DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.

AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

1. COMPANY PROFILE

Fig 1.1: Bosch logo

1.1 BOSCH:

Bosch is a German multinational engineering and electronics company headquartered in Gerlingen, near
Stuttgart, Germany. It is the world's largest supplier of automotive components measured by 2011
revenues. The Company was founded by Robert Bosch in Stuttgart in 1886.

Fig 1.2: Robert Bosch

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Bosch's core products are automotive components (including brakes, controls, electrical drives,
electronics, fuel systems, generators, starter motors and steering systems), industrial products (including
drives and controls, packaging technology and consumer goods) and building products (including
household appliances, power tools, security systems and thermo technology).Bosch has more than 350
subsidiaries across over 60 countries and its products are sold in around 150 countries. Bosch employs
around 306,000 people and had revenues of approximately €52.5 billion in 2012.

In 2012 it invested around €4.8 billion in research and development and applied for around 4,800 patents
worldwide. In 2009 Bosch was the leader in terms of numbers of patents at the German Patent and Trade
Mark Office (GPTO) with 3,213 patents.

1.2 BOSCH INDIA LIMITED

Founded in 1951, Bosch Limited is India’s largest automotive component manufacturer and also one of
the largest Indo – German companies in India. The company generated net Sales and income from
operations of Rs. 8017.9 crores in 2011, a growth of 19.7% over 2010. Bosch Limited is also the flagship
of the Bosch Group companies in India. The Bosch Group holds 71.18% stake in Bosch Limited and has
planned a sizeable investment to introduce and manufacture world-class technology for the Indian market.

With a network spanning across 1,000 towns and with over 5,000 authorized representatives, Bosch
Limited facilitates superior product availability and after-sales services countrywide, in alignment with
the global Bosch structure. The company is headquartered in Bangalore with manufacturing facilities at
Bangalore, Naganathapura (near Bangalore), Nashik, Jaipur and Goa. These plants are TS 16949 and ISO
14004 certified.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Bosch Limited manufactures and trades in all the three major business sectors of
Bosch:

Automotive Technology:

Business divisions: Diesel and Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems, Car Multimedia Systems, Auto
Electricals and Accessories, Starters and Generators, Energy and Body Systems.

Industrial Technology:

Business divisions: Packaging Machines, Special Purpose Machines, Solar Energy

Consumer Goods and Building Technology:

Business divisions: Power Tools, Security Systems

1.2.1 MILESTONES

 1951-Establishment of the company.

 1953-Construction of the first factory at Bengaluru.
 1954-Manufacture of sparkplugs, single-cylinder fuel injection pumps and nozzle holders.
 1955-Manufacture of elements and delivery valves.
 1956-Manufacture of multi-cylinder diesel fuel injection pumps.
 1974-Production begins at nasik plant.
 1981-Manufacture of special purpose machines and tools.
 1986-Manufacture of VE distributor pump.
 1989-Manufacture of hydraulic products and auto electrical.
 1990-Naganathapura plant inaugurated.
 1991-MICO becomes the BOSCH global development centre for single-cylinder diesel fuel
injection pumps. MICO represents imported automotive aftermarket products, automotive
workshop test equipment and hydraulics and pneumatics.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

 1992-Marketing of automotive accessories. ISO-9001 certification for all the three plants.
 1993-Manufacture of BOSCH electric power tools.
 1994-Manufacture of packaging machines.
 1995-MICO becomes the BOSCH global development centre for a range of multi-cylinder diesel
fuel injection pumps.
 1996-Blaupunkt car audio systems launched.
 1997-QS 9000 certification for Bengaluru, Nasilk and Naganathapura plants.
 1998- 20 Millionth single-cylinder pump produced.
 1999-Jaipur plant inaugurated. Manufacture of Blaupunkt car audio systems in India.
 2000-MICO application centre(MAC) inaugurated. MICO Bengaluru has been judged as all India
best establishments for 25th time. Naganathapura plant manufactured one electrical unit. 50,000
VE pumps produced at Jaipur plant.
 2001-Launch of Terra-25 packaging machine.
 2002-Production of 25-millionthsingle-cylinder pump. Launch of first Bosch Car Service outlet.
Bosch enters into Communication, Security and imaging business. Launch of indigenously
developed marble and granite cutter.
 2003-Production OF 10-MILLIONTH Inline-Apump.Launch of Bosch Security Systems. ISO
9001:2000 certification for car multimedia division. Blaupunkt crosses the 100,000 mark of car
radios that have been sold since its inception.
 2004-Bosch announces an investment of Rs. 1,000 Crores in India over the next 4 years. Launch
of BVK200A – world’s fastest candy wrapping machine. Launch of Terra 40 packaging machine.
Introduction of capsule packaging as an anti-spurious measure for elements, nozzles and delivery
valves.
 2005-Start of Gasoline Systems business at Bosch Ltd. Production of 30 millionth single-cylinder
PF pump. First locally applied Common Rail fitted vehicle launched.
 2006-Lunch of Bosch brand at Auto expo 2006. Inauguration of Common Rail Pump
manufacturing facility at Bangalore.
 2007-Inaugration of Common Rail injector manufacturing facility at Nasik. Verna, Goa Plant
inaugurated for Bosch Packaging Technology.
 2008- Company name changed from Motor Industries Company Limited to Bosch Limited.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

 2010-Launch of A4000 Pump meeting BS3 norms of Commercial Vehicles in India.

 2011-Bosch celebrated its 125th anniversary.

