period. If the reversal of
current is completed during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at the brush
contacts and the commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the machine is called
poorly commutated.
40
4. Explain about the 3 point starter
A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting and running of a shunt
wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor. Now the question is why these types of DC
motors require the assistance of the starter in the first case.
The only explanation to that is given by the presence of back emfEb, which plays a critical role
in governing the operation of the motor. The back emf, develops as the motor armature starts to
rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters the supply voltage.
This also essentially means, that the back emf at the starting is zero, and develops gradually as
the motor gathers speed.
The general motor emf equation
at starting is modified to E = Ia.Ra as at starting Eb = 0.
Thus we can well understand from the above equation that the current will be dangerously high
at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) and hence its important that we make use of a
device like the 3 point starter to limit the starting current to an allowable lower value.
Let us now look into the construction and working of three point starter to understand how
the starting current is restricted to the desired value. For that let’s consider the diagram given
41
below showing all essential parts of the three point starter.
Construction of 3 Point Starter

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown
in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown
separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN. Other than that there are 3 main points, referred to as
'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)
'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3 point starter
in further details reveals that, the point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload
release (OLR) as shown in the figure. The other end of OLR is connected to the lower end of
conducting lever of starter handle where a spring is also attached with it and the starter handle
contains also a soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to the other side RUN
against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to its original OFF position
under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to
the another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'.
The starting resistance at starting is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC acts
as the two protecting devices of the starter.
5. Explain the methods of testing DC machines

Methods of Testing – direct, indirect, and regenerative testing:
Testing of DC motor
42
Testing of machines is used for finding losses, efficiency and temperature rise. Direct method is
used, for small machines. Indirect method is used for large shunt machines. In practice,
seinburne,s test are mostly used.
1.Direct method of testing
In direct method of testing the generator or motor is put on full load and whole of the power
developed by it is wasted,. Brake test is a typical example of direct test. The direct tests can be
used only on small machines.
2. Indirect method of testing
This method consists of measuring the losses and then calculating the efficiency. The simplest
of the indirect test is Swinburne’s test. Hopkinson test is commonly used test under this method
on shunt motors. This method also enables the determination of losses without actually loading
the machine.
3. Swinburne’s test (No load test)
In this method (simplest indirect method) the losses are measured separately and efficiency at
any desired load is pre-determined.
The iron and friction losses are determined by measuring the input to the machine on no-load,
the machine being run as a motor at normal voltage and speed.
4. Hopkinson’s Test (Back-to-back test or Regenerative test)

Through this test full-load testing of two d.c. shunt machines can be carries out, mainly identical
ones. In this test, power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the
machines. Electrically these two machines are mechanically connected in parallel and controlled
in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and the other as motor.
Brake test:
Brake Test of DC Machine
DC Machines can be tested by three different methods namely Direct Method, Indirect Method
and Regenerative Method. Direct Method of testing of DC Machine, also known as Brake Test
(if carried out for a DC Motor) will be discussed in this post.
Direct method is suitable for small DC machines. In Direct Method, the DC machine is
subjected to rated load and the entire output power is wasted. The ratio of output power to the
input power gives the Efficiency of DC Machine. For a DC Generator the output power is
wasted in resistor.
43
Direct Method of testing when conducted on a motor is also known as Brake Test. Brake Test of
DC Motor is carried out as shown in figure below.
A belt around the air cooled pulley has its end attached to the spring balance S1 and S2. Using
belt tightening hand wheels H1 and H2, the load of motor is adjusted to its rated value.
Assuming the spring balance to be calibrated in kilogram, then rated load on the DC motor is
given as
Motor Output Power = Torque x Angular Speed
= (Force x Radius) x Angular Speed
6. Give the constructional details of a transformer
Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers
used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance
44
magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.
The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical
damage.
(i) CORE
There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers.

One is the HOLLOWCORE, so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square
through the center. This shape of core. Notice that the core is made up of many
laminations of steel it shows how the transformer windings are wrapped around both
sides of the core.
(ii) WINDINGS
As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped
around a core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the
windings and a load device is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the
source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is connected to the load is called
the SECONDARY WINDING. The primary is wound in layers directly on a rectangular
cardboard form.
45
7. Obtain the equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of
electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement.
This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent
circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also
very essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter during
installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of
different power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power
transformers. The percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of
transformer so, it can be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during
calculation of % impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary
46
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish
generalequivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary
side. For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which
is shown in the figure below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary
winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is
partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding.
The voltage appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E 1.
47
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components,
one is no - load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current has
two a component or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of currentis known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of
transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as
The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and
induced voltage across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage
E1transforms to secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is transformed
to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I 2. So the voltage E2 across
48
secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The
load voltage is V2.
From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure
below,
49
8. Explain about the Auto Transformers
Auto transformers:
Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares same
common single winding. So basically it’s a one winding transformer.
Theory of Auto Transformer

In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for primary and
secondary purpose. A diagram of auto transformer is shown below.
The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is tapped
from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let's assume the number of turns
in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N2.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
50
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value
of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto transformer.
When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e.between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I 2starts
flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference
Copper Savings in Auto Transformer

Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to conventional two
winding transformer.
We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross-sectional
area. Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of turns and cross-
sectional area varies with rated current.
So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number of turns and rated
51
current of the winding.
Therefore, weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,
and similarly, weight of copper in the section BC proportional to,
Hence, total weight of copper in the winding of auto transformer proportional to,
In similar way it can be proved, the weight of copper in two winding transformer is proportional
to,
N1I1 + N2I2
⇒ 2N1I1 (Since, in a transformer N1I1 = N2I2)
Let's assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and two winding
transformer respectively,
52
∴ Saving of copper in auto transformer compared to two winding transformer,
9. Draw the phasor diagram of Transformer which operates on Load
The transformer is said to be loaded, when its secondary circuit is completed through an
impedance or load. The magnitude and phase of secondary current (i.e. current flowing through
secondary) I2 with respect to secondary terminals depends upon the characteristic of the load
i.e. current I2 will be in phase, lag behind and lead the terminal voltage V+2+ respectively when
the load is non-inductive, inductive and capacitive. The net flux passing through the core
remains almost constant from no-load to full load irrespective of load conditions and so core
losses remain almost constant from no-load to full load. Vector diagram for an ideal transformer
supplying inductive load is shown
53
Resistance and Leakage Reactance In actual practice, both of the primary and secondary
windings have got some ohmic resistance causing voltage drops and copper losses in the
windings. In actual practice, the total flux created does not link both of the primary and
secondary windings but is divided into three components namely the main or mutual flux Ø
linking both of the primary and secondary windings, primary leakage flux ØL1 linking with
primary winding only and secondary leakage flux ØL2 linking with secondary winding only.
The primary leakage flux ØL1 is produced by primary ampere-turns and is proportional to
primary current, number of primary turns being fixed. The primary leakage flux ØL1 is in phase
with I1 and produces self inducedemf ØL1 is in phase with I1 and produces self inducedemf
EL1 given as 2f L1 I1 in the primary winding.
The self inducedemf divided by the primary current gives the reactance of primary and is
denoted by X1.
54
i.e. X1 = EL1/I1 = 2πfL1I1/I1 = 2FL1,
Similarly leakage reactance of secondary X2 = EL2/E2 = 2fπL2I2/I2 = 2πfL2
Equivalent Resistance and Reactance. The equivalent resistances and reactance’s of transformer
windings referred to primary and secondary sides are given as below Referred to primary side
Equivalent resistance,
Equivalent resistance, = X'1 = Referred to secondary side Equivalent resistance,
Equivalent resistance, = X2 + K2X1 Where K is the transformation ratio.
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15. TUTORIAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS
UNIT-I
1 What is the necessity of laminating the armature core of a DC generator?
2 What do you mean by “back e.m.f” in DC Machine?

3 Mention the types of armature winding and their specifications.
4 Why electromagnets are preferred other than permanent magnets in large DC

machines?
5 Mention the reasons, why armature of a DC machine is made of laminated

silicon steel?
6 Write the basic equation of induced e.m.f in DC Generator.
7 For which kind of machines lap winding is preferred?
8 Define commutation Process in DC generators.
9 What is the main function of compensating winding?

10 What is the use of equalizer rings?
56
UNIT-II
i) With the help of speed torque characteristics, explain the motoring function of DC
compoundmotor.
1 ii) Which type of speed control techniques used in DC motor? Explain each one ofthem
2 Explain the principle of operation of dc motor with neat sketch.
3 Derive the expression for torque in dc motor.

Derive the terminal voltage and current expressions for the self and separately excited dc
4
motors
5 Explain the applications of self and separately excited dc motors.

Explain the following speed control methods.
6 a) Armaturecontrol b) fluxcontrol
7 Explain the Ward-Leonard system of speed control.
8 Explain the principle of operation of 3- point starter.
9 Explain the principle of operation of 4- point starter.

Explain the necessity of starters in dc machine and compare the 3-point and 4-point
10
starters.
UNIT-III
Explain the experimental procedure to conduct ‘Retardation Test’ on a dc shunt machine

1 with the help of connection diagram. How the different losses are estimated from the test
results?
i) With neat circuit diagram, explain the procedure to conduct Swinburne’s test.
ii) List the calculations to be made to predetermine the efficiency of DC motor by using
2 Swinburne’s testresults.
3 Derive the expression for condition for maximum efficiency.
4 Explain how many losses are there in dc machine with equations.
57
5 Explain the procedure to conduct Hopkinson’s test with neat sketches.
6 Explain the procedure separate the losses in dc machine with neat sketches.
7 Classify the methods of testing? And compare them.
8 Indirect test is superior to the direct test justify this statement with proof.
9 With neat circuit diagram Calculate the efficiency by break test.
10 Draw and explain the internal and external characteristics of dc motor.
UNIT-IV
1 Give the concept of single phase ideal transformer. Describe its performance with the
help of neat phasor diagram
2 Explicate in detail with a neat diagram about the constructional details of single
phasetransformers.
3 Derive the EMF equation of transformer? Hence derive the voltage ratio.
4 What is the efficiency of transformer? How the efficiency of transformer can

becalculated?
5 Discuss the effect of variable frequency and supply voltage on iron loss and
performance of the transformer?
6 Define voltage regulation of a transformer & enumerate the factors which influence
the magnitude of this change?
7 Draw the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer and describe briefly the various
parameters involved in it?
8 Define ‘efficiency’ and ‘all-day efficiency’ of a transformer. Mention how these are
affected by the power factor?
9 Draw the complete phasor diagram for a transformer, when the load power factor is
i) Lagging ii) Leading.
10 Discuss the different losses taking place in the transformer and their variation with the
load current.
58
UNIT-V
Show that an auto-transformer will result in saving copper in place of two winding
1
transformer.
2 With neat diagram, discuss the Construction of a three-phase transformer.
3 What are the disadvantages of current & voltage harmonics in transformers?

Discuss how these harmonics can be eliminated.
4 Describe the two possible ways of connections of 3-phase transformers with

relevant relations amongst voltage and currents
5 Discuss T-T connection of transformer with the help of neat phasor diagrams.
6 With neat diagram describe the Scott connection of a 3 phase transformer.
7 Describe the tertiary winding connection of transformer with the help of neat
diagrams.
8 With a neat sketch discuss the constructional details of a three phase transformer.
Justify thatpowerhandling capacity is reduced by 42.3%inOpen-deltaconnection.

9
Describe the advantage of using tertiary in a bank of star-star transformers and List
10 out the merits and demerits of a delta/star connected three phase transformer
59
16. UNIT WISE QUESTION BANK
a) Two and Three marks questions
Unit-I
1.What is the function of Generator?
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
2.What is the basic principle of DC Generators?
This principle is nothing but the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It states that,
'whenever the number of magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil
changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.
3. Give the Fleming's Right Hand Rule :

If three fingers of a right hand, namely thumb, index finger and middle finger are outstretched
so that everyone of them is at right angles with the remaining two, and if in this position index
finger is made to point in the direction of lines of flux, thumb in the direction of the relative
motion of the conductor with respect to flux then the Outstretched middle finger gives the
direction of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor.
4. What are the essential parts of DC Machines
The essential parts of the DC machine are

1.Magnetic Frame or Yoke 2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
3.Pole Coils or Field Coils 4. Armature
5.Armature Windings or Conductors 6. Commutator 7. Brushes and Bearings
5. What is the function of Yoke?
The outer frame or yoke serves two main purposes. They are
(i) It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine.
(ii)It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
6. What is the function of Armature?
1. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
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2. To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
7. What do mean by Separately Excited DC Generators ?

A DC generator whose field winding is supplied from an independent external DC source (e.g.,
a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.
8. Define the term Pole-pitch ?
It may be variously defined as :

a) The periphery of the armature divided by the number of poles of the generator i.e. the
distance between two adjacent poles.
b) It is equal to the number of armature conductors (or armature slots) per pole.
EX: If there are 48 conductors and 4 poles, the pole pitch is 48/4 = 12.
:
9. Define the term Conductor?
The length of a wire lying in the magnetic field and in which an e.m.f. is induced, is called a
conductor (or inductor).
10. What is meant by armature reaction?
The armature reaction means that the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The armature magnetic field has two effects
: (i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux (ii) It cross-magnetises or distorts it.
Unit-II
1.What is the function of Motor?
A machine that converts Electrical power into mechanical power is known as a DC motor.
2. Give the operating principle of DC Motor.
Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force and it is shown in the fig. The direction of this
force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = BIl newtons
3.Why commutator is employed in D.C.machines?

