CS8591 – COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIT II

UNIT II
DATA – LINK LAYER & MEDIA ACCESS
Introduction – Link-Layer Addressing – DLC Services – Data-Link Layer Protocols – HDLC – PPP -
Media Access Control - Wired LANs: Ethernet - Wireless LANs – Introduction – IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth
– Connecting Devices.

INTRODUCTION TO DATA – LINK LAYER:

 Internet is a combination of networks glued together by connecting devices like routers and
switches.
 The data-link layer at the sender’s computer communicates with the data-link layer at router
which in turn communicates with the data-link layer at another router and so on.
 Finally, the data-link layer at last router communicates with the data-link layer at the receiver’s
computer.
 Communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node.
 Nodes refer to the end hosts and the routers.

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SERVICES:
 Data-link layer of a node is responsible for delivering a datagram to the next node in the path.
 So, the sending node encapsulates the datagram and the receiving node decapsulates the
datagram. The intermediate nodes need to perform both encapsulation and decapsulation.

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 The services provided by the data – link layer can be listed below:
1. Framing:
 The process of encapsulating the datagram and decapsulating the datagram before sending to
another node is called Framing.
 A packet at the data – link layer is called a FRAME.
 A Frame will have both header and trailer.
 Different data-link layers have different formats for framing.
2. Flow Control:
 Flow control is a technique that allows two stations working at different speeds to
communicate with each other.
 If the rate of produced frames is higher than the rate of consumed frames, frames at the
receiving end need to be buffered.
 The size of the buffer is limited. So, the receiver side data link layer either drops the frames
when the buffer is full or sends a request to the sender to slow down or stop.
 Different data-link-layer protocols use different strategies for flow control.
3. Error Control:
 The sender changes the frame to bits that are transformed to electromagnetic signals, and
transmitted through the transmission media.
 Similarly, the receiver receives the electromagnetic signals, transform them to bits and create
a frame.
 When transmitted as electromagnetic signals, they are susceptible to error that causes errors in
frame.

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 Error control in data link layer is the process of detecting and correcting data frames that have
been corrupted or lost during transmission.
4. Congestion Control:
 When there are too much of frames sent in a link, it may lead to congestion.
 Congestion may result in frame loss, and congestion control techniques are to be used to
alleviate congestion.
 In general, congestion control is considered an issue in the network layer or the transport layer
because of its end-to-end nature.

TWO CATEGORIES OF LINKS:

 Data-link layer controls how the transmission medium is used.
 Data – Link layer can have a point-to-point link or a broadcast link.
 In a point-to-point link, the link is dedicated to two devices only while in a broadcast link, the
link is shared between several pairs of devices.

TWO SUBLAYERS:
 Data-link layer is divided into two sublayers: Data Link Control (DLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC).
 DLC sublayer deals with all issues common to both point-to-point and broadcast links while
MAC sublayer deals only with issues specific to broadcast links.

LINK LAYER ADDRESSING:

 The frames need addresses in order to traverse between nodes.
 This address is referred as link-layer address or link address or physical address or MAC address.
 When a datagram passes from the network layer to the data-link layer, the datagram will be
encapsulated in a frame and two data-link addresses are added to the frame header.
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 These two addresses are changed every time the frame moves from one link to another.

 In this each host handles two addresses, the IP addresses (N) and the link-layer addresses (L).
 Each frame carries the same datagram with the same source and destination addresses (N1 and
N8), but the link-layer addresses varies from one link to another.

TYPES OF ADDRESSES:
 Data-link layer defines three types of addresses as follows:
1. Unicast Address:
 Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address.
 Unicasting means one-to-one communication.
 A frame with a unicast address destination is destined only for one entity.
2. Multicast Address:
 Multicasting refers to one – to – many communication.
 A frame with a multicast address is delivered to a group of entities.

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3. Broadcast Address:
 Broadcasting refers to one-to-all communication.
 A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in the link.

ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL:

 The source node sends a datagram to the router with the destination IP address.
 However, for forwarding the frame in the link, IP address is not enough and Link – layer address
is needed.
 ARP protocol is a network layer protocol that maps an IP address to a logical Link address.