Fig 1.3: Naganathapura plant Bengaluru

1.3 BOSCH QUALITY PRINCIPLES

1. Our goal is to fully satisfy our customers’ expectations through the quality of our products and
services.
2. Quality a quality improvement is every associate’s responsibility and ultimate goal from the
board of directors to apprentices.
3. Our directives, processes, systems and goals are based on requirements from international
standards, customer expectations, our knowledge and experience. Knowledge of compliance with
these directives and processes is the foundation of our quality.
4. Quality means doing things right in the beginning, thus preventing failures in the end. Continuous
improvement of the quality of processes lowers the cost and increases the productivity.
5. Avoiding failures is more important than eliminating defects. We systematically apply methods
and tools for preventive quality assurance learned from mistakes and eliminate their root causes
without delay.
6. Our suppliers contribute substantially to the quality of our products and services. Therefore our
suppliers must live up to the same high quality standards we have adopted

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

1.4 BOSCH VALUES

 Future and result focus: In order to ensure dynamic development of company and to guarantee
long term corporate success. Bosch participates in shaping the changes in markets and
technologies. By doing so, Bosch provide their customers with innovative solutions and our
associates with attractive jobs.
 Responsibility: Bosch accepts their actions must accord with the interests of society. Above all
else, Bosch place their products and services in the interests of the safety of people, the economic
use of resources, and environmental sustainability.
 Initiative and Determination: Bosch act on their own initiatives, with an entrepreneurial but
accountable spirit, and determination in pursuing their goals.
 Openness and Trust: Bosch informs their associates, business partners and investors in a timely
and open fashion of important developments within their company. This is the best basis for a
trustful relationship.
 Fairness: Bosch view mutual fairness as a condition of their corporate success when dealing with
each other and with their business partners.
 Reliability, Credibility and Legality: Bosch promises only what they can deliver, accept
agreements as binding and respect and observe the law in all their business transactions.
 Cultural Diversity: Bosch is aware of company’s and cultural origins and at the same time regard
diversity as an asset, as well as a precondition of their global success.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

2. INTRODUCTION

2.1 SPARK PLUG

Spark plug is the heart and cause of combustion process in petrol engines (also called as SI-Spark Ignition
engine). The huge amount of voltage is used to generate sparks which ignites the air-fuel mixture which
is followed by a combustion process.

In conjunction with the ignition and fuel management systems. The spark plug plays a decisive part in the
operation of spark-ignition engine. The requirements to which the spark plug is subjected are extreme
severe fluctuations in operating conditions ranging from stop and go city traffic to high-speed cruising on
the freeway. Both in the heat of summer and in cold of winter. As well as electric strength to above
30,000Volts and a variety of influences from the combustion chamber, such as pressure, temperature and
corrosion

Fig 2.1: Spark Plug

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

2.2 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

Statistical process control is a process used to control a manufacturing process on the basis of statistical
methods. On the basis of process sampling rules for the process in question. Samples of parts are taken at
definite interval of times and their characteristic values are measured and entered form the so called control
chart. Statistical qualities are calculated from the characteristic values for the evaluation of the current
state of process. If necessary the state of the process can be corrected by suitable method. Control chart
was developed by Walter Andrew Shewhart (1891-1967) in 1920. It covers all measures leading to
controllability and capability, maintaining them and future improving them.

2.3 ABOUT THE PROJECT

Construction of the spark plug consists of different components like metallic shell or housing, insulator
and electrodes. The insulator consists of special ceramic and its function is to insulate the center electrode
and the terminal stud from the shell. The insulator building takes place in a step by step manner undergoing
various processes. This project has been initiated to optimize the output of major process (spray drying)
carried out in the insulator production.

2.4 AIM OF THE PROJECT

 Study of the various processes involved in the manufacturing of spark plug insulator.

 Analyzing various parameters affecting the output of Spray Drier.

 Optimizing the blunging process by varying the blunging speed.

 Increasing the quantity of air entering the air heater.

 Reducing the temperature difference between the shell and hot air in air heater.

 Obtaining optimal and stable output from the spray drier.

 Maintaining consistency in the percentage of binder content in the binder solution.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

3. LITERATURE SURVEY

A method for manufacturing an insulator for a spark plug is provided. The method includes: a preparing
step; a press pin arranging step; a powder filling step after the press pin arranging step; a cavity blocking
step after the powder filling step; a compression moulding step after the cavity blocking step; a die
releasing step after the compression moulding step; and a press pin removing step after the die releasing
step.

It is hopped by defining the various types of failure to clarify the spark plug problem and to be of assistance
to the manufacturers in improving their designs. The characteristics of the ignition system used in aviation
gasoline engines are such that only a certain maximum voltage can be produced by the system even on an
open circuit, and if the insulation between the spark plug terminals is reduced the maximum voltage is
corresponding reduced and no spark will occur if the insulation is too low. The requirement which a spark
plug must meet is, therefore,