Conduct electricity between rotating armature and fixed brushes, convert
alternating emf into unidirectional emf (mechanical rectifier).
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4.Distinguish between shunt and series field coil construction?
Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small section and have more no of turns.
Series field coils are wound with wires of larger cross section and have less no of
turns.
5.How will you change the direction of rotation of d.c.motor?

Either the field direction or direction of current through armature conductor is
reversed.
6.What is back emf in D.C.motor?

As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate north
and South Pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The
direction of the emf induced in the conductor is in opposite to current. As this emf
always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called as back emf.
7.What is the function of no-voltage release coil in D.C. motor starter?

As long as the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR
coil produce enough magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in ON
position against spring force. When the supply voltage fails or becomes lower than a
prescribed value then electromagnet may not have enough force to retain so handle
will come back to OFF position due to spring force automatically.
8.Enumerate the factors on which speed of a d.c.motor depends?

N= (V-IaRa)/Ф
So speed depends on air gap flux, resistance of armature, voltage
applied to armature.
9.What are the conditions to be fulfilled by for a dc shunt generator to

build back emf?
The generator should have residual flux, the field winding should be connected in such
a manner that the flux setup by field in same direction as residual flux, the field
resistance should be less than critical field resistance, load circuit resistance should be
above critical resistance.
10.Define armature reaction in dc

machines?
The interaction between the main flux and armature flux cause disturbance called
as armature reaction.
62
Unit-III
1. Define a transformer?
A transformer is a static device which changes the alternating voltage from one level to
another.
2.What is the turns ratio and transformer ratio of transformer?
Turns ratio =
N2/ N1
Transformer =
E2/E1 = I1/
I2=K
3.Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers?

In core type, the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core
surrounds the windings i.e winding is placed inside the core
4.What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformer?

In order to minimise eddy current loss.
5.Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term?

Emf induced in primary coil E1= 4.44fФmN1
volt Emf induced in secondary Coil E2 =4.44
fФmN2. f-----------freq of AC input
Ф---------maximum value of flux in thecore
N1, N2----Number of primary & secondary turns.
6.Does transformer draw any current when secondary is open? Why?

Yes, it (primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to magnetize
the core and to supply for iron and copper losses on no load. There will not be any
current in the secondary since secondary is open.
7.Define voltage regulation of a transformer?

When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, the secondary voltage
decreases for lagging PF load, and increases for leading PF load because of its internal
resistance and leakage reactance. The change in secondary terminal voltage from no
load to full load expressed as a percentage of no load or full load voltage is termed as
regulation.
%regulation =E2-V2/E2 *100
V2>E2 for leading p.f load
V2<E2 for lagging p.f load
8.Define all day efficiency of a transformer?

It is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period,
usually a day of 24 hrs. All day efficiency=output in kWh/input in kWh for
63
24 hrs.
9.Why transformers are rated in kVA?

Copper loss of a transformer depends on current & iron loss on voltage. Hence total
losses depend on Volt-Ampere and not on PF. That is why the rating of
transformers is in kVA and not in kW.
10.What determines the thickness of the lamination or stampings?

a. F
requ
ency
b. I
ronl
oss
64
Unit - IV
1. What are the typical uses of autotransformer?
To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop.
2. Explain on the material used for core construction?

The core is constructed by sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path with minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content
sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual
operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the
laminations being used from each other by light coat of coreplate vanish or by oxide layer
on the surface. The thickness of lamination varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of 50Hz
and 0.5mm for a frequency of25Hz.
3. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?

With a change in frequency, iron and copper loss, regulation, efficiency & heating varies so
the operation of transformer is highly affected.
4. What is the angle by which no-load current will lag the ideal applied voltage?
In an ideal transformer, there are no copper & core loss i.e. loss free core. The no load
current is only magnetizing current therefore the no load current lags behind by angle 900.
However the winding possess resistance and leakage reactance and therefore the no load
current lags the applied voltage slightly less than900
.
5. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to pass on
to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and contract as its
temperature increases and decreases.
6. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?

i. It provides good insulation
ii. Cooling.
7. Can the voltage regulation goes –ive? If so under what condition?
Yes, if the load has leading PF.
8. Name the factors on which hysteresis loss depends?

1. Frequency 2. Volume of the core 3. Maximum flux density
9. Why the open circuit test on a transformer is conducted at rated voltage?

The open circuit on a transformer is conducted at a rated voltage because core loss depends
upon the voltage. This open circuit test gives only core loss or iron loss of the transformer.
65 Mr.Khamruddin Syed
Associate Professor,
Dept. of EEE
10. What is the purpose of providing Taps in transformer and where these are provided?
In order to attain the required voltage, taps are provided, normally at high voltages side(low
current).
Unit-V
1. What are the necessary tests to determine the equivalent circuit of the
transformer?
a. Open circuittest
b. Short circuittest
2. Define efficiency of the transformer?

Transformer efficiency n= (output power/input power) x 100
3. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers?

In core type, the windings surrounded the core considerably and in shell type the core
surround the windings i.e winding is placed inside the core
4. Full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600W. What will be the loss at half load?
If n is the ratio of actual load to full load then copper loss = n2 (F.L copper loss) Pc = (0.5)2
– 1600=400W.
5. Define all day efficiency of a transformer?

It is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period, usually a day
of 24hrs.
All day efficiency=output in kWh/input in kWh tor 24 hrs.
6. List the advantage of stepped core arrangement in a transformer?

c. To reduce the space effectively
d. To obtain reduce length of
mean turn of the winding 3.To
reduce I2Rloss.
7. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to
pass on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases
8. List the arrangement of stepped core arrangement in a transformer?

To reduce the space effectively
To obtain reduced length of mean turn of the winding
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To reduce I2Rloss.
9. What are the applications of step-up & step-down transformer?

Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated
voltagewill be either 11kV. This voltage (11kV) is stepped up to 110kV or 220kV or
400Kv and transmitted through transmission lines (simply called as sending end
voltage). Step-down transformers are used in receiving stations. The voltage are
stepped down to 11kV or 22kV are stepped down to 3phase 400V by means of a
distribution transformer and made available at consumer premises. The transformers
used at generating stations are called power transformers.
10. How transformers are classified according to their construction?

1. Core type 2.shell type.
In core type, the winding (primary and secondary) surround the core and in shell type,
the core surround the winding.
b) Five marks question
Unit-I
1.Explain the principle of operation of DC Generator.
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator. Whatever may
be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power.
An AC generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of

these generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic
field it cuts magnetic lines of force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line
force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit
is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

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 Magnetic field
 Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Single Loop DC Generator
In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic
field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD
of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and
BC) of the loop
Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split
ring are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated
from each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are
rest on these split slip ring segments.
Working Principle of DC Generator
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It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush
no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the
induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b
are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the
current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through
the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.
This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a
and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the
plane of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
2. Explain about function of Action of commutator
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The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature. The commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation in
DC generator is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature winding of a
dc machine is converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the
stationary brushes.
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is
completed by the end of the short circuit time or the commutation period. If the reversal of
current is completed during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at the brush
contacts and the commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the machine is called
poorly commutated.
Physical Concept of Commutation in DC Machine
For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a DC machine having an armature
wound with ring winding. Let us also consider that the width of the commutator bar is equal to
the width of the brush and current flowing through the conductor is IC.
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Let the commutator is moving from left to right. Then the brush will move from rightto left.At
the first position, the brush is connected the commutator bar b (as shown in fig 1). Then the total
current conducted by the commutator bar b into the brush is 2IC.
When the armature starts to move right, then the brush comes to contact of bar a. Then the
armature current flows through two paths and through the bars a and b (as shown in fig 2). The
total current (2IC) collected by the brush remain same.
When the brush totally comes under the bar a (as shown in fig 5) and disconnected with the bar
b then current IC flows through the coil B in the counter-clockwise direction and the short
circuit is removed.
In this process the reversal of current or the process of commutation is done.
3.Give the constructional features of DC Machines

 Yoke
 Field winding
 Bearing
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available.
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4.Describe the types of armature windings

Definition of Pole Pitch
The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance between centers of two adjacent poles in DC
machine.
Coil Span or Coil Pitch

Coil of dc machine is made up of one turn or multi turns of the conductor. If the coil is made up
of single turn or single loop of conductor, it is called single turn coil.
Definition of Coil Span

Coil span is defined as peripheral distance between two sides of a coil, measured in terms of
number of armature slots between them.
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Back Pitch (Yb)
A coil advances on the back of the armature. This advancement is measured in terms of
armature conductors and is called back pitch. It is equal to the number difference of the
conductor connected to a given segment of the commutator.
Front Pitch (Yf)

The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front is called front
pitch. Alternatively, the front pitch may be defined as the distance between the second
conductor of the next coil which are connected together at the front i.e. commutator end of the
armature. In other words, it is the number difference of the conductors connected together at the
back end of the armature. Both front and back pitches for lap and wave windings are shown in
the figure below.
Resultant Pitch (Y)

It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected. As a matter of precautions, it should be kept in mind that all these pitches, though
normally stated in terms of armature conductors, are also times of armature slots or commutator
bars.
Commutator Pitch
Commutator pitch is defined as the distance between two commutator segments which two ends
of same armature coil are connected. Commutator pitch is measured in terms of commutator
bars or segment.
Single Layer Armature Winding

Armature coil sides are placed in the armature slots in different manner. In some arrangement,
each slot is occupied by one side of an armature coil. In other words one coil sides is placed in
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each armature slot. This arrangement is referred as single layer winding.
Two Layer Armature Winding

In other types of armature Winding, arrangement every armature slot is occupied by two coil
sides, one on upper half and other on lower half of the slot. The coils in two layers winding are
so placed, that if one side is placed on upper half of the slot then other side is placed on the
lower half of some other slot at a distance of one coil pitch away.
5.Differentiate the lap winding and wave winding.

Armature windings are mainly of two types – lap winding and wave winding. Here we are
going to discuss about lap winding.
Lap winding is the winding in which successive coils overlap each other. It is named "Lap"
winding because it doubles or laps back with its succeeding coils.
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In this winding the finishing end of one coil is connected to one commutator segment and the
starting end of the next coil situated under the same pole and connected with same commutator
segment.
Here we can see in picture, the finishing end of coil - 1 and starting end of coil - 2 are both
connected to the commutator segment - 2 and both coils are under the same magnetic pole that
is N pole here.
Lap winding are of two types –
 Simplex Lap Winding

 Duplex Lap Winding
Let us start from 1st conductor,
Back connections Front connections
1 to (1+YB) = (1+5) = 6 6 to (6-YF) = (6-3) = 3
3 to (3+5) = 8 8 to (8-3) = 5
5 to (5+5) = 10 10 to (10-3) = 7
7 to (7+5) = 12 12 to (12-3) = 9
9 to (9+5) = 14 14 to (14-3) = 11
11 to (11+5) = 16 16 to (16-3) =13
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13 to (13+5) = 18 = (18-16) = 2 2 to (18-3) = 15
15 to (15+5) = 20 = (20-16) = 4 4 to (20-3) = 17 = (17-16) = 1
Advantages of Lap Winding
 This winding is necessarily required for large current application because it has more
parallel paths.
 It is suitable for low voltage and high current generators.
Disadvantages of Lap Winding
 It gives less emf compared to wave winding. This winding requires more no. of
conductors for giving the same emf, it results high winding cost.
It has less efficient utilization of space in the armature slots
6.Briefly explain about Simplex and Multiplex windings
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In simplex wave winding
Back pitch (YB) and front pitch (YF) are both odd and are of same sign. Back pitch and front
pitch are nearly equals to the pole pitch and may be equal or differ by ±2. + For progressive
winding, - for retrogressive winding.
Here, Z is the no of conductors in the winding. P is the no of poles. Average pitch (YA) must be
an integer no. because it may close itself. ±2 is taken because after one round of the armature
the winding falls sort of two conductors. If average pitch is taken Z/P then after one round the
winding will close itself without including all coil sides. Since average pitch must be an integer,
this winding is not possible with any no. of conductors. Let us take 8 conductors in a 4 pole
machine.
Being fractional no the wave winding is no possible but if there was 6 conductors then the
winding can be done. Since,
For this problem the DUMMY COILS are introduced.
Construction of Wave Winding

Let us develop a simplex and progressive wave winding diagram of a machine having 34
conductor in 17 slots and 4 poles. Average pitch:
Now we have to construct a table for the connection diagram:
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7.Give the importance of laminated armature and E.M.F Equation
Use of laminated armature

