ABSTRACT

Ceramics and composites are materials that cannot be tested by the tensile test used in
metals. Therefore, the bend test was used. Two bend tests were conducted; one for
ceramics, and one for composites. It was found out that there is linear relationship
between the stress and strain for ceramics, implying that only elastic deformation
happens before fractures and that the maximum stress is reached at this instant.
Moreover, the values of flexural strength were influenced by the specimen sizes,
environment and procedures. In composites, the bend test showed that there is also a
linear relationship between stress and strain, implying that, same as ceramics, only
elastic deformation happens in composites and that the maximum stress happens at
this instant. Moreover, it was found out that the marine plywood is stronger than
ordinary plywood.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In building structures such as houses and buildings, ceramics and composites are commonly
used. Examples of these materials include cement and wood. In material science and
engineering, ceramics are non-metallic materials that can be oxides, nitrides, carbides, silicides,
and borides (Ceramics, 2013). On the other hand, composites are materials that have two or
more materials that are joined together in the macroscopic scale (Composites, 2013).

It is of importance that engineers take consideration of the materials’ strength and resilience as
these are commonly used as foundations in structures. Since ceramics and composites cannot
be tested in the same way as metals, one of the tests that are used to determine their strength
is the bend test. Bend testing is defined as the test used to evaluate the material’s strength or
ductility via bending it over a given radius (Metallurgical Engineering Services, 2006).

Bend testing provides a graph which is used to determine the internal stresses that both
composites and ceramics experience, and their deformations. This graph is called the
stress-strain diagram, which is the curve that shows a material’s behavior as load is applied;
strain is plotted in the x-axis whereas the stress is plotted in y-axis (Afsar, 2014). The fracture
stress is obtained from this curve to calculate the flexural stress, also called as modulus of
rapture, bend strength, or fracture strength. The flexural stress can be expressed as:

σ = 3PL/(2wt^2)

Where: P = fracture load, L = span (distance between supports), w = width, and t = thickness

2.0 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

2.1 Bend test of ceramics
The square ceramic tiles’ dimensions were first measured as it will be used in the flexural
strength calculation. After which, the distance between the UTM’s supports were also
measured. The tiles were then subjected to load exerted by the universal testing machine
(UTM) which caused flexure to the material until it fractures. Several trials were performed to
achieve data uniformity. After each trial, the ultimate loads were obtained in computing the
flexural stress of each tile.

2.2 Bend test of composites

In this experiment, ordinary plywood and marine plywood were subjected to Universal Testing
Machine (UTM). The dimensions of each specimens were first measured and recorded before
testing. The distance between supports of the UTM was also measured. The woods were
aligned such that some were loaded parallel to their grains and some were loaded
perpendicular to grains. Several trials were performed. The maximum loads applied before
fracture were recorded and used to calculate the flexural strength of each specimen.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ceramic materials that respond to applied load will exhibit fracture and any plastic deformations. To
properly know and observe the effect of increasing load applied, the brittle ceramic material undergoes
some tests. Since ceramic materials are brittle and have low ductility they are subjected to tests such as
the flexural test and bend test.
Considering a rectangular cross-sectional area is given, the flexural strength of a material can be
computed using the formula, :

where,
P = load at fracture [N]
L = span [mm]
b = width [mm]
h = thickness [mm]
= flexural stress [MPa]

3.1 Bend Test of Ceramics

The Strength of ceramic materials are characterized by its resistance to tensile stress. In the bend test
having a ceramic tile specimen, the material is bent until fracture is observed.

Table 1 shows the characteristics of the ceramic specimens. It is observed that the dimensions of the tiles
were held constant.
TILE DIMENSION
NUMBER LOWER
THICKNE WIDTH
/ TRIAL SUPPOR
SS (mm) (mm)
T (mm)

1 8.41 199.58 160

2 8.41 199.58 160
 3 8.41 199.58 160
4 8.41 199.58 160
5 8.41 199.58 160
Table 1​.​ Dimensions of the ceramic tiles

Table 2 shows the force variations applied on each ceramic tiles and their corresponding resultant
stresses.
Max_Forc Max_Stres Break Break
Paramete e s Force Stress
r Calc. at Calc. at Sensitivity: Sensitivity:
Entire Entire 10 10
Areas Areas
Unit kN N/mm2 kN N/mm2

1 0.66551 11.315 -.- -.-

2 0.51641 8.78013 -.- -.-

3 0.39371 6.69387 -.- -.-

4 0.63531 10.8015 -.- -.-

5 0.32902 5.59399 -.- -.-

Table2​.​ Flexural Strength of ceramic tiles

Effect of ceramic material’s dimension to its flexural strength.

Flexural strength of materials are influenced by several parameters such as the environment, specimen
size and procedures. The flexural strength of ceramic material is dependent on the size of the specimen.
In most cases as the dimensions increases, the corresponding flexural strength decreases. Since in the
given flexural strength equation the flexural strength is inversely proportional to the width and thickness.
Though this will not always be the case due to some experimental errors.

Sources of Error in Bend test of Ceramic Materials

Since the flexural strength of ceramic materials are not a deterministic quantity, but will vary from one to
another, there will be possible biases and scatter of results. Also, values obtained will be subjected to
some errors due to some identified causes such as the material composition, cross sections and machine
operation.
Table 3 shows the data gathered for the loaded tile with their corresponding stroke or displacement during
the 0.5 seconds interval.
Table 3​.​ Force applied on each tile and their corresponding stroke displacement during 0.5 seconds
interval
Figure 1​. ​Force vs Stroke (displacement) of the Ceramic Tiles.