1. The maintenance of a gap having a breakdown voltage of about 6,000 volts

2. Maintenance of an insulation resistance of at least 1, 00,000 ohms.
3. Practically complete gas tightness.

A device for inspecting a spark plug insulator for bending, the spark plug insulator including a cylindrical
body having a radially enlarged flange at an axially intermediate portion thereof, and a through hole
formed in the body along an axial direction of the body. The inspection device includes an insulator
supporting means for supporting the spark plug insulator so as to be slidable in an axial direction of the
spark plug insulator, a linear inspection pin that is to be inserted into the through hole of the spark plug
insulator supported by the insulator supporting means, and a detecting means for detecting a sliding
movement of the spark plug insulator when the spark plug insulator is caused to slide in the axial direction
thereof by the inspection pin by the inspection pin prevented from completely penetrating the through hole
of the spark plug insulator owing to bending of the spark plug insulator which exceeds a predetermined
tolerance.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Although ceramic materials for technical application have been known for more than two hundred years,
especially-designed synthetic ceramics, unlike traditional materials in composition, microstructure, and
properties, have been developed since approximately 1970. Whereas silicate ceramics and refractory
materials are basically derived from natural minerals and manufactured by comparatively simple
processing steps, this new class of materials, the “advanced”, “high-tech,” or in Japanese terms “fine”
ceramics require an entirely different fabrication route starting from chemically well-defined, fine, highly-
purified, and artificial raw materials. These materials have been created for distinct applications in which
other conventional materials like metals or polymers have failed. Due to the large variety of chemical,
electrical, biological, and mechanical properties that ceramics presently exhibit, there is almost no social
and industrial application without ceramics. In the electronic and manufacturing industries, as well as in
technologies that require materials sustaining extremely high temperatures and corrosive environments,
high-tech ceramics play the role of key materials; novel technologies, processes, and machines are finally
made possible only by means of especially tailored ceramics.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4. SPARK PLUG

In conjunction with the ignition and the fuel management systems, the spark plug plays decisive part in
the operation of the spark ignition engine. The requirements to which the spark plug is subjected are
extreme, severe fluctuations in the operating conditions ranging from stop and go city traffic to high speed
cruising on the freeway, both in heat of summer and cold of winter. As well as electric strength to above
30000V and a variety of influence from the combustion chamber, such as pressure, temperature and
corrosion.

4.1 THE HISTORY OF SPARK PLUG

In 1902 they got 6.2 HP out of 1 liter swept volume. The first BOSCH spark plug had to spark 15-25 times
per second. The upper temperature limit was 600°c the ignition voltage 10000V. The spark plug had to be
replaced every 1000km.

Today we get 50KW (65HP) out of 1 liter swept volume and even up to 220KW (300HP) in racing engines.
Today a spark plug must spark up to 125 times per second and an upper temperature limit of about 1000°c
the ignition voltage can rise to 30000V. A service life of 15000km is normal.

Fig 4.1 Evolution of spark plug

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.2 FUNCTION OF THE SPARK PLUG

The function of the spark plug is to introduce the ignition energy into the combustion chamber and to
initiate the combustion of the air-fuel mixture through the electric spark between the electrodes.

In conjunction with the other components of the engine, example: ignition and fuelling system the spark
plug has a decisive effect on the operation of the spark ignition engine. It must permit reliable cold starting,
it must guarantee that there Is no misfiring during acceleration and it must withstand the engine being
operated for hours on and at maximum power. These requirements apply through the entire service life of
the spark plug.

4.3 ACTION OF SPARK PLUG

The air and fuel mixture is ignited by the energy released as a result of spark discharge between electrodes.
The spark plug is positioned in the combustion chamber at the point most suitable for igniting the
compressed air-fuel mixture. The location of the spark plug on the combustion chamber design. The
ignition spark jumps across the electrodes ionizes the gap between the electrodes and initiates a spark
discharge. Thus released energy ignites the part of air-fuel mixture between the electrodes. Under ideal
circumstances this nucleus of flame grows into a flame front through the combustion chamber until the
entire air-fuel mixture is burnt.

4.3.1 Ignition voltage

The ignition voltage required by the spark plug is the high voltage necessary for spark discharge.

Ignition voltage of the spark plug is the voltage at which spark jumps across the electrodes when the high
voltage generated by the ignition system reaches the spark plug. This secondary available voltage provided
by the ignition system can be up to approximately 30,000 Volts.

The ignition voltage required is determined not only by the spark plug but also by engine related
influences. The main engine related influences governing the ignition voltage are compression, mixture
composition and mixture turbulence.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.3.2 Spark duration

Following the initial flash over between the electrodes the ignition spark must burn for a certain time.

The spark duration is the length of time for which the arc burns following the initial flashover between
the electrodes. The spark duration must be long enough to ensure that the air-fuel mixture between the
electrodes is safely ignited.

In addition to the main factors of electrode shape and electrode gap the required ignition voltage depends
on the composition and compression of air fuel mixture, the flow conditions in the combustion chamber,
the electrode material and the electrode polarity.

4.4 DEMANDS ON THE SPARK PLUG

4.4.1 Electrical demands

When the spark plug is ignited with electronic ignition system it is possible for voltages up to 30,000V to
occur. The deposits resulting from the combustion process such as soot, carbon residues, ash from fuel
and oil additives will under such conditions and also at high temperatures there must be no arcing and
puncture across the insulator. The electrical resistance of the insulator must be sufficient up to 1000°C
and must not undergo any notable change throughout the service life of the spark plug.

4.4.2 Mechanical demands

The spark plug must withstand high pressures (up to about 50 bar) occurring periodically in the
combustion chamber and must there by remain fully gas-tight. Other requirements are high vibration
strength and high rigidity of the spark plug body which has to transmit the specified tightening torque
through the hexagonal section to the thread without suffering permanent deformation.

4.4.3 Chemical demands

The part of the spark plug projecting into the combustion chamber is exposed to the chemical processes
which take place at high temperature. Chemical components in the fuel are deposited on to the spark plug
can change its properties.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.4.4 Temperature demands

During operation the spark plug absorbs heat from the hot combustion gases and is then very soon exposed
to cold air-fuel mixture which is inducted for the next cycle. High demands are therefore made of the
thermal shock resistance of the insulator ceramic. The spark plug must also dissipate the heat it absorbs
in the combustion chamber as efficiently as possible to the cylinder head of the engine. The terminal side
of the spark plug should heat up as little as possible.

4.5 CONSTRUCTION OF THE SPARK PLUG

The spark plug consists of metal and ceramic. These materials have different properties. Appropriate
design of the spark plug makes full use of the desired properties of these materials.

The terminal stud, insulator, housing and electrodes represent the most important parts of a spark plug.