Eddy current losses are directly proportional to area of armature or more precisely the path of
motion. Now consider an armature with single piece of iron.
In this case with single piece of armature. In this Eddy current losses are represented by white
lines, Now consider laminated armature with some laminations (in practical we have each
lamination of around 0.4 mm).
In laminated armature eddy current losses are reduced to very less or '0' quantity. That is why
armature of DC machines (either motor or generator) is laminated.
E. M.F Equation
The derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:
 Induced EMF of one conductor

 Induced EMF of the generator
Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature Conductor
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For one revolution of the conductor,
Let,Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)

And P = number of poles in the DC generator.
therefore,Total flux produced by all the poles

And, Time taken to complete one revolution
Where, N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.
Therefore,
Induced emf of one conductor is
Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths
Then,Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore,Inducedemf of DC generator
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E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced emf of DC generator is
Simple wave wound generator
Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for wave type of winding generator is
Simple lap-wound generator
Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one path

i.e. P = A,
Therefore, Induced emf for lap-wound generator is
8.Briefly explain the Armature reaction

In a DC machine, the carbon brushes are always placed at the magnetic neutral axis. In no load
condition, the magnetic neutral axis coincides with the geometrical neutral axis. Now,
when the machine is loaded, the armature flux is directed along the inter polar axis (the
axis in between the magnetic poles)and is triangular in wave shape. This results an
armature current flux directed along the brush axis and causes cross magnetization of
the main field. This cross magnetization effect results in the concentration of flux at the
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trailing pole tip in generator action and at the leading pole tip in motor action.
The armature reaction is the effect of the armature flux on the main flux. In case of
a DC motor the resultant flux is strengthened at the leading pole and weakened at the
trailing pole tips.
Inter polar windings are always kept in series with armature, so inter polar winding
carries the armature current; therefore works satisfactorily irrespective of load, the
direction of rotation or the mode of operation. Inter poles are made narrower to ensure
that they influence only the coil undergoing commutation and its effect does not spread
to the other coils. The base of the inter poles is made wider to avoid saturation and to
improve response.
Compensating Winding
Commutation problem is not the only problem in DC machines. At heavy loads, the cross
magnetizing armature reaction may cause very high flux density in the trailing pole tip in
generator action and leading pole tip in the motor action.
Consequently, the coil under this tip may develop induced voltage high enough to cause a flash
over between the associated adjacent commutator segments particularly, because this coil is
physically close to the commutation zone (at the brushes) where the air temperature might be
already high due to commutation process.
This flash over may spread to the neighboring commutator segments, leading ultimately to a
complete fire over the commutator surface from brush to brush. Also, when the machine is
subjected to rapidly fluctuating loads, then the voltage L× di/dt, that appears across the adjacent
commutator segments may reach a value high enough to cause flash over between the adjacent
commutator segments. This would start from the center of pole as the coil below it possesses the
maximum inductance. This may again cause a similar fire as described above. This problem is
more acute while the load is decreasing in generating action and increasing in motor action as
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then, the induced e.m.f and voltage L× di/dt will support each other. The above problems are
solved by use of compensating winding.
9.Describe the importance of Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing AT/pole

Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Conductors
The conductors which are responsible for producing demagnetizing and distortion effects are
shown in the Fig.1.
Fig. 1
The brushes are lying along the new position of MNA which is at angle θ from GNA. The
conductors in the region AOC = BOD = 2θ at the top and bottom of the armature are carrying
current in such a direction as to send the flux in armature from right to left. Thus these
conductors are in direct opposition to main field and called demagnetizing armature conductors.
The remaining armature conductors which are lying in the region AOD and BOC carry current
in such a direction as to send the flux pointing vertically downwards i.e. at right angles to the
main field flux. Hence these conductors are called cross magnetizing armature conductors
which will cause distortion in main field flux.
These conductors are shown in the Fig. 2
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Fig. 2
Calculation of Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Amp-Turns
Let us the number of demagnetizing and cross magnetizing amp-turns.
Let Z = Total number of armature conductors
P = Number of poles
I = Armature conductor current in Amperes
= Ia/2 for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P for simplex lap winding
θm = Forward lead of brush in mechanical degrees.
10.Explain the compensating winding

Compensating Windings
The cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction may cause trouble in d.c. machines subjected
to large fluctuations in load. In order to neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of armature
reaction, a compensating winding is used.
The compensating windings consist of a series of coils embedded in slots in the pole faces.
These coils are connected in series with the armature. The series-connected compensating
windings produce a magnetic field, which varies directly with armature current. Because the
compensating windings are wound to produce a field that opposes the magnetic field of the
armature, they tend to cancel the cross magnetizing effect of the armature magnetic field.
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The neutral plane will remain stationary and in its original position for all values of armature
current. Because of this, once the brushes have been set correctly, they do not have to be moved
again.
Interpoles
Another way to reduce the effects of armature reaction is to place small auxiliary poles
called"interpoles" between the main field poles. The interpoles have a few turns of large wire
and are connected in series with the armature.
Interpoles are wound and placed so that each interpole has the same magnetic polarity as the
main pole ahead of it, in the direction of rotation. The field generated by the interpoles produces
the same effect as the compensating winding.
This field, in effect, cancels the armature reaction for all values of load current by causing a
shift in the neutral plane opposite to the shift caused by armature reaction. The amount of shift
caused by the interpoles will equal the shift caused by armature reaction since both shifts are a
result of armature current.
UNIT-II
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1.Describe the principle of operation of DC Motor
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts electrical energy (direct current system)
into mechanical energy. It is of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important
for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed
in this article. In order to understand the operating principle of DC motor we need to first look
into its constructional feature.
The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed
in between north south poles of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram
above.
As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due to
electromagnetic effect of the magnet. Now to go into the details of the operating principle of
DC motor its important that we have a clear understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to
determine the direction of force acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.
Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor
,
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Similarly force on the right hand side conductor
Therefore, we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width
of the armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results
in the rotation of the armature conductor.
2.Determine the EMF Equation and Torque equation of DC Motor

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,
P = number of field poles
Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
Now,
Average emf generated per conductor is given by dΦ/dt (Volts) ... eq. 1
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = dΦ = PΦ ….(Weber),
Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60
Therefore, time for one revolution = dt = 60/N (Seconds)
From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor = dΦ/dt = PΦN/60 (Volts) …..(eq. 2)
Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors
are connected in series per parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to
the generated emf across any parallel path.
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Therefore, Eg = PΦNZ / 60A
For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 60P
For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, Eg = PΦNZ / 120
Torque Equation Of A DC Motor

When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of stator field flux, a
mechanical torque is developed between the armature and the stator. Torque is given by the
product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Torque T = F × r (N-m) …where, F = force and r = radius of the armature
Work done by this force in once revolution = Force × distance = F × 2πr (where, 2πr =
circumference of the armature)
Net power developed in the armature = word done / time
= (force × circumference × no. of revolutions) / time
= (F × 2πr × N) / 60 (Joules per second) .... eq. 2.1

But, F × r = T and 2πN/60 = angular velocity ω in radians per second. Putting these in the above
equation 2.1
Net power developed in the armature = P = T × ω (Joules per second)
Armature Torque (Ta)

The power developed in the armature can be given as, Pa = Ta × ω = Ta × 2πN/60
The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the electrical power,
Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power
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That means, Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia
We know, Eb = PΦNZ / 60A

Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) × Ia
Rearranging the above equation,
Ta = (PZ / 2πA) × Φ.Ia (N-m)

The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine. Thus, armature torque is directly
proportional to the product of the flux and the armature current i.e. Ta ∝Φ.Ia
Shaft Torque (Tsh)

Due to iron and friction losses in a dc machine, the total developed armature torque is not
available at the shaft of the machine. Some torque is lost, and therefore, shaft torque is always
less than the armature torque.
Shaft torque of a DC motor is given as,
Tsh = output in watts / (2πN/60) ....(where, N is speed in RPM)
3.Describe the Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy
loads, ɸ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting
the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence, the
Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the origin.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started
on a heavy load.
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝Eb. But, as back emf is also almost
constant, the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with
increase in load. Back emfEb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases
slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt
motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current characteristic in
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the following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual
characteristic is shown by the dotted line.
4.Describe the Characteristics Of DC Compound and series Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series
and shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux
then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the
direction of the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded.
Characteristics of both these compound motors are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is
likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt
winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly
removed. These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads
are applied like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with
increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly
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with increase in load (N ∝Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but
they find limited applications in experimental and research work.
Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors,
field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic
saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta
α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝Ia.Therefore, after magnetic
saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve
Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.
In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature
current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required.
Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)
We know the relation, N ∝Eb/ɸ
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emfEb is small
and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we
know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when
armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor
should never be started without some mechanical load.
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But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in
decreased back emfEb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.
Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low
and vice versa.
5.Determine the concept of Armature reaction
In a DC machine, the carbon brushes are always placed at the magnetic neutral axis. In no load
condition, the magnetic neutral axis coincides with the geometrical neutral axis. Now, when the
machine is loaded, the armature flux is directed along the inter polar axis (the axis in between
the magnetic poles)and is triangular in wave shape. This results an armature current flux
directed along the brush axis and causes cross magnetization of the main field. This cross
magnetization effect results in the concentration of flux at the trailing pole tip in generator
action and at the leading pole tip in motor action.
The armature reaction is the effect of the armature flux on the main flux. In case of a DC
motor the resultant flux is strengthened at the leading pole and weakened at the trailing pole
tips.
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Where,
Ia = armature current,
Z = total number of conductors,
P = total number of poles,
β = angular shift of carbon brushes (in electrical Degrees).
6.Explain the speed control methods for DC Motor

Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for performing
the specific work process. Speed control is a different concept from speed regulation where
there is natural change in speed due change in load on the shaft. Speed control is either done
manually by the operator or by means of some automatic control device.One of the important
features of DC motor is that its speed can be controlled with relative ease. We know that the
emf equation of DC motor is given as,
N = 60A E / PZØ
N = E / kØ
where, k = PZ/60A
N = V - Ia Ra / kØ
Therefore speed (N) of 3 types of DC motor – SERIES, SHUNT and COMPOUND can be
controlled by changing the quantities on RHS of the expression. So speed can be varied by
changing
 Terminal voltage of the armature V.

 External resistance in armature circuit Ra.
 Flux per pole φ.
The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit and the third one involves
change in magnetic field. Therefore speed control of DC motor is classified as
 Armature control methods

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 Field control methods.
 Speed Control of DC Series Motor
Speed control of DC series motor can be done either by armature control or by field control.
Armature Control of DC Series Motor
Speed adjustment of DC series motor by armature control may be done by any one of the
methods that follow,
Armature Resistance Control Method:
This is the most common method employed. Here the controlling resistance is connected
directly in series with the supply of the motor as shown in the fig.
The power loss in the control resistance of DC series motor can be neglected because this
control method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load
condition. This method of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This method of
speed control is employed for DC series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.
Shunted Armature Control:
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is
involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by
varying series rheostat R1. The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting
resistance R2. This method of speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses
in speed controlling resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below
normal speed.
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Armature terminal voltage control:
7.Explain the operating principle of 3 point starter .

A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting and running of a shunt
wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor. Now the question is why these types of DC
motors require the assistance of the starter in the first case.
The only explanation to that is given by the presence of back emfEb, which plays a critical role
in governing the operation of the motor. The back emf, develops as the motor armature starts to
rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters the supply voltage.
This also essentially means, that the back emf at the starting is zero, and develops gradually as
the motor gathers speed.
The general motor emf equation
at starting is modified to E = Ia.Ra as at starting Eb = 0.
Thus we can well understand from the above equation that the current will be dangerously high
at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) and hence its important that we make use of a
device like the 3 point starter to limit the starting current to an allowable lower value.
Let us now look into the construction and working of three point starter to understand how
the starting current is restricted to the desired value. For that let’s consider the diagram given
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below showing all essential parts of the three point starter.
Construction of 3 Point Starter

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown
in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown
separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN. Other than that there are 3 main points, referred to as
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3 point starter
in further details reveals that, the point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload
release (OLR) as shown in the figure. The other end of OLR is connected to the lower end of
conducting lever of starter handle where a spring is also attached with it and the starter handle
contains also a soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to the other side RUN
against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to its original OFF position
under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to
the another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'.
The starting resistance at starting is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC acts
as the two protecting devices of the starter.
8.Explain the Working Principle of Four Point Starter