 Whenever a host or a router needs a link layer address, it broadcasts an ARP request packet.
 This packet includes the
 Link-layer and IP addresses of the sender
 IP address of the receiver.
 Every host on the network receives and processes the ARP request packet, but only the intended
recipient recognizes its IP address and sends back an ARP response packet.
 The response packet contains the recipient’s IP and link-layer addresses. The packet is unicast
directly to the node that sent the request packet.
Packet Format:
 Hardware type – type of the link-layer protocol. Eg: For Ethernet, the hardware type = 1.
 Protocol type - defines the network-layer protocol. Eg: For IPv4, the Protocol type = (0800)16
 Hardware length and Protocol length – specifies the length of the link layer address and
network layer address.
 Operation – ARP Request is set to 1 and ARP Reply is set to 2.

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 Source hardware address – defines the link layer address of the sender.
 Source protocol address – defines the network-layer address of the sender.
 Destination hardware address – defines the link layer address of the receiver.
 Destination protocol address - defines the network-layer address of the receiver.

DLC SERVICES:
 Data Link Control (DLC) deals with procedures for Node – to – Node communication.
 DLC functions include framing, flow control and error control.

FRAMING:
 Data-link layer groups the bits Frames.
 Framing in the data-link layer separates a message from one source to a destination by adding a
sender address and a destination address.
 Entire message is not usually packed into a frame, as it may lead to a larger frame size, making
flow and error control very inefficient.
 Hence the message is divided into smaller frames.
 The size of the frames can be of fixed or variable size.
 In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries for the frames as the size itself
can be used as a delimiter. Eg: ATM WAN uses frames of fixed size called cells.
 In variable-size framing, there is a need to define the end of one frame and the beginning of the
next. Two approaches are used for fixing the boundaries:

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 Character-oriented approach
 Bit-oriented approach
Character (or Byte) Oriented Approach:
 Data is represented as 8-bit characters that follow the ASCII coding system.
 Header, which carries the source and destination addresses and other control information, and
the trailer, which carries error detection bits, are also multiples of 8 bits.
 To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte) flag is added at the beginning and the
end of a frame.
 The flag is composed of special characters that signal the start and end of the frame.

 When the bit sequence used in the Flag are used in the data also, then the receiver may think it
as the end of the frame.
 To fix this problem, a byte-stuffing strategy was added to character-oriented framing.
 Byte stuffing (or character stuffing), is the process of adding a special byte called the escape
character (ESC), that is added to the data section of the frame whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.
 Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes it from the data section and
treats the next character as data and not as a delimiter.

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Bit Oriented Approach:

 In bit-oriented framing, the data section of a frame is represented as sequence of bits.
 A special 8-bit pattern flag, 01111110, is used as the delimiter to define the beginning and the
end of the frame.

 If the flag pattern appears in the data, the receiver may consider it as the end of the frame.
 To overcome this problem, Bit Stuffing is used.
 Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 if 1 bits are encountered in the data, then an
extra 0 is added.

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FLOW CONTROL:
 Whenever an entity produces items and another entity consumes them, there should be a balance
between production and consumption rates.
 Flow Control controls the way in which the senders and receivers communicate between them. It
is a technique that allows two stations working at different speeds to communicate with each
other.

 Flow Control can be implemented using Buffering concept.

 A buffer is a set of memory locations that can hold packets at both the sender and receiver end.
 When the buffer at the receiving data-link layer is full, it informs the sending data-link layer to
stop pushing frames.

ERROR CONTROL:

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 When data is transmitted over physical links, there is a close proximity of data to get lost /
corrupted. Physical layer is not fully reliable, and so some error control techniques have to be
implemented at the data – link layer to control errors.
 Error control at the data-link layer is implemented using one of the following two methods:
 Method 1 – If the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; if it is not corrupted, the
packet is delivered to the network layer. This method is used mostly in wired LANs such
as Ethernet.
 Method 2 - if the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; if it is not corrupted, an
acknowledgment is sent to the sender.
 Both methods use CRC that is added to the frame header by the sender and checked by the
receiver.
 Flow control and Error control can be combined by sending Acknowledgements (ACKs).
 ACK ensures that the frame has been received at the receiver’s end (flow control) and has been
received error – free (error control).

CONNECTION-LESS AND CONNECTION-ORIENTED:

 DLC protocol may be Connection-less or Connection-Oriented.
 Connection-less Protocol:
 Each frame is sent from one node to another in an independent fashion.
 The frames have no connection between each other.
 The frames are not numbered and there is no ordering followed. There is no guarantee of
message delivery also.
 Most of the data-link protocols for LANs are connectionless protocols.
 Connection-oriented Protocol:
 A logical connection is established between the nodes (setup phase). After that all frames
are transmitted (transfer phase). Once the frames are sent, the logical connection is
terminated (teardown phase).
 The frames are numbered and are sent in order.
 These protocols guarantee message delivery.