Fig 4.2: Sectional view of spark plug

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.5.1 Terminal stud

The terminal stud is melted gas tight in to the insulator with special conductive seal which also represents
the electrical connection to the center electrode. On its end projecting out of the insulator, the terminal
stud has a thread for attaching the spark plug connector of the H.T ignition cable. In the case of connectors
ISO/DIN standard a so called ISO/DIN terminal nut is screwed on the thread of the terminal stud.

Fig 4.3: Terminal stud

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.5.2 Insulator

The insulator consists of a special ceramic and its function is to insulate the centre electrode and the
terminal stud from the shell. The dense micro structure of the special ceramic ensures high electric
strength. The surface of the connection side of the insulator is glazed. Moisture and dirt adhere less to this
smooth glazed surface, as a result of which leakage currents are largely prevented. To provide additional
protection against leakage currents, the insulator of the spark plug is provided with 5-rib current leakage
barrier. This increases the path over which leakage current would have to travel. Consequently even under
extreme driving conditions it is not possible for leakage currents to occur.

The insulator houses both the terminal stud and the electrode. The demand s for good thermal conductivity
and high insulation resistance are in sharp contrast to the properties of most insulating material. The
material used by Bosch for insulator contains of Aluminum oxide to which small quantities of other
materials are added. After it has been stoved and glazed this special ceramic satisfies the demands made
of the spark plug insulator for high insulation resistance, good thermal conductivity and mechanical
strength.

Fig 4.4: Insulator

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.5.3 Housing

The housing is made of steel and its function is to secure the spark plug in the cylinder head. The upper
part of the head has a hexagonal section to which the spark plug wrench is applied and the lower part is
threaded. The surface of the spark plug housing has an electroplated nickel coating to prevent the corrosion
and to ensure that the thread does not seize. The insulator is inserted into the spark plug housing together
with a sealed ring and a crimping ring and is swaged and heat shrunk in position and at high pressure by
the means of a special purpose machine.

Fig 4.5: Housing

4.5.4 Electrodes

The shape and materials of electrodes depend on the operating conditions of the spark plug. The wear on
the electrodes is caused by erosion and by corrosion. This wear leads to a increase in the required ignition
voltage. In addition the electrodes must have good heat removal properties.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Earth electrode

The earth electrode is fastened to the housing and usually has a rectangular cross-section. The long life of
the earth electrode is governed both by its thermal conductivity and by the ratio of the surface area exposed
to heat to the heat dissipating cross section. The spark discharge can be favorably influenced by minimum
possible dimensions of the earth electrode, certain shapes of the earth electrode, only partial covering of
the central electrode as well as the surfaces and contours of the areas facing the center electrode.

Centre electrode

The center electrode is melted gas tight in the insulator with a special conductive seal. The electrode has
a slightly smaller diameter than the bore in the insulator nose. This is necessary in order to compensate
for the differing thermal expansion between the electrode material and insulator ceramic. In all types of
spark plug the center electrode projects cylindrically out of the spark plug nose. Centre electrodes made
of precious metals are smaller in diameter than electrodes made of nickel-alloys or compound electrodes.

Electrode gap

The electrode gap lays an essential part in determining the required ignition voltage. The electrode gap is
the shortest distance between center electrode and the earth electrode and is therefore a measure of the
length of the ignition spark.

Smaller the electrode gap, lower the ignition voltage required.

Higher the electrode gap higher the ignition voltage required.

The electrode gap is usually about 0.7mm. The precise, optimized electrode gaps for the individual engines
are specified by the engine manufacturer and are given either in the owner’s manual or in Bosch spark
plug recommendation chart.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4.6 NOMENCLATURE OF SPARK PLUG

Fig 4.6: Nomenclature chart

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

5. CERAMICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CERAMICS

A ceramics is an inorganic, non-metallic solid comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily
held in ionic and covalent bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to
semi-crystalline, and often completely amorphous (e.g., glasses). Varying crystallinity and electron
consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and
electrical insulators and extensively researched in ceramic engineering. Nevertheless, with such a large
range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic (e.g. nearly all of the elements, nearly
all types of bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable
attributes (e.g. hardness, toughness, electrical conductivity etc.) are hard to specify for the group as a
whole. However, generalities such as high melting temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high
modulus of elasticity, chemical resistance and low ductility are the norm, with known exceptions to each
of these rules (e.g. piezoelectric ceramics, glass transition temperature, superconductive ceramics, etc.).
Many composites, such as fibreglass and carbon fibre, while containing ceramic materials, are not
considered to be part of the ceramic family.

The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for pottery",
fromκέραμος (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery".

The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, including 27,000-year-oldfigurines, made
from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials like silica, hardened, sintered, in fire. Later
ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, coloured surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use
of glassy, amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline ceramic substrates. Ceramics now include
domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new
ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, such as in semiconductors.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

5.2 TYPES OF CERAMICS

5.2.1 Traditional ceramics

 Silica, SiO2cristobalite
 Tridymite
 Quartz
 Vitreous silica
 Kaolinite
 Mullite
 Spinel
 Alumina ,Al2O3
 Magnesia MgO
 Dolomite MgO-CaO
 Olivine MgOSiO2
 Cordierite MgOAl2O3SiO2
 Zircon ZrO2SiO2

5.2.2 Engineering ceramics

Oxides

1. Silica:
 Vitreous silica
2. Silicates:
 Li, Al glass ceramics
3. Alumina:
4. Zirconia

Carbides

1. Metallic
 Ti, V, Cr, Y, Zr, Mo, Hf, Ta, W
2. Non-metallic
 Si,B

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Nitrides

1. Metallic
 Ti, V, Cr, Y, Zr, Mo
2. Non-metallic
 Si,B, Al

Borides

 Ta, V, Cr, Zr, Mo, W

Carbon

1. Pyrolytic
2. Diamond
3. Spinel
4. Garnet

5.3 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

5.3.1 Mechanical properties

Hardness and resistance to wear

The great hardness and resistance to wear of certain ceramics make them very useful for grinding and
cutting wheels.