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The 4 point starter like in the case of a 3 point starter also acts as a protective device that helps
in safeguarding the armature of the shunt or compound excited DC motor against the high
starting current produced in the absence of back emf at starting.
The 4 point starter has a lot of constructional and functional similarity to a three point starter,
but this special device has an additional point and a coil in its construction. This naturally brings
about some difference in its functionality, though the basic operational characteristic remains
the same. The basic difference in circuit of 4 point starter as compared to 3 point starter is that
the holding coil is removed from the shunt field current and is connected directly across the line
with current limiting resistance in series.
Now to go into the details of operation of 4 point starter, lets have a look at its constructional
diagram, and figure out its point of difference with a 3 point starter.
Construction and Operation of Four Point Starter
A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely
Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is, A 4th point N. (Connected to
the No Voltage Coil NVC)
The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage Coil is connected
independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F'
and 'A'. As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field supply current does not bring
about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus it must be ensured that
no voltage coil always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its 'RUN'
position, against force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Such a current is
adjusted through No Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R connected in series with
the NVC using fourth point 'N' as shown in the figure above.
Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point starters are similar in all other
ways like possessing is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown in the
figure above. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown separately as
OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN, over which the handle is free to be maneuvered manually to regulate
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the starting current with gathering speed.
Now to understand its way of operating lets have a closer look at the diagram given above.
Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then the circuit is complete
and line current that starts flowing through the starter. In this situation we can see that the
current will be divided into 3 parts, flowing through 3 different points.
1 part flows through the starting resistance (R1+ R2+ R3…..) and then to the armature.
A 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the protective resistance R.
So the point to be noted here is that with this particular arrangement any change in the shunt
field circuit does not bring about any change in the no voltage coil as the two circuits are
independent of each other. This essentially means that the electromagnet pull subjected upon the
soft iron bar of the handle by the no voltage coil at all points of time should be high enough to
keep the handle at its RUN position, or rather prevent the spring force from restoring the handle
at its original OFF position, irrespective of how the field rheostat is adjusted. This marks the
operational difference between a 4 point starter and a 3 point starter. As otherwise both are
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almost similar and are used for limiting the starting current to a shunt wound DC
motor or compound wound DC motor, and thus act as a protective device.
9.Determine the Testing of D.C. machines - Losses – Constant & Variable losses
The testing of dc machine is needed for proper fabrication and smooth trouble free operation.
The tests which are mainly needed for these purposes are…
 Open circuit test

 Short circuit test
 Load test
 Determination of efficiency
Open Circuit Test
The open circuit test is needed to determine the open circuit characteristic or magnetizing
characteristic of a dc machine. The open circuit test gives the mmf and hence the
excitation current or field current needed to generate the required voltage on no load at a fixed
speed. The open circuit characteristic curve shows the variation of induced emf as a function of
field current at constant speed and zero load current.
This curve is practically determined by running the machine as a separately excited generator on
on-load. This curve is also called no load saturation curve as it gives the saturation characteristic
of the generator.
Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is needed to determine the voltage drop across the armature at any load
current. In this testing of DC machine the armature is short circuited with an ammeter to get
the short circuit current. Short circuit test gives the short circuit characteristic curve which
shows the variation of short circuit current as a function of excitation current.
Load Test
The load testing of DC machine is needed to determine the rating of a machine. When we run a
machine, then some energy is lost in the machine, which converts into the heat and cause
temperature rise. If a machine produces too much heat then it can affect the insulation of the
machine and ultimately it can cause the breakdown of the machine. Therefore, the load must be
set to a value that it can operate within the temperature limit. The maximum value of the load
that can be delivered by the machine without any harm is called the continuous rating of that
machine.
Determination of Efficiency
The efficiency of DC machine like any other machine is determined by the ratio of output
power to that of the input power.
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There are three methods of determining the efficiency of a machine.
 Direct method
 Indirect method
 Regenerative method
The 1st equation is giving an idea about the direct estimation of the efficiency. In this method
the machine is fully loaded and the output is directly measured. This method of measurement is
only applied for the small machines.
The 2nd and 3rd equations are giving an idea about the indirect estimation of the efficiency.
Indirect method is helpful of determining the efficiency of shunt wound
generator and compound wound generators. In this method it is required to determine to
determine the losses only. So, power supply is required to supply the losses only without
loading the machine. For the regenerative method of determining efficiency, it is required to
have two identical machines. One machine is used as motor and drives the other and the other is
used as generator and feedback the power into the supply. Two machines are mechanically
coupled. Therefore the losses can be determined because the internal power drawn is only to
supply losses of the two machines. Except these testes, the insulation test and the test for
making the commutation satisfactory is done while building up the machine.
Swinburne Test of DC Machine


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Advantages of Swinburne's Test
The main advantages of this test are:
 This test is very convenient and economical as it is required very less power from supply
to perform the test.
 Since constant losses are known, efficiency of Swinburne's test can be pre-determined
at any load.
Disadvantages of Swinburne's Test
The main disadvantages of this test are :
 Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss from no load to full load due to
armature reaction.
 We cannot be sure about the satisfactory commutation on loaded condition because the
test is done on no-load.
 We can’t measure the temperature rise when the machine is loaded. Power losses can
vary with the temperature.
 In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test cannot be done to find its efficiency as it is a
no load test.
Losses in DC Machine
As we know “Energy neither can be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only be transferred
from one form to another”. In DC machine, mechanical energy is converted into the electrical
energy. During this process, the total input power is not transformed into output power. Some
part of input power gets wasted in various forms. The form of this loss may vary from one
machine to another. These losses give in rise in temperature of machine and reduce the

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efficiency of the machine. In DC Machine, there are broadly four main categories of energy
loss.
Copper Losses or Electrical Losses in DC Machine or Winding Loss

The copper losses are the winding losses taking place during the current flowing through the
winding. These losses occur due to the resistance in the winding. In DC machine, there are only
two winding, armature and field winding.
Thus copper losses categories in three parts; armature loss, field winding loss, and brush contact
resistance loss. The copper losses are proportional to square of the current flowing through the
winding.
Armature Copper Loss in DC Machine

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
Where, Ia is armature current and Ra is armature resistance.
These losses are about 30% of the total full load losses.
Field Winding Copper Loss in DC Machine
Field winding copper loss = If2Rf
Where, If is field current and Rf is field resistance.
These losses are about 25% theoretically, but practically it is constant.
Brush Contact Resistance Loss in DC Machine

Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the surface of brush and commutator. It is not
a loss which could be calculated separately as it is a part of variable losses. Generally, it
contributes in both the types of copper losses. So, they are factor in the calculation of above
losses.
Core Losses or Iron Losses in DC Machine or Magnetic Losses

As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field, some losses occurs in the core which
is called core losses. Normally, machines are operated with constant speed, so these losses are
almost constant. These losses are categorized in two form; Hysteresis loss and Eddy current
loss.
Hysteresis Loss in DC Machine

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Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to reversal of magnetization of the core.
When the core of the armature exposed to magnetic field, it undergoes one complete rotation of
magnetic reversal. The portion of armature which is under S-pole, after completing half
electrical revolution, the same piece will be under the N-pole, and the magnetic lines are
reversed in order to overturn the magnetism within the core. The constant process of magnetic
reversal in the armature, consume some amount of energy which is called hysteresis loss. The
percentage of loss depends upon the quality and volume of the iron.
The Frequency of Magnetic Reversal
Where,
P = Number of poles
N = Speed in rpm
Steinmetz Formula
The Steinmetz formula is for the calculation of hysteresis loss.
Where,
η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature winding
F = Frequency of magnetic reversals
V = Volume of armature in m3.
Eddy Current Loss in DC Machine

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when an iron core rotates in the
magnetic field, an emf is also induced in the core. Similarly, when armature rotates in magnetic
field, small amount of emf induced in the core which allows flow of charge in the body due to
conductivity of the core. This current is useless for the machine. This loss of current is called
eddy current. This loss is almost constant for the DC machines. It could be minimized by
selecting the laminated core.
Mechanical Losses in DC Machine

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The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine are called mechanical losses.
These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the machine like bearing, brushes etc,
and windage losses occurs due to the air inside the rotating coil of the machine. These losses are
usually very small about 15% of full load loss.
Stray Load Losses in DC Machine

There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed above. These
losses are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-circuit
current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to armature and many more
losses which are difficult to find. These losses are difficult to determine. However, they are
taken as 1% of the whole load power output.
10.Derive the expression for Efficiency of Dc Machines.
Calculation of Efficiency
Let, I0 is the no load current (it can be measured by ammeter A1)
Ish is the shunt field current (it can be measured by ammeter A2)
Then, no load armature current
=
Also let, V is the supply voltage. Therefore, No load power input = VI0 watts.
In Swinburne's test no load power input is only required to supply the losses. The losses occur
in the machine mainly are:
 Iron losses in the core

 Friction and windings losses
 Armature copper loss.
Since the no load mechanical output of the machine is zero in Swinburne's test, the no load
input power is only used to supply the losses.
The value of armature copper loss
=
Here, Ra is the armature resistance.

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Now, no to get the constant losses we have to subtract the armature copper loss from the no load
power input.
Then,
After calculating the no load constant losses now we can determine the efficiency at any load.
Let, I is the load current at which we have to calculate the efficiency of the machine.
Then, armature current (Ia) will be (I - Ish),
When the machine is motoring.
And , when the machine is generating.

Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Motoring on Load
Power input = VI
Armature copper loss,
Constant losses,
∴ Efficiency of the motor:
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Generating on Load

Power input = VI
Constant losses,

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∴ Efficiency of the generator:
The DC generator efficiency is perpetual but varies with load. Think through a shunt
generator supplying a load current IL at a terminal voltage V.
Then Generator output = VIL
Generator input = Output + Losses
= VIL + Variable losses + Constant losses
= VIL + I2a Ra + Wc
= VIL + (IL + Ish2)Ra + Wc

( ∵ Ia = IL + Ish)
The shunt field current Ish is generally small as compared to IL and, therefore, can be neglected.
Generator input = VIL + I2a Ra + Wc
Now Efficiency η = output / Input

= VIL / (VIL + I2a Ra + Wc
= 1 / {1+[(ILRa/V)+(Wc/VIL)]}
UNIT-III
1.Determine the concept of methods of Testing?
Testing of DC motor

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Testing of machines is used for finding losses, efficiency and temperature rise. Direct method is
used, for small machines. Indirect method is used for large shunt machines. In practice,
seinburne,s test are mostly used.
a.Direct method of testing
In direct method of testing the generator or motor is put on full load and whole of the power
developed by it is wasted,. Brake test is a typical example of direct test. The direct tests can be
used only on small machines.
b. Indirect method of testing

This method consists of measuring the losses and then calculating the efficiency. The simplest
of the indirect test is Swinburne’s test. Hopkinson test is commonly used test under this method
on shunt motors. This method also enables the determination of losses without actually loading
the machine.
c. Swinburne’s test (No load test)

In this method (simplest indirect method) the losses are measured separately and efficiency at
any desired load is pre-determined.
The iron and friction losses are determined by measuring the input to the machine on no-load,
the machine being run as a motor at normal voltage and speed.
d. Hopkinson’s Test (Back-to-back test or Regenerative test)

Through this test full-load testing of two d.c. shunt machines can be carries out, mainly identical
ones. In this test, power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the
machines. Electrically these two machines are mechanically connected in parallel and controlled
in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and the other as motor.
2.Determine the Brake Test of DC Machine

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DC Machines can be tested by three different methods namely Direct Method, Indirect Method
and Regenerative Method. Direct Method of testing of DC Machine, also known as Brake Test
(if carried out for a DC Motor) will be discussed in this post.
Direct method is suitable for small DC machines. In Direct Method, the DC machine is
subjected to rated load and the entire output power is wasted. The ratio of output power to the
input power gives the Efficiency of DC Machine. For a DC Generator the output power is
wasted in resistor.
Direct Method of testing when conducted on a motor is also known as Brake Test. Brake Test of
DC Motor is carried out as shown in figure below.
A belt around the air cooled pulley has its end attached to the spring balance S1 and S2. Using
belt tightening hand wheels H1 and H2, the load of motor is adjusted to its rated value.
Assuming the spring balance to be calibrated in kilogram, then rated load on the DC motor is
given as
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Motor Output Power = Torque x Angular Speed
= (Force x Radius) x Angular Speed
As the torque because of force F1 and F2 are opposing each other, therefore net torque will be
subtraction of torque because of F1 and F2.
Therefore,
Motor Output = ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt
Now assuming the terminal voltage of DC Motor to be Vt and IL to be the load current then,
Power input to the DC Motor = VtIL
Thus the efficiency of DC Motor can be calculated as below.
Efficiency = Output / Input

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= [ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt] / VtIL
For conducting Brake Test on DC Series Motor, it must be ensured that belt is sufficiently tight
before the motor is switched on to the sully as DC Series Motor shall not be started at no load.
Disadvantages of Brake Test of DC Motor:
1) The Spring Balance Readings are not stable rather it fluctuates.
2) Output power is wasted.
3) The frictional torque at a particular setting of Hand wheel H1 and H2 do not remain
constant.
3.Determine the test processes of Swinburne Test of DC Machine


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Calculation of Efficiency
Let, I0 is the no load current (it can be measured by ammeter A1) Ish is the shunt
field current (it can be measured by ammeter A2)
Then, no load armature current
=
Also let, V is the supply voltage. Therefore, No load power input = VI0 watts.
In Swinburne's test no load power input is only required to supply the losses. The losses occur
in the machine mainly are:
Iron losses in the core
Friction and windings losses
Armature copper loss.
Since the no load mechanical output of the machine is zero in Swinburne's test, the no load
input power is only used to supply the losses.
The value of armature copper loss
=
Here, Ra is the armature resistance.
Now, no to get the constant losses we have to subtract the armature copper loss from the no load
power input.
Then,
After calculating the no load constant losses now we can determine the efficiency at any load.
Let, I is the load current at which we have to calculate the efficiency of the machine.
Then, armature current (Ia) will be (I - Ish), when the machine is motoring.
And