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DATA – LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS:

 There are four protocols defined for the data-link layer to deal with flow and error control. They
are
o Simple
o Stop-and-Wait
o Go-Back-N
o Selective-Repeat
 The behavior of a data-link-layer protocol can be shown as a finite state machine (FSM).
 FSM is thought of as a machine with a finite number of states.
 The machine is always in one of the states until an event occurs.
 Each event is associated with two reactions: defining the list of actions to be performed and
determining the next state.
 One of the states is defined as the initial state, the state in which the machine starts when it turns
on.
 From the figure, it can be seen that there are three possible events and three possible actions.
 The machine starts in State I. If event 1 occurs, the machine performs actions 1 and 2 and moves
to State II.
 When the machine is in State II, two events may occur.
 If State 2 performs event 2, then the machine performs action 3 and remains in the same state.
 If State 2 performs event 3, the machine performs no action, but move to State I.

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1. SIMPLE PROTOCOL:
 Simple protocol that neither supports flow nor error control.
 The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives.
 The data-link layer at the sender gets a packet from its network layer, makes a frame out of it, and
sends the frame.
 The data-link layer at the receiver receives a frame from the link, extracts the packet from the
frame, and delivers the packet to its network layer.

FSMs:
 Each FSM has only one state, the ready state.
 The sending machine remains in the ready state until a request comes from the process in the
network layer.
 When this event occurs, the sending machine encapsulates the message in a frame and sends it
to the receiving machine.
 The receiving machine remains in the ready state until a frame arrives from the sending
machine.
 When this event occurs, the receiving machine decapsulates the message out of the frame and
delivers it to the process at the network layer.

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2. STOP – AND – WAIT PROTOCOL:

 It implements both flow and error control.
 Here, the sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the
next one.
 CRC is used to detect corrupted frames.
 When a frame arrives at the receiver site, it checks the CRC. If CRC is incorrect, the frame is
corrupted and silently discarded. The receiver do not send acknowledgement for corrupted
frames.
 Every time the sender sends a frame, it starts a timer. If it receives an ACK before the timer
expires, the timer is stopped and the sender sends the next frame.
 If ACK is not received within the timer expiry, the sender resends the frame.
 The sender needs to keep a copy of the frame until the acknowledgment arrives.

FSMs:
 FSM for Stop – and – wait protocol is as follows:
1. Sender
 The sender is initially in the ready state, but it can move between the ready and blocking state.
 Ready State – In this state, the sender is waiting for a packet from the network layer and if it
arrives, the sender creates a frame, saves a copy of the frame, starts the timer and sends the
frame. The sender then moves to the blocking state.
 Blocking State - In this state, three events can occur:
a. If a time-out occurs, the sender resends the saved copy of the frame and restarts the timer.
b. If a corrupted ACK arrives, it is discarded.

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c. If an error-free ACK arrives, the sender stops the timer and discards the saved copy of the
frame. It then moves to the ready state.
2. Receiver
 The receiver is always in the ready state. Two events may occur:
a. If an error-free frame arrives, the message in the frame is delivered to the network layer and
an ACK is sent.
b. If a corrupted frame arrives, the frame is discarded.

PIGGYBACKING:
 To make the communication more efficient, the data in one direction is piggybacked with the
acknowledgment in the other direction.
 Eg: When node A is sending data to node B, node A also acknowledges the data received from
node B.
 Since piggybacking makes communication at the data link layer more complicated, it is not a
common practice.

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 It implements both flow and error control.

HDLC:
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol
 It supports communication over point-to-point and multipoint links.
 It implements the Stop-and-Wait protocol.

CONFIGURATION AND TRANFER MODES:

 HDLC provides two common transfer modes bases on the configuration as follows:
 Normal Response Mode (NRM) – Station configuration is unbalanced. Here, one Primary
station sends commands and multiple secondary stations respond. NRM is used for both
point-to-point and multipoint links.

 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) – Station configuration is balanced. Each station

can act as both Primary and Secondary station. ABM is used for point-to-point links. Most
widely used transfer mode.