Tensile strength

Ceramic materials have low tensile strength. Tensile strength of alumina is of the order of about 1900
Kg/cm2.

Compressive strength

As compared to tensile strength ceramic materials possess much higher compressive strength. The
compressive strength of alumina ranges from 19500-35000 kg/cm2.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Transverse strength

Transverse strength of alumina is 3500kg/cm2.

Fracture strength

Most of the ceramics possess low fracture strength and fail in brittle manner.

Impact strength

Ceramic materials do face impact loading under certain conditions.

Modulus of elasticity

The value of modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials ranges from 7 x 1010 N/m2 to 40 x 1010 N/m2.

5.3.2 Electrical properties

The following factors influence the electrical behavior of ceramic materials:

 Composition of the material

 Texture
 Size
 Density
 Temperature and time

Electrical properties of ceramic materials are:

1. Electric insulation: Porcelain, steatite, forsterite & alumina are often used as electric insulators.
2. Electrical conductivity: although many ceramics are insulators, a number of them conduct
electricity quiet well at room temperature and constitute a very special class of semi-conductors
like N.T.C. resistors & P.T.C. resistors.
3. Di-electric constant: It may be defined as the ratio in which the numerator is the quantity of
electricity stored in the presence of an insulator and the denominator is the quantity of electricity
stored in the presence of vacuum.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

4. Dielectric strength: It is the electrical breakdown potential of an insulator per unit thickness. The
di-electric strength of alumina is 200-300 v/mil.
5. Piezoelectric property: Certain materials such as Barium titanate, can be made piezoelectric by
suitable treatment at high voltage known as polarization.

5.3.3 Magnetic properties

 Ferrites consisting of compounds of iron oxides with other oxides are widely used as magnetic ceramics.
 Ferroxcube, soft magnetic material.
 Ferroxdure, hard magnetic material.

5.3.4 Chemical properties

 Oxidic ceramics are completely resistant to oxidation, even at very high temperatures.
 Magnesia, zirconia, porcelain etc. are resistant to certain molten metals and are thus employed for
making crucibles and furnace lining.

5.3.5 Thermal properties

 Ceramics possess favorable properties at high temperature and under oxidizing conditions.

5.3.6 Optical properties

 Many types of glasses have been used for the production of windows and optical lenses.
 The number of special glasses have also been employed for selective transmission or absorption
of particular wavelengths such as infrared and ultra-violet.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

5.4 APPLICATION OF CERAMICS

Traditional ceramics

 White wares: dishes, plumbing, enamels, tiles.

 Heavy clay products: bricks, pottery, sewage treatment & water purification components.
 Refractories: Bricks, castables, cements, crucibles & moulds.
 Abrasive products: grinding wheel, abrasives, milling media, sand blast nozzles, and sand paper.

Engineering ceramics

 Electronics: heating elements, di-electrics, semiconductors, insulators, transducers, lasers etc.

 Aerospace & automotive, turbine components, heat exchangers, emission controls.
 Medical: prosthetics, orthodontics brackets.
 Nuclear: fuel, controls.
 Miscellaneous: cutting tools, fiber optics, glass ceramics & magnets.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

6. PROCESSING OF CERAMIC FOR SPARK PLUG INSULATOR

6.1 STEPS IN PROCESSING

 Raw material loading

 Raw material grinding and mixing- Milling process
 Slurry preparation- Blunging
 Grain forming and drying- Spray drying
 Granulate to shaping-pressing- Isostatic pressing and profile grinding
 Sintering

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6.2 Spark plug construction & advantages

Fig 6.2: sparkplug construction

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6.3 MANUFACTURING OF INSULATOR BODY

6.3.1 Loading of raw materials

Raw materials used in the manufacturing of insulator body are calcined alumina and other fluxes. Binders
are also added in further stages. Raw materials are weighed for the composition and charged to the ball
mill through gravity feed. The raw materials, fluxes and binders used are shown below.

Major raw materials

Calcined alumina
(Al2O3)

Fluxes

China clay Calcite (CaCO3) Talc (3MgO4SiO2H2O)

(Al2O32SiO22H2O)

Binders

PVA binder De-Hyphon

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Raw materials are added for different purposes, the following table gives the information about both raw
materials and their purposes.

Raw materials Purpose

 It has got high resistance so that it can withstand high

temperature
Alumina
 Less milling hours with high density
 Less inclusion

 Used for better moulding

 To prevent crack formation during sintering
China clay and
calcite  For homogeneous mixing

 It’s basically a MgO used to get pure white colour for the
insulator
Talc

Table 6.1: Raw materials and their purposes

The different binders used and their purpose are shown below

Binders Purpose

Mowiol  To maintain viscosity

 Viscosity reducer
 Acts as surfactant for free flow from silo
De-Hyphon

Table 6.2: Binders and their purpose

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6.3.2 Ball mill

The ball mill is the one in which ceramic is placed in a rotating barrel containing abrasive balls. Ball
milling is a process in which a definite quantity of material is milled using definite quantity of sintered
alumina balls of different diameter in a rotating cylindrical chamber. Here ratio of material weight to ball
weight is maintained according to company’s guidance’s value.