3
​ .2 BEND TEST OF COMPOSITES

• Effect of dimensions in flexural strength

There are certain parameters included in determining the flexural strength of a material.
Theoretically, the modulus of rupture is affected by the dimensions of the specimen since its
formula suggests that an increase in thickness and/or in width will cause a decrease in flexural
strength. The results of the experiment showed that indeed the relationship between the
thickness and width to flexural strength is inversely proportional. However, the length of the
material does not affect the modulus of rupture since the parameter L required in calculation is
the distance between supports.

• Precision of values
P APPLIED MAX P MAX P APPLIED MAX P MAX
PARALLEL (kN) STRESS PERPENDICULAR (kN) STRESS
TO GRAIN (N/mm2) TO GRAIN (N/mm2)

1 0.6458 68.7033 1 0.64484 57.3013

2 0.60431 39.9761 2 0.62195 55.0496

3 0.69507 48.2927 3 0.77947 53.2825

4 0.60924 44.8335

5 0.67854 54.5612
​ ata on maximum force and stress of woods where loads are applied parallel and
Table 4. D
perpendicular to grain
As seen in Table 4, the values calculated were relatively close. This implies that the Universal
Testing Machine (UTM) gives precise data, hence, is reliable in calculation for bending strength
of specimens. However, the value yielded by the first trial of applying load parallel to grain is an
outlier having a maximum stress of 68.7033 N/mm2. This may be caused by errors in the
experiment. According to Gedney (2012), one of the most common sources of error is the
displacement error. The displacement error is an error that occurs in measuring the deflection at
the center point, where the load is applied. This error can lead to fluctuation of values generated
from UTM.

• Comparison between the flexural strength of the ordinary and marine plywood
The main differences between the ordinary and marine plywood is that marine plywood is
usually thicker and is glued with waterproof glue unlike the ordinary plywood. According to
Wisconsin (1952), the factors affecting bending strength of the wood are properties of wood,
grain direction and adhesives used. In marine plywood, the phenol formaldehyde resin creates
glue that does not weaken from humidity and is stronger than regular plywood (Jones, 2016).
This implies that the flexural strength of marine plywood is greater than that of regular ones
since marine plywood is better at resisting bending failures.

• Flexural strength between plywood loaded parallel and perpendicular to the grain
Based on Table 4, the maximum loads applied perpendicular to grain were greater than that of
parallel grain. This is due to the fact that fracturing wood perpendicular to grain means
destroying the cellulose microfibrils embedded in the wood (Conrad, M.P.C. et al, 2002). On the
other hand, applying load parallel to grain only leads to destruction of simple cleavage which are
due to weaker bonds, making its flexural strength lesser than that of loads applied perpendicular
to wood grain.

Relationship between force and deflection

Figure 2.​ ​Graph of Force vs Displacement on load applied parallel to grain

Figure 3.​ Graph of Force vs. Displacement on load applied perpendicular to grain

The figures above showed that the relationship between force and deflection is directly
proportional. It can be observed that an increase of force results in an increase in deflection.
This relationship holds true to both cases where loads are applied perpendicular and parallel to
wood grains.

4.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

To know the maximum limit of stress that ceramics and composites can bear to withstand, the
said materials were subjected to bend tests. Tiles were used to represent ceramics. There were
five trials and the maximum flexural stress for each trial was determined. In Figure 1, it shows
that there is an increasing linear relationship between the force applied and displacement of
ceramic tiles. Since the graph is only linear, there is only elastic deformation. Hence, no plastic
deformation occurred; and it can be concluded that maximum flexural stress is reached at
fracture.

Plywood was used for the bend test of composites. The load were applied on the plywood in two
ways: parallel; and perpendicular to the wood grains. In Figures 2 and 3, it is seen that parallel
and perpendicular applications of forces both gave a linear relationship between force and
displacement. Same with ceramics, composites did not have plastic deformation. With that, it
can also be said that maximum flexural stress happens at fracture for composites.

5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The precision of values can be affected by some errors committed while doing the experiment.
A common error is misalignment of specimen and displacement errors, wherein an error in the
measurement of deflection at center point is done (Gedney, 2012). To avoid such, it is
recommended to practice careful execution and observe proper machine operation.

6.0 REFERENCES
 Afsar, J. (2014, September 14). ​Stress Strain Curve Explanation.​ Retrieved April 4,
2019, from Engineering Intro:
http://www.engineeringintro.com/mechanics-of-structures/stress-strain-curve-expl
anation/

Ceramics​. (2013, December 12). Retrieved from University of New South Wales School
of Materials Science and Engineering:
http://www.materials.unsw.edu.au/tutorials/online-tutorials/2-ceramics

Composites​. (2013, 16 December). Retrieved April 4, 2019, from University of New

South Wales School of Materials Science and Engineering:
http://www.materials.unsw.edu.au/tutorials/online-tutorials/1-introduction-1

Conrad, M.P.C. and et al. (2002). FRACTURE OF SOLID WOOD: A REVIEW OF STRUCTURE
AND PROPERTIES AT DIFFERENT LENGTH SCALES. Retrieved from
https://wfs.swst.org/index.php/wfs/article/viewFile/310/310

Gedney, R. (2012). Displacement Errors in Materials Testing. Retrieved from

https://www.admet.com/displacement-errors-in-materials-testing/

Jones, P. (2016). The Difference Between Structural And Non-Structural Plywood. Retrieved
from https://www.famitchell.com.au/difference-between-structural-non-structural-plywood/

Metallurgical Engineering Services. (2006). ​Bend Testing.​ Retrieved April 9, 2019, from
Metallurgical Engineering Services: http://metengr.com/Bend.htm