FRAMING:

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 HDLC defines three types of frames: information frames (I-frames), supervisory frames (S-
frames), and unnumbered frames (U-frames).
 Each type of frame is used for the transmission of a different type of message.
 Iframes are used to transmit user data and control information. S-frames are used only to transport
control information. U-frames are reserved for system and link management. Unnumbered frames
are used to exchange session management and control information between connected devices.
 Each frame in HDLC may contain up to six fields as follows:
 Flag field – This field marks the beginning and ending of Frame. It contains the
synchronization pattern 01111110.
 Address field - This field contains the address of the secondary station. If a primary
station created the frame, it contains a ‘to’ address. If a secondary station creates the
frame, it contains a ‘from’ address.
 Control field – This field occupies one or two bytes. It is used for flow and error control.
This field also determines the type of frame.
 Information field - This field contains the user’s data from the network layer or
management information. Its length can vary depending on the network.
 FCS field - Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection field. It can
contain either a 2- or 4-byte CRC.

 The control field of different frames are as follows:

i) Control Field for I-Frames
 First bit defines the Type (0 means it is an I-Frame).
 Next 3 bits, called N(S) gives the sequence number (000 to 111) of the frame.

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 P/F corresponds to Poll / Final bit. Poll is set when the frame is sent from the primary station to
secondary station. Final is set when the frame is sent from the secondary station to primary
station.
 Last 3 bits, called N(R) gives the acknowledgement number.

ii) Control Field for S-Frames

 First two bits define the Frame type (10 means S-Frame).
 Last 3 bits, called N(R), gives ACK or NACK.
 The two bits in the middle, called code field, define the type of S-Frame.
00 – Receive Ready (RR) – indicates that the frame will give acknowledgement. N(R) gives the
acknowledgement number.
10 – Receive not Ready (RNR) - it gives ACK and also announces if the receiver is busy and
cannot receive more frames. N(R) gives the acknowledgement number.
01 – Reject (REJ) – it gives NAK. N(R) gives the negative acknowledgement number.
 11 – Selective Reject (SREJ) - N(R) is the negative acknowledgment number.

iii) Control Field for U-Frames

 U-frame codes are divided into two sections: a 2-bit prefix before the P/F bit and a 3-bit suffix
after the P/F bit. Control bits occupy two segments (5 bits) that are used to create up to 32
different types of U-frames.

PPP:

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 Point to Point Protocol (PPP) is the most commonly used protocol for point to point access.
 PPP is used to connect a home computer to an ISP.

SERVICES:
 These are the services provided by PPP:
 It defines the format of the frame to be exchanged between devices.
 It also defines how two devices can negotiate the establishment of the link and the
exchange of data.
 It accepts payloads from several network layers.
 It provides Authentication (optional) and network address configuration.
 Multilink PPP provides connections over multiple links.
 These are the services not provided by PPP:
 PPP does not provide flow control.
 It lacks error control and sequence numbering that may cause a packet to be received out
of order.
 It does not provide a sophisticated addressing mechanism to handle frames in a multipoint
configuration.
FRAMING:
 PPP uses a character-oriented (or byte-oriented) framing. The format of a PPP frame is as follows:

 Flag - 1-byte length - Bit pattern is 01111110

 Address – 1 byte length – It has a constant value 11111111 (broadcast address).
 Control – 1 byte length – It is set to constant value 00000011
 Protocol – 1-2 bytes length - It defines what is being carried in the data field: either user data or
other information.
 Payload field – Variable length - This field carries either the user data or other information with a
maximum of 1500 bytes.
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 FCS – 2-4 bytes – Frame Check Sequence

Byte Stuffing – when the Flag value appears in the data section, it has to be escaped by performing
Byte Stuffing. The escape byte is 01111101, which means that every time the flag like pattern appears
in the data, this extra byte is stuffed to tell the receiver that the next byte is not a flag.

TRANSITION PHASES:
 FSM of PPP starts with the dead state. In this state, there is no active carrier and the line is quiet.
 When one of the two nodes starts the communication, the connection goes into the establish
state. In this state, options are negotiated between the two parties.
 If the two parties need authentication, then the system needs to do authentication else, the parties
simply start communication.
 Data transfer takes place in the open state, where data packets are exchanged.
 The system goes to terminate state when one of the endpoints wants to terminate the connection.
 The system remains in this state until the carrier is dropped, which moves the system to the dead
state again.