Fig 6.3: Sectional view of ball mill

The inside chamber of a ball mill is provided with ceramic lining. A raw material in the ball mill is milled
for optimized milling hours and then milled is tested for density, moisture and composition like CaO and
MgO contents. If the test results are within the required guidance value then the material is taken out for
further processing. If not milling is continued until desired results are achieved. The purpose of this
operation is to homogeneously mix the raw materials and to get the required grain size and the density of
the material.

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Fig 6.4: Bosch ball mill

6.3.3 Blunger

Blunger is a hexagonal tank with stirrer. The milled material and the recycled material obtained from the
silo are mixed with water and binder in a blunger and blunged to get the slurry. Here mowial binder is an
organic binder which provides plasticity during forming operation and strength in the green stage.

This slurry is then fed to the vibrators where it is sieved and passed over a permanent magnet. The channels
are provided to run down the mixture above the magnet. Slurry flows over a polythene sheet, the magnet
beneath attracts and hold if any ferrous impurities are present. The slurry is then collected in the bottom
blunger which is pumped through screw pump to the spray drier. Consistency of slurry is controlled by
checking its viscosity and density.

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Fig 6.5: Sectional view of blunger

Fig 6.6: Blunger

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6.3.4 Spray drier

Spray drier is a cylindrical chamber fitted with an atomizer at the top of the chamber. The slurry from the
bottom blunger is fed to the atomizer wheel rotates at high speed. The atomizer wheel has got a number
of holes around its periphery. The wheel divides the slurry equally through the holes and its spread with
high speed in form of droplets by centrifugal force.

Fig 6.7: Schematic diagram of spray drying process

The slurry is sprayed in the form of small droplets by the atomizer wheel are dried by the hot air inside
the spray drier chamber. The hot air is supplied from the burner using kerosene as the fuel tank. The spray
dried material is called niro pulp, which is formed in the chamber which is collected at the end of inverted
conical chamber.

Unwanted finest particles are collected through the cyclone and sent to the exhaust through purification
chamber. The spray dried material is collected in containers and kept for specified number of dates after
which they are taken for Isostatic pressing.

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Fig 6.8: Bosch spray drier

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6.3.5 Isostatic pressing

Spray dried powder collected in the container is kept for specified number of days and them it is used for
isostatic pressing. The containers are connected to the hopper and spray dried material is feed through
gravity.

Principle:

In Isostatic press the material is pressed at a constant set pressure uniformly in all directions

An Isostatic press comprises of six needles which enters into six rubber bags. The rubber bags are designed
and numbered according to the type of the insulator required (e.g. u-type, w-type and so on).

Fig 6.9: Isostatic press

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

In the process automatic dosing of calculated amount of powered takes place into each rubber bag which
is in calculated amount. Then the needle drops into the bag and intensifier applies a specified set pressure.
Due to the constant pressure applied around the bag the material inside the bag gets compacted and forms
the soft insulator body. The body is automatically lifted up along with a needle and is separated and placed
on the conveyor belt.

The belt conveyor caries the soft or green insulators on the spindle drum and gets loaded on the spindle
through a mechanism. The drum has 48 spindles which roll against a rotating grinding wheel with required
profile of the insulator. The insulator gets grinded to the required shape and disengaged from the spindle
on the belt.

Control of the insulator profile and the dimension is taken care by frequent dressing and balancing of
grinding wheel. The grinding insulators are stacked in the sagger boxes. The soft insulator samples are
tested for soft density, breaking strength and dimension.

Fig 6.10: Spindle grinding machine

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6.3.6 Sintering

Sintering is a firing process in which the soft insulator bodies are heated to a very high temperature for a
long time.

The pressed and grinded insulator bodies are carried in sagger boxes and arranged on a trolley. The trolley
moves into the tunnel kiln on a track for firing. The tunnel kiln is used for sintering ground insulators.
Tunnel kiln is divided into three zones namely pre-heating, heating zone and cooling zone. The tunnel
kiln is constructed with high temperature refractory bricks made out of a corundum material. These bricks
are capable of withstanding very high temperature. The insulator body is sintered at very high temperature
for a set time to achieve the required hard density of the insulator. After sintering the insulator becomes
hard. During the process of sintering there is a certain percentage of shrinkage on diameter and lenghth.
The insulator is checked for its hard density a hard density checking equipment.

Fig 6.11: Kiln

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Following changes take place during firing

 Combustion and removal of organic impurities

 Removal of sulphurous impurities
 Gradual volume changes
 Fusion
 Changes in structure
 Insulator becomes resistant to water and other chemicals
 Reduction of oxidation of body

Further, hard insulators are 100 percent checked for visual defect that is minute cracks and puncture
through high voltage electric are tested by die-penetrant test by immersing in colored solution followed
by drying.

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6.4 STAGES OF INSULATOR BODY

Fig 6.12: Pressed part-Ground part-Sintered part

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7. SPARK PLUG INSULATOR BODY

7.1 Insulator

Fig 7.1: Insulator body

The insulator consists of a special ceramic and its function is to insulate the center electrode and the
terminal stud from the housing. The dense micro-structure of the special ceramic guarantees high electric
strength. The surface of the connection side of the insulator is glazed. Moisture and dirt adhere less to
this smooth glazed surface, as a result of which leakage currents are largely prevented. To provide
additional protection against leakage currents, the insulator of the spark plug is provided with the 5 – rib
leakage – current barrier. This increases the path over which a leakage current would have to travel.
Consequently, even under extreme driving conditions it is not possible for leakage currents to occur.

The insulator houses both the terminal stud at the center electrode. The demands for good thermal
conductivity and high insulation resistance are in sharp contrast to the properties of most insulating
materials. The material used by Bosch for insulator contains of aluminium oxide to which small quantities
of other materials are added. After it has been stored and glazed, this special ceramic satisfies the demands
made of the spark plug insulator for high insulation resistance, good thermal conductivity and mechanical
strength.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

7.2 PARTS OF SPARK PLUG INSULATOR

Fig: 7.2 – Parts of spark plug insulator.