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, when the machine is generating.
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Motoring on Load
Power input = VI
Constant losses,
∴ Efficiency of the motor:
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Generating on Load

Power input = VI
Constant losses,
∴ Efficiency of the generator:
4.Expaline the testing procedure of Hopkinson's Test or Regenerative Test On DC Motor

In the previous post we have seen how to determine the efficiency of DC machines using brake
test. Hopkinson's test is also a test of finding the efficiency of a dc motor. Hopkinson's test
or regenerative test is a full load test and it requires two identical machines which are coupled to
each other.In this test two identical d.c. machines mechanically coupled to each other and
simultaneously tested.One is operated as generator another one as motor,hence we can find

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efficiency of two dc machines simultaneously.So output power of dc machines are going to be
wasted.The mechanical output of motor given to generator through shaft to shaft mechanical
coupling.And generator's electrical power supplied to run the motor,where losses will
be supplied by external power source.
If there are no losses in the motor-generator set,the electrical power from the generator and
mechanical output from motor are enough to run motor,generatorrespectively.So no need of any
external power supply to the motor.But due to losses, the generator output is not sufficient to
drive the motor. Thus motor takes current from the supply to account for losses.
Observe circuit diagram of Hopikinson's test. The two shunt dc machines are connected in
parallel. In that two machines,one is started as a motor another one operated as generator.Here
the only rotor connections are mentioned,stator connections are not shown for simplicity.
Connection Diagram of Hopkinson's Test
First switch S is kept open. The other machine which is coupled to first will act as load on first
which is acting as motor. Thus second machine will act as a generator.With the help of field
rheostat speed of the motor is adjusted to normal value.Note down the observed voltmeter
readings.With the help of generator field rheostat voltage of the generator is adjusted up
to voltmeter reading is zero.This is to make sure generator voltage is having same magnitude
and polarity of that of supply voltage.By making this we can prevent heavy circulating current
flowing in the local loop of armatures on closing the switch.

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Now close the switch S. The two machines can be put into any load by adjusting their field
rheostats. The generator current I2 can be adjusted to any value by increasing the excitation of
generator or by reducing the excitation of motor. The various reading shown by different
ammeters are noted for further calculations.
The input to the motor is nothing but the output of the generator and small power taken from
supply. The mechanical output given by motor after supplying losses will in turn drive the
generator.
Calculation of Efficiency by Hopkinson's Test

Let V = Supply voltage
Motor power Input = V(I1 + I2)
Generator power Input = VI1
We can determine the efficiency of DC machines in two cases.

Case 1: Assuming that the efficiency of both the machines are same.
Case 2: Assuming both the machines has same iron loss, friction loss and windage loss.
Case 1:
Assuming that the efficiency of both the machines are same.
Motor output power = η x Motor Input power

= η V(I1+I2)
i.e., Motor Input power = Generator Input

Now the Generator output = η x generator Input
= η x ηV(I1 +I2)

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= η2 V(I1+I2)
VI1 = η2V(I1+I2)
∵ Generator output η = √ {I1 / (I1+I2)}
Note: The above expression is used to determine the efficiency satisfactorily perfect for a rough
test. If case need to find more accuracy then the efficiency of the two machines can be
determined separately using the below expressions.
Case
Assuming both the machines has same iron loss, friction loss and windage loss.
However the iron loss, friction loss and windage loss of both the machines will be same due to
both the machines are identical. On this notion we can find the efficiency of each machine.
5.Determine the test method of Field’s Test

This is one of the methods of testing the d.c. series motors. Unlike shunt motors, the series
motor can not be tested by the methods which area available for shunt motors as it is impossible
to run the motor on no load. It may run at dangerously high speed on no load. In case of small
series motors brake test may be employed.
The series motors are usually tested in pairs. The field test is applied to two similar series
motors which are coupled mechanically. The connection diagram for the test is shown in the
Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 Field test
As shown in the Fig. 1 one machine is made to run as a motor while the other as a generator
which is separately excited. The field of the two machines are connected in series so that both
the machines are equally excited. This will make iron losses same for the two machines. The
two machines are running at the same speed. The generator output is given to the variable
resistance R.
The resistance R is changed until the current taken by motor reaches full load value. This
will be indicated by ammeter A1. The other readings of different meters are then recorded.
Let V = Supply voltage
I1 = Current taken by motor

I2 = Load current
V2 = Terminal p.d. of generator
Ra, Rse = Armature and series field resistance of each machine
Power taken from supply = VI1
Output obtained from generator = V2 I2
Total losses in both the machines, WT = VI1 - V2 I2

Armature copper and field losses, WCU = ( Ra + 2 Rse ) I12 + I22 Ra
Total stray losses = WT - WCU

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Since the two machines are equally excited and are running at same speed the stray loses
are equally divided.
For Motor ;
Input to motor = V1 I1
Total losses = Aramture Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss

= I12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws
Output of motor = Input - Total losses = V1 I1 - [ I12 ( Ra + Rse) + Ws ]
For Generator :
Efficiency of generator is of little importance because it is running under conditions of
separate excitation. Still it can be found as follows.
Output of generator = V2 I2
Field Cu loss = I12 Rse
Armature Cu loss = I22 Ra
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Stray loss

= I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws
Input to generator = Output + Total losses = V2 I2 + [ I22 Ra + I12 Rse + Ws ]

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The important point to be noted is that this is not regenerative method though the two
machines are mechanically coupled because the generator output is not fed back to the motor as
in case of Hopkinson's test but it is wasted in load resistance.
6.Explan the testing procedure of Separation of stray losses in a d.c. motor test
There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed above. These
losses are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-circuit
current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to armature and many more
losses which are difficult to find. These losses are difficult to determine. However, they are
taken as 1% of the whole load power output.
UNIT-IV
1. Briefly explain about single phase transformer

A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer. Since there is no
rotating or moving part so transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on ac supply.

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Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction
Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependant upon
how the primary and secondary windings are wound around the central laminated steel core.
The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core
Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer
In core type transformer it has two vertical legs or limbs with two horizontal sections named
yoke. Core is rectangular in shape with a common magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV
and LV) are placed on both the limbs.
Shell type transformer: It has a central limb and two outer limbs. Both HV, LV coils are
placed on the central limb. Double magnetic circuit is present.
Berry type transformer: The core looks like spokes of wheels. Tightly fitted metal sheet
tanks are used for housing this type of transformer with transformer oil filled inside.
Transformer Core Construction
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and secondary
windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of
the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed magnetic paths

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to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning back to the
central coils.
This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of this type of transformer
construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this has the
advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall efficiency
2.Give the constructional features of single phase transformer
Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In
some cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form.
In effect, the core material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400
hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of
transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are
of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.
The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical
damage.
(i) CORE
There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers.

One is the HOLLOWCORE, so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square
through the center. This shape of core. Notice that the core is made up of many

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laminations of steel it shows how the transformer windings are wrapped around both
sides of the core.
(ii) WINDINGS
As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped
around a core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the
windings and a load device is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the
source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is connected to the load is called
the SECONDARY WINDING. The primary is wound in layers directly on a rectangular
cardboard form.
3. What are the ways to minimize hysteresis and eddy current losses
Core loss of a transformer consists of two parts 1)Hysteresis losses 2)eddy current losses. In
order to reduce eddy current losses , the magnetic core of the transformer is not made from a
single magnetic material;because in this case the circulating eddy current flowing will be
higher.Instead the magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon steel lamination and the laminations

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are insulated from one an other by thin layer of varnish in order to reduce eddy current and
hence eddy current losses.
In order to minimize hysteresis losses , soft magnetic materials eg: Si steel, steel alloys ,Mn-Zn
ferrite are used because they have high saturation magnetization, Low coercivity ,High
magnetic permeability etc. which reduce losses due to hysteresis.
4.Determine the transformer operation on no load and give its phasor

diagrams
Let the applied voltage V1 applied to the primary of a transformer, with secondary open-
circuited, be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current I1, due to applied voltage V1, will also
be a sine wave. The mmf N1 I1 and core flux Ø will follow the variations of I1 closely. That is
the flux is in time phase with the current I1 and varies sinusoidally.
Let,
NA = Number of turns in primary ;NB = Number of turns in secondary
Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in webers = B max X A f = Frequency of alternating current
input in hertz (HZ)
As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value
Ømax in one quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.

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Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax/ ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in volts.
Therefore,
average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt
If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the
average value with form factor.
Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11 Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X
4f Ømax = 4.44f Ømax Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding.=
(induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of primary turns
Therefore,
EA = 4.44f NAØmax = 4.44fNABmA
Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is
EB = 4.44f NB Ømax = 4.44fNBBmA
In an ideal transformer on no load, VA = EA and VB = EB , where VB is the terminal

voltage
Voltage Transformation Ratio.
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is known as the voltage

transformation ratio and is designated by letter K. i.e.
Voltage transformation ratio, K = V2/V1 = E2/E1 = N2/N1
Current Ratio.
The ratio of secondary current to primary current is known as current ratio and is
reciprocal of voltage transformation ratio in an ideal transformer.
Transformer on No Load.

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When the primary of a transformer is connected to the source of an ac supply and the
secondary is open circuited, the transformer is said to be on no load. The Transformer on
No Load alternating applied voltage will cause flow of an alternating current I0 in the
primary
winding, which will create alternating flux Ø. No-load current I0, also known as excitation or
exciting current, has two components the magnetizing component Im and the energy component
Ie. Im is used to create the flux in the core and Ie is used to overcome the hysteresis and eddy
current losses occurring in the core in addition to small amount of copper losses occurring in the
primary only (no copper loss occurs in the secondary, because it carries no current, being open
circuited.)
From vector diagram shown in above it is obvious that
1. Induced emfs in primary and secondary windings, E1 and E2 lag the main flux Ø by and are
in phase with each other.
2. Applied voltage to primary V1 and leads the main flux Ø by and is in phase opposition to
E1.
3. Secondary voltage V2 is in phase and equal to E2 since there is no voltage drop in

secondary.

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4. Im is in phase with Ø and so lags V1 by
5. Ie is in phase with the applied voltage V1.
6. Input power on no load = V1Ie = V1I0 cos Ø0 where Ø0 = tan-1
5.Determine the transformer operation on load and give its phasor diagrams
The transformer is said to be loaded, when its secondary circuit is completed through an
impedance or load. The magnitude and phase of secondary current (i.e. current flowing through
secondary) I2 with respect to secondary terminals depends upon the characteristic of the load
i.e. current I2 will be in phase, lag behind and lead the terminal voltage V+2+ respectively
when the load is non-inductive, inductive and capacitive. The net flux passing through the core
remains almost constant from no-load to full load irrespective of load conditions and so core
losses remain almost constant from no-load to full load. Vector diagram for an ideal
transformer supplying inductive load is shown

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Resistance and Leakage Reactance In actual practice, both of the primary and secondary
windings have got some ohmic resistance causing voltage drops and copper losses in the
windings. In actual practice, the total flux created does not link both of the primary and
secondary windings but is divided into three components namely the main or mutual flux Ø
linking both of the primary and secondary windings, primary leakage flux ØL 1 linking with
primary winding only and secondary leakage flux ØL2 linking with secondary winding only.
The primary leakage flux ØL1 is produced by primary ampere-turns and is proportional to
primary current, number of primary turns being fixed. The primary leakage flux ØL 1 is in phase
with I1 and produces self inducedemf ØL1 is in phase with I1 and produces self inducedemf
EL1 given as 2f L1 I1 in the primary winding.
The self inducedemf divided by the primary current gives the reactance of primary and is
denoted by X1.
i.e. X1 = EL1/I1 = 2πfL1I1/I1 = 2FL1,
Similarly leakage reactance of secondary X2 = EL2/E2 = 2fπL2I2/I2 = 2πfL2
Equivalent Resistance and Reactance. The equivalent resistances and reactance’s of transformer
windings referred to primary and secondary sides are given as below Referred to primary side
Equivalent resistance,
Equivalent resistance, = X'1 = Referred to secondary side Equivalent resistance,
Equivalent resistance, = X2 + K2X1 Where K is the transformation ratio.
6.Describe the equivalent circuit of single phase transformer

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of
electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement.
This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent
circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also
very essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter during
installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of
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different power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power
transformers.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish
generalequivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary
side. For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which
is shown in the figure below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary
winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is
partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding.
The voltage appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E 1.
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two
components, one is no - load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this
primary current has two a component or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary
winding of transformer. This parallel path of currentis known as excitation branch of equivalent

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circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be
represented as
The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and
induced voltage across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage
E1transforms to secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is transformed
to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I 2. So the voltage E2 across
secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The
load voltage is V2.
From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

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So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure
below,
7., Determine the losses and efficiency of single phase transformer

In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output
power. An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or
friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and
copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that
transformers do not have mechanical losses.
Losses in transformer are explained below -
(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used
for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.