MULTIPLEXING:
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 Although PPP is a link-layer protocol, it uses another set of protocols to establish the link,
authenticate the parties involved, and carry the network-layer data.
 Three sets of protocols used by PPP are:
o Link Control Protocol (LCP)
o Two Authentication Protocols (APs),
o Several Network Control Protocols (NCPs).
 PPP packet can carry data from one of these protocols in its data field.

1. LINK CONTROL PROTOCOL:

 It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, configuring and terminating links.
 It also provides negotiation mechanisms to set options between the two endpoints.
 All LCP packets are carried in the payload field of the PPP frame with the protocol field value set
to C021 (hexadecimal).

 Code field defines the type of the LCP packet.

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 There are three categories of packets.

o Category I comprises the first four packet types. It is used for link configuration during the
establish phase.
o Category II comprises packet types 5 and 6. It is used for link termination during the
termination phase.
o Category III comprises the last five packets. They are used for link monitoring and
debugging.

 ID field holds a value that matches a request with a reply. ID given in the Request packet is
copied into the reply packet.
 Length defines the length of the entire LCP packet.
 Information field contains information, such as options, needed for some LCP packets.
 Many options can be negotiated between the two endpoints. For this purpose, information field is
divided into three fields: option type, option length, and option data. The most common options
are:

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2. AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOLS:
 Authentication plays a very important role in PPP because PPP is designed for use over dial-up
links where verification of user identity is necessary.
 PPP has created two protocols for authentication:
o Password Authentication Protocol
o Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol.
i) PAP - Password Authentication Protocol:
 It is a simple authentication procedure with a two-step process:
a. The user who wants to access a system sends authentication identification (user name) and a
password.
b. The system checks the validity of the identification and password and either accepts or denies
connection.

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 When a PPP frame is carrying any PAP packets, the value of the protocol field is 0xC023.
 The three PAP packets are
o Authenticate-request – used by the user to send user name and password
o Authenticate-ack – used by the system to allow acces
o Authenticate-nak – used by the system to deny access
ii) CHAP – Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol:
 It is a three-way handshaking authentication protocol that provides greater security than PAP.
 In this method, the password is kept secret; it is never sent online.
a. The system sends the user a challenge packet containing a challenge value, usually a few bytes.
b. The user applies a predefined function that takes the challenge value and the user’s own
password and creates a result. The user sends the result in the response packet to the system.

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c. The system does the same. It applies the same function to the password of the user and the
challenge value to create a result. If the result created is the same as the result sent in the response
packet, access is granted; otherwise, it is denied.

 CHAP packets are encapsulated in the PPP frame with the protocol value C223 in hexadecimal.
 Four CHAP packets are:
o Challenge – used by the system to send challenge value
o Response – used by the user to return the calculated result
o Success – used by the system to allow access to the system
o Failure – used by the system to deny access to the system

3. NETWORK CONTROL PROTOCOLS:

 PPP is a multiple-network-layer protocol. It can carry a network-layer data packet from protocols
defined by the Internet, OSI, Xerox, DECnet, AppleTalk, Novel, and so on.

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 To do this, PPP has defined a specific Network Control Protocol for each network protocol.
 IPCP configures the link for carrying IP data packets.
 Xerox CP does the same for the Xerox protocol data packets, and so on.
 NCP packets do not carry network-layer data; they just configure the link at the network layer for
the incoming data.
i) IPCP – Internet Protocol Control Protocol
 It configures the link used to carry IP packets in the Internet. The format of an IPCP packet is as
follows:

 The value of the protocol field is 8021 (hexadecimal).

 IPCP defines seven packets, distinguished by their code values.

ii) Other Protocols:

 There are other NCP protocols for other network-layer protocols.
 OSI Network Layer Control Protocol has a protocol field value of 8023.
 Xerox NS IDP Control Protocol has a protocol field value of 8025; and so on.

MULTILINK PPP:

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 PPP was originally designed for a single-channel point-to-point physical link.

 In Multilink PPP, a logical PPP frame is divided into several actual PPP frames.
 A segment of the logical frame is carried in the payload of an actual PPP frame.
 When actual PPP frame is carrying a fragment of a logical PPP frame, the protocol field is set to
(003d)16.

M.Kiruthika, N.Savitha [AP/CSE]

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M.Kiruthika, N.Savitha [AP/CSE]

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