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8. QUALITY CONTROL OF INPUT MATERIALS FOR INSULATOR

8.1 ANALYSIS OF CERAMIC-BLUNGGED MATERIAL

8.1.1 Determination of density

Equipment required:

 100ml measuring jar

 Beaker
 Glass rod

Procedure:

 Take clean and dried 100ml measuring jar and weigh. Note down the weigh at W1.
 Take the blunged slurry in to a glass beaker and allow it for some time to settle the froth.
 Remove the froth from the top by skimming.
 Mix it thoroughly by means of a glass rod to avoid any settlings.
 Add slurry in to the measuring jar exactly up to the 100ml mark.
 Take the weight of the jar with 100ml slurry and note down as W2.
 Now calculate the volume weight / density as follows

W2-W1
Volume weight density = _______________________
100

8.1.2 Determination of discharge time

Procedure

 Collect about 100ml of blunged material from top blunger in a jar and allow the foam to subside.
 Stir with glass rod and measure 500ml by measuring jar.
 Transfer it to the funnel by closing the outlet of the funnel by left index finger and run down the
material. Simultaneously by switching on the stop watch.
 Switch off the stop watch immediately as soon as the continuous flow stops from the funnel outlet.
 Note down the time and record running time to discharge 500ml material in seconds.

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8.2 ANALYSIS OF SPRAY DRIED CERAMIC MATERIAL

8.2.1 Determination of moisture %

Procedure:

 Take a cleaned silica crucible and dry it in an oven at 100 ± 50C for 30 minutes.
 Cool it in desiccators for 10 minutes and take its weight nearest to 0.1mg accuracy.
 Note down the weight as W1.
 Take about 5g sample, weigh accurately and note down the weight as W2.
 Keep it in oven at 105 ± 5º C for 2 hrs. Take it out and cool it in desiccator.
 Take the weight immediately after taking it out from the desiccator.
 Note down the weight after drying as W3.

Calculation:

W2 – W1 = A

W2 –W3 = B

A –B
Moisture% = _________________ X 100
A

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8.3 ANALYSIS OF BINDER SOLUTION

8.3.1 Determination of solid content in the binder solution

 Weigh the crucible without binder solution as W1

 Take 5g of binder solution sample in a crucible.
 Weigh the crucible with 5g of binder solution and note down as W2.
 Place the crucible with the sample in the oven at 100oC for about 2 hour.
 After 2 hours remove the crucible from the oven and allow it to cool for a while.
 Make sure all the moisture content is evaporated.
 After cooling weigh the crucible and note down the value as W3.
 Calculations are done as follows

Calculations:

W2 – W1 = A

W3 – W1 =B

B
_____________ X 100
Solid content %=
A

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

9. OBJECTIVE

Construction of the spark plug consists of different components like metallic shell or housing, insulator
and electrodes. The insulator consists of special ceramic and its function is to insulate the center electrode
and the terminal stud from the shell. The insulator building takes place in a step by step manner undergoing
various processes. This project has been initiated to optimize the output of major process (spray drying)
carried out in the insulator production.

OBJECTIVES:

 Study of the various processes involved in the manufacturing of spark plug insulator.

 Analyzing various parameters affecting the output of Spray Drier.

 Optimizing the blunging process by varying the blunging speed.

 Increasing the quantity of air entering the air heater.

 Reducing the temperature difference between the shell and hot air in the air heater.

 Obtaining optimal and stable output from the spray drier.

 Maintaining consistency in the percentage of binder content in the binder solution.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

10. METHODOLOGY

10.1 METHODS ADOPTED TO OPTIMIZE THE SPRAY DRIER OUTPUT

10.1.1 VARYING THE AIR HEATER PARAMETERS:

 We analyzed the standard operating conditions of the air heater that supplies hot air to the spray
drier unit.

 We observed the parameters such as inlet suction pump speed (Hz), damper opening (%), inlet
and outlet temperatures of the hot air (0C), shell temperatures (0C) etc.

 The suction fan speed was at default value of 36.4Hz and the damper position at 20% open in
order to maintain the required pressure and temperature conditions in the spray drier.

 The set values provided a negative pressure of -50 to -60 bars at spray drier and yielded 5-6
containers of dried ceramic powder per 8hr shift.

 To increase the output of the spray drier, we varied the suction speed and the damper position of
intake air supply.

 We noted down and optimized the results for different values of suction fan speed a damper
positions.

 The output was increased and kept consistent to 7 containers of dried powder per 8hr shift.

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Trial 1:

Parameter Original value Altered value Observation

SUCTION FAN SPEED 36.4 Hz 33.3 Hz Decrease is fan speed by

3.1 Hz

DAMPER POSITION 20% open 25% open 5% more quantity of air

supply

SHELL TEMPERATURE 4140C 4240C Reduced temperature diff.

(TT05) (TT05-TT03)

OUTLET AIR 3810C 4020C Reduced temperature diff.

TEMPERATURE (TT03) (TT05-TT03)

INLET TEMP @ SPRAY 3350C 3400C Increase in inlet air temp.

DRIER

OUTLET TEMP @ SPRAY 1360C 1400C Efficient heat transfer

DRIER

PRESSURE -35 to -45 -30 to -52 Chamber pressure

maintained

NO. OF CONTAINERS 5-6 6 Increased and stable output

PER SHIFT

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Trial 2:

Parameter Original value Altered value Observation

SUCTION FAN SPEED 36.4 Hz 30.3 Hz Decrease is fan speed by

6.1 Hz

DAMPER POSITION 20% open 30% open 10% more quantity of air
supply

SHELL TEMPERATURE 4140C 4180C Reduced temperature diff.