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 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the
transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of
magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetzformula:
 H=ηBmax1.6 fV (watts)
where,η=Steinmetzhysteresisconstant
V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with
other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in
induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called
as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of
heat.
(Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer
Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary
winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current
depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.
Efficiency Of Transformer
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output
power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .
Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full
load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output and
input are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of
transformer by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is
using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).
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Condition For Maximum Efficiency
Let,
Copper loss = I12R1
Iron loss = Wi
Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are
equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.
8.Determine the regulation of single phase transformer

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The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage difference between no load and full load
voltages of a transformer with respect to its full load voltage.
Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, means load is not connected with
secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminalvoltage of the transformer will be
its secondary induced emf E2. Whenever full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the
transformer, ratedcurrent I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into
picture. At this situation, primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from
source. The voltagedrop in the secondary is I 2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of
transformer. Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary
terminals, he or she willgetvoltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no load
secondary voltage E2 and this is because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.
Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer, represented in percentage, is
9.Explain about all day efficiency
Large capacity transformers used in power systems are classified broadly into Power
transformers and Distribution transformers. The former variety is seen in generating stations
and large substations. Distribution transformers are seen at the distribution substations.
The basic difference between the two types arises from the fact that the power transformers are
switched in or out of the circuit depending upon the load to be handled by them. Thus at 50%
load on the station only 50% of the transformers need to be connected in the circuit. On the
other hand a distribution transformer is never switched off. It has to remain in the circuit

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irrespective of the load connected. In such cases the constant loss of the transformer continues
to be dissipated. Hence the concept of energy based efficiency is defined for such transformers.
It is called ’all day’ efficiency.
The all day efficiency is thus the ratio of the energy output of the transformer over a day to the
corresponding energy input. One day is taken as duration of time over which the load pattern
repeats itself. This assumption, however, is far from being true. The power output varies from
zero to full load depending on the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the square
of the fractional loads. The no-load losses or constant losses occur throughout the 24 hours.
Thus, the comparison of loads on different days becomes difficult. Even the load factor, which
is given by the ratio of the average load to rated load, does not give satisfactory results.
The calculation of the all day efficiency is illustrated below with an example. The graph of
load on the transformer, expressed as a fraction of the full load is plotted against time. In an
actual situation the load on the transformer continuously changes. This has been presented by a
stepped curve for convenience. For the same load factor different average loss can be there
depending upon the values of xi and ti. Hence a better option would be to keep the constant
losses very low to keep the all day efficiency high. Variable losses are related to load and are
associated with revenue earned.
The constant loss on the other hand has to be incurred to make the service available. The
concept of all day efficiency may therefore be more useful for comparing two transformers
subjected to the same load cycle. The concept of minimizing the lost energy comes into effect
right from the time of procurement of the transformer.
The constant losses and variable losses are capitalized and added to the material cost of the
transformer in order to select the most competitive one, which gives minimum cost taking
initial cost and running cost put together. Obviously the iron losses are capitalized more in the
process to give an effect to the maximization of energy efficiency. If the load cycle is known at
this stage, it can also be incorporated in computation of the best transformer.
10.Explain the effect of variations of frequency and voltage on iron losses

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The iron losses of a transformer includes two types of losses,
1. Hysteresis loss and 2. Eddy current loss
For a given volume and thickness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating
frequency, maximum flux density and the voltage.
It is known that for a transformer,

V = 4.44 f Φm N = 4.44 f Bm A N
Where A = area
.
.. Bm α (V/f) .......... For constant A and N
Thus as voltage changes, the maximum flux density changes and both eddy current and
hysteresis losses also changes. As voltage increases, the maximum flux density in the core
increases and total iron loss increases.
As frequency increases, the flux density in the core decreases but as the iron loss is directly
proportional to the frequency hence effect of increased frequency is to increase the iron losses.
Key Point : Thus iron loss increases as the voltage and frequency increases for the transformer.
Unit-v
1. Determine the open circuit and short circuit tests.
In this test secondary (usually high voltage) winding is left open, all metering instruments
(ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter) are connected on primary side and normal rated voltage is
applied to the primary (low voltage) winding, as illustrated below
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Iron loss = Input power on no-load
W0 watts (wattmeter reading) No-load current = 0 amperes (ammeter reading) Angle of lag, =
/Io Ie = and Im = √o - Caution: Since no load current I0 is very small, therefore, pressure coils
of watt meter and the volt meter should be connected such that the current taken by them
should not flow through the current taken by them should not flow through the current coil of
the watt meter.
V0 = Rated Voltage
Wo = Input power
I0 = Input current = no oad current
Im = I0sinϕ0
Ic = I0cos ϕ0
cos ϕ0 = No load power factor
Hence power input can be written as,
Wo = V0 I0 cos ϕ0
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W0 = Pi = Iron losses
W0 = V0I0 cos ϕ0
cos ϕ0 = W0 / V0I0 = no load power factor
Ro = V0/Ic Ω
X0 = V0 /Im
2. Short-circuit or Impedance Test.
This test is performed to determine the full-load copper loss and equivalent resistance and
reactance referred to secondary side. In this test, the terminals of the secondary (usually the
low voltage) winding are short circuited, all meters (ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter) are
connected on primary side and a low voltage, usually 5 to 10 % of normal rated primary
voltage at normal frequency is applied to the primary, as shown in fig below.
The applied voltage to the primary, say Vs’ is gradually increased till the ammeter A indicates
the full load current of the side in which it is connected. The reading Ws of the wattmeter gives
total copper loss (iron losses being negligible due to very low applied voltage resulting in very
small flux linking with the core) at full load. Le the ammeter reading be Is.

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Equivalent impedence referred to primary= Commercial Efficiency and All day Efficiency (a)
Commercial Efficiency. Commercial efficiency is defined as the ratio of power output to
power input in kilowatts.(b) All-day Efficiency. The all day efficiency is defined as the ratio of
output in kwh to the input in kwh during the whole day. Transformers used for distribution are
connected for the whole day to the line but loaded intermittently. Thus the core losses occur for
the whole day but copper losses occur only when the transformer is delivering the load current.
Hence if the transformer is not used to supply the load current for the whole day all day
efficiency will be less than commercial efficiency. The efficiency (commercial efficiency) will
be maximum when variable losses (copper losses) are equal to constant losses (iron or core
losses).sign is for inductive load and sign is for capacitive load Transformer efficiency, Where
x is the ratio of secondary current I2 and rated full load secondary current.
Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = full Load copper loss
Wsc = VscIsc cosϕsc
cosϕsc = VscIsc / Wsc
Wsc = I2sc R1e = Copper loss
Z1e = Vsc /Isc = Root(R21e+X21e)

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X1e = Root(Z21e – R21e)
2. Briefly explain about the sumpner’s test

Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical transformers are
available. Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded on
another. Primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in parallel across a supply.
Secondaries are connected in series such that emf's of them are opposite to each other. Another
low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries to get the readings, as shown in the
circuit diagram shown below.
In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondaries of them are connected in
voltage opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are
identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary. And
thus the no load test is simulated. The current drawn from V 1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load
current of each transformer.

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Thus input power measured by wattmeter W1 is equal to iron losses of both transformers.i.e.
iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.
Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage transformer.
The voltage V2 is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through the secondary. In this case,
both primaries and secondaries carry rated current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and
wattmeter W2 shows total full load copper losses of both transformers.i.e. copper loss per
transformer PCu = W2/2.
From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as -
3.Describe the separation of losses test in transformers.

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are the components of the iron losses. For the applied flux
density Bmax to the core, we have
Hysteresis loss = Afand Eddy current loss = Bf2
The no load loss can be expressed as
Wc=Af+Bf2 (1.36)where A and B are constants.
Therefore,

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Figure 1.38 shows the graph, which is a straight line when and f are plotted along the y-axis and x-
axis, respectively. The intercept on the y-axis gives the value of A, whereas the slope of the line gives
the value of B. Now the hysteresis and eddy current loss can be determined at any desired frequency.The
experimental circuit arrangement for determining and f is shown in Figure 1.39.In Figure 1.39, a
variable frequency alternator supplies to the transformer under the test, which is driven by DC shunt
motor whose speed can be varied over a wide range. The switches S1 and S2 are opened and the alternator
is started with the help of the DC shunt motor. The speed is adjusted to the
value of the required frequency. The excitation of the field coil (X-XX) is varied until the voltmeter on
the secondary side of the transformer achieves the rated value. If E2 is the transformer emf on the
secondary, we have
E2=4.44ΦmfN
i.e.
For constant , the flux density in the transformer remains constant. To achieve this, the frequency of
the alternator emf is varied so that remains constant. The necessary f can be adjusted to vary E2so
that is kept constant. For different values of frequencies above and below the rated value, the reading
of wattmeter (W) is noted. The graph and f is drawn to get the constants A and B. After getting the
value of A and B, the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss is obtained.
4.Determine the transformers Polyphase connections - /Y, /
Getting this phasing correct when the windings aren’t shown in regular Y or Δ configuration
can be tricky. Let me illustrate, starting with Figure below.
Inputs A1, A2, A3 may be wired either “Δ” or “Y”, as may outputs B 1, B2, B3.

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Now, let’s examine a Δ-Y system in Figure below.
Phase wiring for “Δ-Y” transformer.

Such a configuration (Figure above) would allow for the provision of multiple voltages (line-
to-line or line-to-neutral) in the second power system, from a source power system having no
neutral.
And finally, we turn to the Δ-Δ configuration: (Figure below)
Phase wiring for “Δ-Δ” transformer.
When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary power system, Δ-Δ connection
schemes (Figure above) are preferred because of the inherent reliability of the Δ configuration.
5.Determine the transformer poly phase connections open

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Considering that a Δ configuration can operate satisfactorily missing one winding, some
power system designers choose to create a three-phase transformer bank with only two
transformers, representing a Δ-Δ configuration with a missing winding in both the primary
and secondary sides: (Figure below)
“V” or “open-Δ” provides 2-φ power with only two transformers.
This configuration is called “V” or “Open-Δ.” Of course, each of the two transformers has to
be oversized to handle the same amount of power as three in a standard Δ configuration, but
the overall size, weight, and cost advantages are often worth it. Bear in mind, however, that
with one winding set missing from the Δ shape, this system no longer provides the fault
tolerance of a normal Δ-Δ system. If one of the two transformers were to fail, the load voltage
and current would definitely be affected.
The following photograph (Figure below) shows a bank of step-up transformers at the Grand
Coulee hydroelectric dam in Washington state. Several transformers (green in color) may be

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seen from this vantage point, and they have grouped in threes: three transformers per
hydroelectric generator, wired together in some form of three-phase configuration. The
photograph doesn’t reveal the primary winding connections, but it appears the secondaries are
connected in a Y configuration, is that there is only one large high-
voltage insulator protruding from each transformer. This suggests the other side of each
transformer’s secondary winding is at or near ground potential, which could only be true in a
Y system. The building to the left is the powerhouse, where the generators and turbines are
housed. On the right, the sloping concrete wall is the downstream face of the dam
d) & e) Objective questions and Fill in the blanks
UNIT-I
01) The emf induced in the dc generator armature winding is
AC
DC
AC and DC
None of the above
The emf induced in the dc generator armature winding is AC, but we need DC current from DC
generator, so to convert this AC current to DC current mechanical rectifier called as
commutator is used.
02) Commutator in DC generator is used for
collecting of current
reduce losses

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increase efficiency
convert AC armature current in to DC
Commutator is used as mechanical rectifier in DC machines. It converts AC armature current

in to DC current.
03) A DC generator without commutator is a
AC generator
DC motor
DC generator
induction motor
Commutator is used to convert AC current into DC current. If commutator is not present, then it
will acts as an AC generator with huge losses.
04) In DC generators brushes are used for
collecting of current without any sparkings
collecting of voltage
reduce eddy current loss
convert ac armature current in to dc

In case of DC generator the brushes need to collect current with minimum sparking, which is
known as successful commutation.
05) Which of the following bearings and their uses are correct
ball bearings → small machines
roller bearings → large machines
neither 1 nor 2
both A and B

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These are different applications of different bearings. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts
the inner and outer race at a very small point, as contact area is very small, so if the ball
bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform or squish the running bearing. So it has to be used
for small rating machines. Since the roller is a cylinder, so the contact between the inner and
outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads the load over more area, allowing the bearing
to handle much greater loads than ball bearings. Hence it is used for large machines.
06) Lap winding is prefered for which type of machines?
low current and low voltage
high current and high voltage
high current and low voltage
low current and high voltage
Number of parallel paths are more in case of lap winding than wave winding. So summation of
currents at the output is more. Therefore it is preferred for high current and low voltage rated
machines.
07) Wave winding is prefered for which of the following rating?
low current and low voltage
high current and high voltage
high current and low voltage
low current and high voltage
Number of parallel paths in wave winding is only 2. Therefore is used for low current and high
voltage rated machines. Summation of currents in parallel paths is less than wave winding.
08) Equalizer rings are used in which of the followings?
lap winding
wave winding
both 1 and 2
none of the above