(TT05) (TT05-TT03)

OUTLET AIR 3810C 3870C Reduced temperature diff.

TEMPERATURE (TT03) (TT05-TT03)

INLET TEMP @ SPRAY 3350C 347.50C Increase in inlet air temp.

DRIER

OUTLET TEMP @ 1360C 1470C Efficient heat transfer

SPRAY DRIER

PRESSURE -35 to -45 -33 to -45 Chamber pressure

maintained

NO. OF CONTAINERS 5-6 6-7 Increased output

PER SHIFT

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Trial 3:

Parameter Original value Altered value Observation

SUCTION FAN SPEED 36.4 Hz 30.3 Hz Decrease is fan speed by

3.1 Hz

DAMPER POSITION 20% open 40% open 20% more quantity of air
supply

SHELL TEMPERATURE 4140C 422.20C Reduced temperature diff.

(TT05) (TT05-TT03)

OUTLET AIR 3810C 403.50C Reduced temperature diff.

TEMPERATURE (TT03) (TT05-TT03)

INLET TEMP @ SPRAY 3350C 3530C Increase in inlet air temp.

DRIER

OUTLET TEMP @ SPRAY 1360C 1450C Efficient heat transfer

DRIER

PRESSURE -35 to -45 -39 to -50 Chamber pressure

maintained

NO. OF CONTAINERS 5-6 7 Increased output

PER SHIFT

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

10.1.2 PREPARATION OF OPTIMUM BINDER SOLUTION:

 We analyzed the standard procedure for the preparation of binder solution.

 We found out that the solid content in the binder solution was higher than the required value.

 The required value of solid content should be 19% - 21%, but the actual value exceeded the
required value by 8% - 10%.

 This led to less shrink-ability of the insulator, which caused variations in dimensions of the sintered
insulator.

 Due to this the binder solution was being subjected to re-processing, which delayed the production.

 Basic ingredients for the binder solution are water, mowiol &de-hyphon (stirred for 3hours at 85
degree).

 Various combinations in accordance with the quantity of the additives were tested to get the
prescribed solid content in the binder solution.

 The solid content in the binder solution was brought down to 19% - 21% which is the required
value.

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Standard procedure Optimized procedure

Add 100 litres of water to the drum Add 80 litres of water to the drum
& turn on the heater. & turn on the heater.

Wait till the water reaches 85±10ºC. Wait till the water reaches 85±10ºC.

Add 15 kg of mowiol to the drum which Turn on the stirrer and gradually and add
acts as a binder & turn on the stirrer. 10kg of mowiol to the drum.

Close the lid of the drum allow the Close the lid of the drum allow the
mixture to stir for 3 hours at mixture to stir for 3 hours at
85±10ºC. 85±10ºC.

Turn off the heater and stirrer after 3 Turn off the heater and stirrer after 3
hours & allow the mixture to cool for hours & allow the mixture to cool for
30 minutes. 30 minutes.

Release the valve and take the binder Release the valve and take the binder
solution for testing in a small bottle. solution for testing in a small bottle.

Table 10.1: Standard v/s Optimized procedure

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Fig 10.1: Binder solution processing machine

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11. RESULT

11.1 OPTIMIZING THE OUTPUT OF SPRAY DRIER:

 By reducing the suction fan speed at the air heater and by letting in more air by opening the
damper, the required optimal conditions were maintained to run the spray drier efficiently.

 The increase is air quantity entering the air heater decreased the localized heating which occurred
in previous states.

 Temperature losses between the air heater and the hot air pipe (inlet hot air to spray drier) was
reduced significantly.

 Negative pressure of -20 to -50 bar was maintained at the spray drier unit.

 The quality of the powder was maintained well within the prescribed limits.

 The output of spray drier was increased to 7 containers per shift (increase in 360-450kg of spray
dried ceramic powder) and was consistent.

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Altered values

Parameter Existing value

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

SUCTION FAN SPEED 36.4Hz 33.3Hz 30.3Hz 30.3Hz

DAMPER POSITION 20% open 25% open 30% open 40% open

QUANTITY OF DRIED 2.09 tons/ 8hr 2.37 tons/ 8hr 2.66 tons/ 8hr 3.125 tons/8hr
CERAMIC POWDER shift shift shift shift

NO. OF CONTAINERS 6 6 6-7 7

PER 8HOUR SHIFT

REMARKS - Appreciable and sustained increase in the quantity of

spray dried powder output per shift

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11.2 OPTIMIZING THE BINDER SOLUTION:

 By restricting the solid content of the binder solution to the required value (i.e. 19%-21%) the
shrink-ability of the soft insulator was improved & the required dimensions were obtained.

 Re-processing of the binder solution was completely eliminated thus increasing the productivity.

 Time and energy for re-processing of the binder solution was saved.

 Overall defects of the insulator were reduced.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DR.AIT FINAL YEAR PROJECT

12. CONCLUSION

The project on optimizing the spray drier output in the manufacturing of spark plug insulator revealed
the following inference based on the data collection and analysis during the trails.

 By reducing the suction fan speed of the air heater unit and allowing more quantity of air into the
shell resulted in increase in the overall efficiency of the spray drier and the air heater. Thus
obtaining more number of containers per shift.

 The overall localized heating of the air was reduced due to letting in more volume of air into the
air heater. Also, care was taken to maintain the spray drier parameters (chamber pressure, inlet &
outlet temperature) within the prescribed values.

 By optimizing the binder solution, the shrink-ability of the soft insulator was improved and
required dimension of the sintered part was obtained. Re-processing of the binder solution was
eliminated and thus saving time and energy and increase in productivity.

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