Dept. of EEE
Equalizer rings are essential in lap winding than wave winding because of more no of parallel
paths in lap winding. As in lap winding no of parallel path is more, there would be severe
sparking at brushes due to difference in currents in different parallel paths. But in wave
winding no of parallel paths is two and the sparking at commutation is less. So, equalizer rings
are used in lap winding to avoid any unequal distribution.
09) A 4 pole lap wound dc generator has 4 brushes, if one of the brush is damaged, what will be
the change in V, I and P ratings
V, I and P
V/2, I/2 and P/4
V/2, I and P/2
V, I/2 and P/2
If one brush is damaged then two parallel paths will be damaged. So only two parallel paths
will provide the I/2 current and voltage is same for parallel paths. As the current is halved,
delivered power is also halved for same terminal voltage.
10) For a dc machine shunt resistance and armature resistance values are
high and high
high and low
low and low
low and high
For a DC machine the values of armature resistance is very low and shunt resistance is high.
The power delivered by the DC Machine depends upon the armature current I a. Ia should be
high to deliver maximum power. The Shunt field is parallel to the armature field, so its
resistance must be high for minimum value of shunt field current. If its value will be low then
armature current will be lower and power delivered will be less. The series field is connected in
series. So if series resistance is more then there would considerable series drop and again
armature current will be lower.
01) Shunt field of DC generators consists of--------number of turns and ---------- conductors
respectively

Dept. of EEE
large and thick
large and thin
less and thick
less and thin
To deliver maximum power armature current must be high and the shunt field current is
minimum. So, shunt field resistance of DC Machine is very high value around 50Ω to 500 Ω.
, it can be concluded that for high resistance length of the coil is to be large and area
to be small. So shunt field must have large no of turns and thinner wire than the series field.
02) Series field consists of--------number of turns and ---------- conductors respectively
large and thick
large and thin
less and thick
less and thin

The power delivered by a DC machine depends upon armature current. The series field is in
series with the armature so they are carrying same current through them. Series field are kept
at low resistance for minimum drop. , we can conclude that area should be high and no
of turns should be less.
03) What is/are the necessary conditions for voltage build up in self excited generator?
Poles should contain residual flux.
Field winding should be properly connected to armature winding.
Field winding resistance should be less than critical resistance.
All of the above.

Dept. of EEE
The necessary condition for voltage build-up process in a self-excited DC generator are
1. The poles should retain some residual magnetism. If the poles lost its residual magnetism it
can't start voltage build up process. It may be started by a separate DC source at shunt field
when armature is at rest.
2. The field winding should be properly connected to armature winding. If the field connection is
reversed then the field flux would oppose residual flux.
3. The field winding resistance should be less than critical resistance. Voltage will not build up if
the field resistance is greater than critical resistance.
4. The speed of the generator should be greater than the critical speed. This can be remedied by
increasing prime mover speed above critical speed.
04) No load saturation characteristics are plotted between
no load voltage and field current
no load voltage and armature current
short circuit current and field current
short circuit current and armature current
This operating characteristics is also known as saturation curve or open circuit characteristics
or magnetization curve or no load magnetizing curve of DC Generator. This curve is drawn
between no-load armature generated voltage with the field or exciting current, keeping the
speed constant by prime mover. This curve starts slightly above the zero due to residual
magnetism. It also determines the design of flux per pole under linear magnetization or
saturation curve.
05) The effect of ------------------ on main field flux is armature reaction?
armaturemmf
armature current
armature flux
all of the above

On no load armature flux is negligible as armature current is small but with load the rotating
armature produces a flux due to sufficient armature current or load current. The effect of this
armature flux on the main field flux is known as armature reaction. Due to armature reaction
the main field flux distribution is weakened and distorted.
06) Armature flux is.............with respect to main field flux or main field poles?
Dept. of EEE
rotates opposite direction
rotates same direction
stationary
none of the above
The rotating armature produce a rotating armature flux with respect to armature and there is a
working flux which is also under the pole distributed uniformly. Therefore armature flux is
stationary with respect to main filed flux. Armature mmf is stationary w.r.t. field poles but
rotating w.r.t. the armature.
07) Cross magnetization effects which of the following?
commutation
reduction in main field flux
reduces the terminal voltage
both 2 and 3
Cross magnetizing is one of the effect of armature reaction. By vector addition it is found that it
distorts the main field flux. As a result it shifts the MNA (magnetic neutral axis). There would be
sparking at the time of commutation if the brushes are not shifted to the MNA.
08) Demagnetization effects which of the following?
commutation
reduction in main field flux
reduces the terminal voltage
both B and C
Demagnetization is one of the effect of armature reaction. By vector addition it is found that it
reduces or weakens the main field flux. So it reduces the induced emf or terminal voltage in
case of generator because Eg is directly proportional to the flux (φ). In case of a motor it
reduces the torque and increases the speed because Te is proportional to flux and speed(N) is
inversely proportional to the flux.

Dept. of EEE
09) Brushes are always placed on--------------- , in order to achieve sparkles commutation?
MNA
Brushes should be placed where the direction of current are changes or production of zero
e.m.f., under no load condition MNA and GNA coincides with each other. At this axis current
direction is reversed or no emf is produced. But due to armature flux the main field flux gets
distorted and MNA does not coincides with GNA under loaded condition. That means neutral
zone is shifted. In order to achieve sparkless commutation brushes is placed on MNA. So,
brushes are always placed in MNA in loaded or unloaded condition.
10) Flux density under trailing pole tips in case of generator will
increase
The pole tip towards which the armature conductor leaves the influence of pole is called trailing
pole tips (symbol by dot sign). In a generator the main field flux and armature flux are aiding
each other under trailing pole tips region. Therefore total flux density will increase under
trailing pole tips.
UNIT-II
01) If field current is decreased in shunt dc motor, the speed of the motor
remains same.
increases.
decreases.
none of the above.

As a shunt field current If decreases, φ also decreases and the speed rises as speed is inversely
proportional to flux.
02) What is the mechanical power developed by a DC series motor is maximum?

Dept. of EEE
Back emf is equal to half the applied voltage.
Back emf is equal to applied voltage.
Back emf is equal to zero.
None of above.
03) In Ward-Leonard system, the lower limit of the speed imposed by
Field resistance.
Armature resistance.
Residual magnetism of the generator.
None of above.
In Ward-Leonard method of speed control, the lower limit of speed is imposed by residual
magnetism of the generator.
04) Ward-Leonard control is basically a ___________ control method.
Field control.
Armature resistance control.
Armature voltage control.
Field diverter control.

Dept. of EEE
Ward-Leonard speed control method consists a motor with a constant excitation and applying a
variable voltage to its armature to provide the required speed. Hence it is armature voltage
control method.
05) For very sensitive and wide speed control, the preferable control method is
Armature control.
Ward-Leonard control.
Multiple voltage control.
Field control.
In ward-Leonard method, very fine speed control over the whole range from zero to normal
speed in both directions can be obtained. The motor-generator set can provide speed both
below and above the rated speed and in both direction.
06) Commutator pitches of duplex and simplex lap windings are respectively
4 and 2
2 and 1
4 ang 1
2 and 2
Commutator pitches of duplex winding is 2 and Commutator pitches of simplex winding is 1. It
is defined as the distance between two ends of same armature coil are connected. So, difference
in duplex winding are 2 as there are two turns in the duplex winding.
07) In DC machine yoke offers
mechanical protection to the machine
flux path completion
produce working flux
both A and B
In case of DC machines yoke is used to

Dept. of EEE
1. Mechanical protection to the machine
2. Flux path completion.
Poles will produce working flux.
08) In a dc machine 72 number of coils are used. Find the number of commutator segments
required?
36
37
72
74
In DC machines, Number of coils = Number of commutator segments

09) which of the following type of brush and their application is/are correct
carbon brush → normal ratings
electro graphite → large ratings
copper graphite → low voltage high current density
all of the above
These are the different applications for different types of brushes in DC machines.
10) Which of the following windings are necessary in case of all dc machines?
closed winding
lap winding
wave winding
open type winding

In case of all DC machines we must use closed winding. Lap and wave windings are used based
on the requirement of voltage and current levels, but winding of all DC machines is closed
winding. It is never short pitched.

Dept. of EEE
01) DC machine windings are
full pitched
shortpiched
either of these
none of the above

DC machine wingdings are full pitched winding only because it offers maximum induced emf
within the coil. No requirement of short pitching of coils like alternator.
02) Which of the following represents the commutator pitch?
Number of conductors spanned by one coil at the back end of the armature.
Number of conductors spanned by one coil at the front end of the armature.
The distance between the staring of first coil and its next successive coil
Number of commutator segments between two successive coils.

The definitions of different types of pitches are
1. Back pitch: Number of conductors spanned by one coil at the back end of the armature.
2. Front pitch: Number of conductors spanned by one coil at the front end of the armature.
3. Resultant pitch: The distance between the staring of first coil and its next successive coil.
4. Commutator pitch: Number of commutator segments between two successive coils.
For lap winding YC is the difference of YB and YF where as for wave winding it is the sum of the
two.
03) In a dc machine 4 pole lap winding is used. The number of parallel paths are?
8
Dept. of EEE
In lap winding number of parallel paths = number of poles = 4. For Wave winding it will be
equal to 2.
04) In a dc machine 6 pole wave winding is used. The number of parallel paths are?
In wave winding / simplex wave winding number of parallel paths = always 2 (irrespective of
number of poles).
05) Inter pole winding is connected in-------------------------- ?
series with armature
series with main poles
parallel with armature
parallel with main poles

Interpolars are small narrow commutating poles connected in series with armature. It produce
an extra flux to neutralize the reactance m.m.f. produced at the time of commutation process.
06) In a lap winding dc machine number of conductors are 100 and number of parallel paths are
10. Find the average pitch
10
100
50
(? front pitch = Yb+1, back pitch = Yb -1 )

Dept. of EEE
07) In a 2 pole lap winding dc machine , the resistance of one conductor is 2Ω and total number
of conductors is 100. Find the total resistance
200Ω
100Ω
50Ω
10Ω
Total resistance depends upon no of parallel path. In lap winding parallel path is no of poles
and here it is two. Half of conductor are in series i.e. 50 in series and rest of 50 in series and
they are parallel together. 50 no 2Ω in series = 100Ω. When two such paths are parallel their
equivalent will be 50 Ω. Numerically it can also be stated,
X = Resistance of one conductor Z = Total number of

conductors A = No of parallel paths
08) Dummy coils are used for
increasing efficiency.
reducing armature reaction.
mechanical balancing.
all of the above

Dummy coils are required under wave winding only to make the machine mechanically
balanced. Consider a problem to understand the dummy coils.
Design wave winding for 60 conductors, 15 slots, 4 poles
For designing of wave winding we should find average pitch (Ya) and that should be integer.
For some set of data Ya will not be integer.

Therefore the nearest possible number of conductors are considered to make Ya integer. But this
will make the armature mechanically unbalance. For example one of the 15 slots will contain
only 2 conductors as 2 are eliminated in the design itself. To make the machine mechanically
balanced those two conductors were cut shot, insulated and placed in the slots as dummy coils.
In this way dummy coils will mechanically balance the machine.
09) Which of the following is/are the advantages of carbon brush over the copper brush?

Dept. of EEE
They are not hard as copper brush
They are self lubricating in nature
In case of any sparking they will be less damaged than copper brushes
All of the above
Advantages of carbon brush over the copper brushes are 1. They are not hard as copper brush.
2. They are self lubricating in nature which ensure excellent mechanical conditions with
rotating commutator. 3. In case of any sparking they will be less damaged than copper brushes.
But they has less current density than copper brushes.
10) Maximum power will be developed when back ems is
equals to supply voltage

The maximum power developed is depends on the back emf value. i.e.,E b = Vt/2.
UNIT-III
01) Eddy current loss will depends on
Frequency
Flux density
Thickness
All of the above
. So eddy current loss will depend upon frequency, flux

density and the area of the eddy current loop.
02) Hysteresis loss will depends on

Dept. of EEE
f
f²
f³
f1.6
. So, hysteresis loss will depends on frequency.

03) Thin laminations are used in a machine in order to reduce
Eddy current losses
Hysteresis losses
Both 1 and 2
Copper losses
Thin laminations are used in order to reduce the eddy current losses only. Due to laminations
the area of the eddy currents loops are minimized and the losses due to eddy current losses are
minimized.
04) Hysteresis loop represents the area of
copper loss
eddy current loss
hysteresis loss
total iron losses
Hysteresis loop will represents only hysteresis losses. It is found out by area of B-H loop curve
of a magnetic material.
05) Total core loss is also called as -------------?
Eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss

Dept. of EEE
Magnetic loss
Copper loss
As iron loss is proportional to flux density or flux, these are also called as magnetic loss. The
total core loss or magnetic loss consists of eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
06) Which of the following are variable losses?
eddy current loss
hysteresis loss
shunt field copper loss
armature copper loss
Armature copper loss is directly proportional to square of armature current. Therefore as the
load varies these will also vary.
07) Maximum efficiency will occur, when copper loss is_______to iron loss?
greater than
less than
equals to
any of the above

Condition for maximum efficiency is, copper loss = iron loss or variable losses is equals to
fixed losses.
08) The noise resulting from vibrations of lamination set by magnetic forces, is termed as
magnetostriction.
boo.
hum.
zoom.

Dept. of EEE
The hum is generated by the magnetic field that happens due to the continuous reversing of the
frequency of the supply or it is due to magnetostriction. The magnetic field in the AC machine
or transformers has coils which are still able to move slightly due to the vibration. The
laminations of the armature are treated in a similar way but also vibrate at the line frequency
and it is almost impossible to stop. We can only reduce it by good design.
09) Autotransformer makes effective saving on copper and copper losses, when its
transformation ratio is equal to
very low
less than one.
greater than one.
approx to one.
To quantify the saving the total quantity of copper used in an auto transformer is expressed as a
fraction of that used in a two winding transformer as,
This
means that an auto transformer requires the use of lesser quantity of copper given by the ratio
of turns. Hence, if the transformation ratio is approximately equal to one, then the copper
saving is good and the copper loss is less.
10) Which of the following statements is/are correct?
High frequency power supplies are light weight
Transformer size get reduced at high frequency
Both 1 and 2
None of the above

From the induced emf equation of transformer E ∝ φfFor same emf, φf = constant φ1f1 =
φ2f2 B1A1f1 = B2A2f2For constant flux density B1 = B2 A1f1 = A2f2 For high frequency f2 > f1 A2 <
A1 Therefore at high frequencies transformer size get reduced and also light weight.
Dept. of EEE
UNIT-IV
01) The basic function of a transformer is to change
the power level
the power factor
the level of the voltage
the frequency
A transformer can be used for either step up or step down the voltages. Its basic application in
power system is to transform the voltage from one level to another level without changing its
frequency and power.
02) The frequency of a voltage at the secondary is
greater than the primary
equal to primary
less than primary
any of the above

The basic function of a transformer is step up or step down voltages without changing its supply
frequency. Therefore the frequency of voltage at the secondary is equal to the primary side.
03) Transformer action requires a
constant magnetic flux
increasing magnetic flux
alternating magnetic lux

Dept. of EEE
alternating electric flux
A basic transformer contains two magnetically coupled coils on a common core, if an
alternating voltage is given to one winding is known as primary due to electromagnetic and
action mutual induction, there is a voltage induced in the secondary winding where load can be
connected known as secondary. The energy transfer from one winding to another is entirely
through magnetic medium it is known as transformer action based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction proposed by faraday. Therefore, transformer action requires an
alternating or time varying magnetic flux to transfer power from primary side to secondary
side. Since induced emf in the winding is due to flux linkage.
04) For an ideal transformer the winding should have
maximum resistance on primary side and least resistance on secondary side
minimum resistance on primary side and maximum resistance on secondary side
equal resistance on primary and secondary side
noohmic resistance on either side

For an ideal transformer the losses should be zero on both sides. Therefore the ohmic
resistance on either side of the transformer should be equal to zero.
05) Which of the following statements is/are correct statements?
EMF per turn in HV winding is more than EMF per turn in LV winding
EMF per turn in HV winding is less than EMF per turn in LV winding
EMF per turn in both the windings are equal
all of the above
In a transformer primary volt-ampere is equal to secondary volt-ampere and primary ampere

ampere turns are also equal. So, EMF per turn in both the winding are equal. Total induced emf
on both sides depends on the number of turns, flux and frequency. If number of turns on
secondary more than primary, then emf induced in the secondary will more than primary side
and vice versa, but the emf per turn in both the winding are equal.

Dept. of EEE
06) The core flux in transformer depends mainly on
supply voltage
supply voltage and frequency
supply voltage, frequency and load
supply voltage and load
Therefore core flux in transformer depends mainly on

supply voltage and frequency.
07) If the applied voltage of a certain transformer is increased by 50% and the frequency is
reduced by 50%, the maximum flux density will (assuming that the magnetic circuit remains
unsaturated)
changes to three times the original value
changes to 1.5 times the original value
changes to 0.5 times the original value
remain the same as the original
.
08) The low voltage winding of a 400/230 V single phase 50 Hz transformer is to be connected
to keep the magnetization current at the same level in both the cases the voltage at 25 Hz should
be
230 V
460 V

Dept. of EEE
115 V
65 V
To maintain the magnetization current at the same level, flux Ï† should be same i.e V/f ratio
should be same.
09) A single phase transformer has specifications as 250 KVA, 11000 V/415 V, 50 Hz. What
are the values of primary and secondary currents?
primary = 22.7 A, secondary = 602.4 A
primary = 602 A, secondary = 22.7 A
primary = 301 A, secondary = 22.7 A
primary = 11.4 A, secondary = 301 A
10) R1 is the resistance of the primary winding of the transformer. The turn ratio in terms of
primary to secondary is K. Then the equivalent resistance of the primary referred to secondary
is
R1 /K
K²R1
R1 /K²
K×R1
By changing of primary parameters to secondary or vice versa it does not change the
performance of circuit. So that we are taking power rating are equal in before and after

Dept. of EEE
referring. Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the primary
referred to secondary = R1 /K²
UNIT-V
1) The most commonly used connections for power systems as a step - up and step - down transformers ar
a. Star - delta, star - star

b. Delta - star, star - delta
c. Star - star, delta - delta
d. Star - delta, delta - star
ANSWER: Star - delta, delta - star
2) A transformer when connected to a 230V, 50Hz supply, under no load draws a current of 4A at a power
factor of 0.2 lagging. The magnetizing current (Im) and core loss (Pc) is equal to
a. 3.919A, 184W
b. 1.84A, 391.9W
c. 39.19A, 184W
d. 3A, 180W

Dept. of EEE
ANSWER: 3.919A, 184W
3) A differential relay comparator used for the protection of three phase transformers has
a. One comparator
b. Two comparator
c. Three comparator
d. Six comparator
ANSWER: Three comparator
4) If a two winding transformer is converted into an autotransformer by applying additive polarity and
subtractive polarity which results in the secondary voltages of 1840 and 1810 volts. Then the primary and
secondary voltages of transformer are
a. 1800V, 50V
b. 1810V, 40V
c. 1820V, 30V
d. 1825V, 15V
ANSWER: 1825V, 15V
5) For a single phase no load transformer, which among the following losses will be minimum?
a. hysteresis losses
b. eddy current losses

Dept. of EEE
c. copper losses
d. mechanical losses
ANSWER: copper losses
6) In T-T connection, the ratio of actual capacity to the available capacity is
a. 1
b. 0.928
c. 1.928
d. 0.5
ANSWER: 0.928
7) In double delta transformation, a double delta refers to the case where there are two delta transformation
a. Parallel
b. Series
c. Both series and parallel
d. Neither series nor parallel
ANSWER: Series
8) Most familiar application of zig - zag transformer is as
a. Ground reference on an ungrounded system

b. Converting single phase to two phase
c. Reducing harmonics
d. All of these

Dept. of EEE
ANSWER: Ground reference on an ungrounded system
9) In a single phase, full wave bridge circuit and in three phase, delta full wave bridge circuit, the ripple
voltage frequency is always
a. Twice the line frequency, six times the line frequency

b. Both will be twice the line frequency
c. Both will be six times the lines frequency
d. None of these
ANSWER: Twice the line frequency, six times the line frequency
10) In Scott connection, the voltage across the teaser leads the mains by
a. 30 degree
b. 60 degree
c. 90 degree
d. 120 degree
ANSWER: 90 degre
21) In star-star connection of three phase transformer, if VL is the line voltage and IL is the line current
phase voltage and phase current is given by

Dept. of EEE
a. VL / √3, IL
b. VL , IL
c. √3VL , IL / √3
d. VL, IL / √3
ANSWER: VL / √3, IL
22) Due to presence of third harmonic component in the star-star connection of three phase transformer,
the frequency of the circuit component becomes
a. Three times of the circuit frequency

b. One third of the circuit frequency
c. Remains same
d. None of these
ANSWER: Three times of the circuit frequency
23) For the parallel operation of three phase transformers, which among the following connection is
not applicable?
a. Δ - Δ to Y – Y
b. Y - Δ to Δ - Y
c. Y - Y to Y – Y
d. None of these

Dept. of EEE
ANSWER: None of these
24) While connecting three phase transformer in star-star connection, the terminals of secondaries are
wrongly joined. Then the mutual phase angle and magnitude of line to line voltages of secondaries will
a. Equal to 120 degree and equal as before

b. Not equal to 120 degree and different
c. Equal to 120 degree and different
d. None of these
ANSWER: Not equal to 120 degree and different
25) For the star - star connection of three phase transformer, the phase angle between the phase voltages
and line voltages on both primary and secondary side is
a. 0 degree
b. 30 degree
c. 60 degree
d. 120 degree
ANSWER: 30 degree
26) A bank of three single phase transformer can be used for obtaining the three phase output. Three
magnetic circuits produced in case of a bank of three single phase transformer and in case of single phase
transformer are

Dept. of EEE
a. Linked, independent
b. Independent, linked
c. Linked, linked
d. Both are independent
ANSWER: Independent, linked
27) In a three phase transformer, the current flowing in three primaries produces three corresponding
fluxes. The sum of these three fluxes at any instant is
a. Zero
b. Three times of any individual flux
c. One third of any individual flux
d. None of these
ANSWER: Zero
28) In a three phase transformer, the angle between two consecutive cores is
a. 30 degree
b. 60 degree
c. 120 degree
d. 150 degree
ANSWER: 120 degree
29) Pulse transformers are small in size. The leakage inductance and permeability of alloy used is
a. Low, high
Dept. of EEE
b. Low, low
c. High, low
d. High, high
ANSWER: Low, high
30) Small iron core transformers used in certain frequency range is also called audio frequency
transformer.
The audio frequency range is
a. 20 t0 2000 Hz
b. 20 to 20000 Hz
c. 2 to 2000 Hz
d. 200 to 20000 Hz
ANSWER: 20 to 20000 Hz

Dept. of EEE

Electrical Machines I Syllabus

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Electrical Machines I Syllabus

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COURSE FILE CONTENTS

S.N. Topics Page No.

Prerequisite: Basic electrical & Electronics Engineering

 Study and understand different types of DC generators, motors and

CO1: Identify different parts of a DC machine & understand its operation

L1 Over view of course Outline the topics of electrical machines

L47 Regulation of single phase Check the Regulation of single phase

L55 Predetermination of efficiency and Predetermination of efficiency and regulation

L59 Tutorial Practice the learning with collaborative

5. CO’S, PO’S MAPPING

6. COURSE INFORMATION SHEET

PROGRAMME: B. Tech. (EEE.) DEGREE: BTECH

Unit Details Hours

Motors: Principle of operation – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation –

Methods of Testing – direct, indirect, and regenerative testing – Brake test –

Single phase transformers: Types - constructional details-minimization of

6.c). GAPS IN THE SYLLABUS - TO MEET INDUSTRY/PROFESSION REQUIREMENTS:

1 Energy conversion PPT 01

6. d). TOPICS BEYOND SYLLABUS / ADVANCED TOPICS:

S.NO. DESCRIPTION PROPOSED ACTIONS No. of Classes

1 Practical applications of Transformers NPTEL 01

6. e). WEB SOURCE REFERENCES:

6. f). DELIVERY / INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGIES:

 CHALK & TALK  STUD. ASSIGNMENT  WEB RESOURCES

 LCD/SMART BOARDS  STUD. SEMINARS ☐ ADD-ON COURSES

6.g). ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES - DIRECT

 ASSIGNMENTS  STUD.  TESTS/MODEL  UNIV.

 STUD. LAB  STUD. VIVA ☐ MINI/MAJOR ☐

 ASSESSMENT OF COURSE OUTCOMES  STUDENT FEEDBACK ON

6.i). TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS:

T/R BOOK TITLE/AUTHORS/PUBLICATION

Reference 2.E. Clayton & N. M. Hancock “The Performance and

Reference “Abhijith Chakrabarthi & SubithaDebnath”, “Electrical

1 Over view of course

9 Methods of improving commutation

11 Critical resistance and critical speed

12 Characteristics of shunt generators

13 Characteristics of series generators

14 Characteristics of compound generators

15 Unit-II: Principle of operation of DC Motors

19 Armature reaction and Commutation

20 Speed control of DC motors

22 3 and 4 point starters

25 Constant and variable losses

27 Condition for maximum efficiency

28 Unit-III: Methods of testing

34 Seperation of stray loss

35 Unit-IV: Constructional Details of a transformer

36 Hysterisis and eddy current loss

37 EMF Equation of transformer

38 Operation on no load and on load

39 Equivalent Circuit of 1-Ph transformer

40 Regulation of single phase transformer

41 All day efficiency

42 Effect of variations of frequency and supply voltage on

45 Operation on no load and on load

47 Equivalent circuit of 1-ph transformer

48 Regulation of single phase transformer

49 All day efficiency

50 Effect of variations of frequency and supply voltage on

52 Unit-V: Testing of 1-ph transformers

55 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation