Electrical Ciruit Analysis PDF

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Chapter
Circuit Concepts and
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Network Simplification
1 Techniques
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1.1 Introduction
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Today we live in a predominantly electrical world. Electrical technology is a driving force
in the changes that are occurring in every engineering discipline. For example, surveying
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is now done using lasers and electronic range finders.
Circuit analysis is the foundation for electrical technology. An indepth knowledge of
circuit analysis provides an understanding of such things as cause and effect, feedback
and control and, stability and oscillations. Moreover, the critical importance is the fact
that the concepts of electrical circuit can also be applied to economic and social systems.
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Thus, the applications and ramifications of circuit analysis are immense.
In this chapter, we shall introduce some of the basic quantities that will be used
throughout the text. An electric circuit or electric network is an interconnection
of electrical elements linked together in a closed path so that an electric current
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may continuously flow. Alternatively, an electric circuit is essentially a pipe-line that

facilitates the transfer of charge from one point to another.
1.2 Current, voltage, power and energy
The most elementary quantity in the analysis of electric circuits is the electric charge.
Our interest in electric charge is centered around its motion results in an energy transfer.
vt
Charge is the intrinsic property of matter responsible for electrical phenomena. The
quantity of charge q can be expressed in terms of the charge on one electron. which is
1:602 10 19 coulombs. Thus, 1 coulomb is the charge on 6:24 1018 electrons. The
current flows through a specified area A and is defined by the electric charge passing
through that area per unit time. Thus we define q as the charge expressed in coulombs.
Charge is the quantity of electricity responsible for electric phenomena.
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2 j Network Theory
The time rate of change constitutes an electric current. Mathemetically, this relation
is expressed as
in
dq (t)
i(t) = (1.1)
Z dt
t
or q (t) = i(x)dx (1.2)
1
n.
The unit of current is ampere(A); an ampere is 1 coulomb per second.
Current is the time rate of flow of electric charge past a given point .
The basic variables in electric circuits are
current and voltage. If a current flows into
terminal a of the element shown in Fig. 1.1,
then a voltage or potential difference exists
between the two terminals a and b. Nor-
mally, we say that a voltage exists across
the element.
io Figure 1.1 Voltage across an element
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The voltage across an element is the work done in moving a positive charge
of 1 coulomb from first terminal through the element to second terminal. The
unit of voltage is volt, V or Joules per coulomb.
We have defined voltage in Joules per coulomb as the energy required to move a
positive charge of 1 coulomb through an element. If we assume that we are dealing with
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a differential amount of charge and energy,
dw
then v= (1.3)
dq
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Multiplying both the sides of equation (1.3) by the current in the element gives

dw dq dw
vi =
dq dt
) dt
=p (1.4)
which is the time rate of change of energy or power measured in Joules per second or
watts (W ).
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p could be either positive or negative. Hence it

is imperative to give sign convention for power.
If we use the signs as shown in Fig. 1.2., the
current flows out of the terminal indicated by x,
Figure 1.2 An element with the current
which shows the positive sign for the voltage. In
leaving from the terminal
this case, the element is said to provide energy
with a positive voltage sign
to the charge as it moves through. Power is then
provided by the element.
Conversely, power absorbed by an element is p = vi, when i is entering through the
positive voltage terminal.
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Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 3
Energy is the capacity to perform work. Energy and power are related to each
other by the following equation:
Z
in
t
Energy = w = p dt
1
EXAMPLE 1.1
n.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.3 with
v = 8e t V and i = 20e t A for t 0. Find
the power absorbed and the energy supplied
by the element over the first second of oper-
ation. we assume that v and i are zero for Figure 1.3
t < 0:
SOLUTION
The power supplied is
p = vi = (8e t io
)(20e t )
ut
2t
= 160e W
The element is providing energy to the charge flowing through it.

The energy supplied during the first seond is
Z 1 Z 1
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2t
w= p dt = 160e dt
0 0
= 80(1 e 2 ) = 69.17 Joules
1.3 Linear, active and passive elements

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A linear element is one that satisfies the prin-

ciple of superposition and homogeneity.
In order to understand the concept of super-
position and homogeneity, let us consider the Figure 1.4 An element with excitation
element shown in Fig. 1.4. i and response v
vt
The excitation is the current, i and the response is the voltage, v . When the element
is subjected to a current i1 , it provides a response v1 . Furthermore, when the element is
subjected to a current i2 , it provides a response v2 . If the principle of superposition is
true, then the excitation i1 + i2 must produce a response v1 + v2 .
Also, it is necessary that the magnitude scale factor be preserved for a linear element.
If the element is subjected to an excitation i where is a constant multiplier, then if
principle of homogencity is true, the response of the element must be v .
We may classify the elements of a circuir into categories, passive and active, depending
upon whether they absorb energy or supply energy.
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4 | Network Theory
1.3.1 Passive Circuit Elements
An element is said to be passive if the total energy delivered to it from the rest of the
in
circuit is either zero or positive.
Then for a passive element, with the current flowing into the positive (+) terminal as
shown in Fig. 1.4 this means that
t
w= vi dt ≥ 0
n.
−∞
Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors.
1.3.1.A Resistors
rent; it is represented by the symbol R.

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Resistance is the physical property of an ele-
ment or device that impedes the flow of cur-
Resistance of a wire element is calculated us-

ing the relation:
Figure 1.5 Symbol for a resistor R
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ρl
R= (1.5)
A
where A is the cross-sectional area, ρ the resistivity, and l the length of the wire. The
practical unit of resistance is ohm and represented by the symbol Ω.
An element is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm, if it permits 1A of
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current to flow through it when 1V is impressed across its terminals.
Ohm’s law, which is related to voltage and current, was published in 1827 as
v = Ri (1.6)
v
or R=
us
i
where v is the potential across the resistive element, i the current through it, and R the
resistance of the element.
The power absorbed by a resistor is given by
v v2
p = vi = v = (1.7)
R R
vt
Alternatively,
p = vi = (iR)i = i2 R (1.8)
Hence, the power is a nonlinear function of current i through the resistor or of the
voltage v across it.
The equation for energy absorbed
by or delivered
to a resistor is
t t
w= pdτ = i2 R dτ (1.9)
−∞ −∞
Since i2 is always positive, the energy is always positive and the resistor is a passive
element.
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1.3.1.B Inductors
Whenever a time-changing current is passed through a coil or wire, the voltage across
in
it is proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil. This proportional
relationship may be expressed by the equation
di
v=L (1.10)
dt
n.
Where L is the constant of proportionality known as induc-
tance and is measured in Henrys (H). Remember v and i are
both funtions of time.
Let us assume that the coil shown in Fig. 1.6 has N turns and
the core material has a high permeability so that the magnetic
fluk is connected within the area A. The changing flux
of the flux , so the total voltage v across N turns is

d
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creates an induced voltage in each turn equal to the derivative Figure 1.6 Model of the
inductor
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v=N (1.11)
dt
Since the total flux N is proportional to current in the coil, we have
N = Li (1.12)
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Where L is the constant of proportionality. Substituting equation (1.12) into equa-
tion(1.11), we get
di
v=L
dt
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The power in an inductor is

di
p = vi = L i
dt
The energy stored in the inductor is

Z
vt
t
w= p d
1
Z i(t)
1 2
=L i di = Li Joules (1.13)
i( 1) 2
Note that when t = 1; i( 1) = 0. Also note that w(t) 0 for all i(t); so the
inductor is a passive element. The inductor does not generate energy, but only stores
energy.
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1.3.1.C Capacitors
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A capacitor is a two-terminal element that is a model of a
device consisting of two conducting plates seperated by a di-
electric material. Capacitance is a measure of the ability of C
a deivce to store energy in the form of an electric field.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge
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stored to the voltage difference between the two con- 1.7 Circuit symbol for
ducting plates or wires, a capacitor
q
C=
v
The energy stored in a capacitor is io

The current through the capacitor is given by
i=
dq
dt
=C
dv
dt
(1.14)
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Zt
w= vi d
1
Remember that v and i are both functions of time and could be written as v (t) and
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i(t).
dv
Since i=C
dt
Zt
dv
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we have w= v C d
d
1
Zv(t)
1 2? ?v(t)
=C v dv = Cv ?
2 v ( 1)
v( 1)
1, v( 1) = 0.
vt
Since the capacitor was uncharged at t =
Hence w = w (t)
1
= Cv 2 (t) Joules (1.15)
2
Since q = Cv; we may write
1 2
w (t) = q (t) Joules (1.16)
2C
Note that since w(t) 0 for all values of v(t), the element is said to be a passive
element.
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Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques | 7
1.3.2 Active Circuit Elements (Energy Sources)
An active two-terminal element that supplies energy to a circuit is a source of energy. An
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ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across the
terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals. Similarly, an ideal current
source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across those terminals.
n.
These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices, they are only idealized models
of actual voltage and current sources.
Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either independent
sources or dependent sources. An independent source establishes a voltage or current
in a circuit without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. The value of
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the voltage or current supplied is specified by the value of the independent source alone.
In contrast, a dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depends on
the value of the voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. We cannot specify the value
of a dependent source, unless you know the value of the voltage or current on which it
depends.
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The circuit symbols for ideal independent sources are shown in Fig. 1.8.(a) and (b).
Note that a circle is used to represent an independent source. The circuit symbols for
dependent sources are shown in Fig. 1.8.(c), (d), (e) and (f). A diamond symbol is used
to represent a dependent source.
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vt
Figure 1.8 (a) An ideal independent voltage source

(b) An ideal independent current source
(c) voltage controlled voltage source
(d) current controlled voltage source
(e) voltage controlled current source
(f) current controlled current source
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8 | Network Theory
1.4 Unilateral and bilateral networks
A Unilateral network is one whose properties or characteristics change with the direction.
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An example of unilateral network is the semiconductor diode, which conducts only in one
direction.
A bilateral network is one whose properties or characteristics are same in either direc-
tion. For example, a transmission line is a bilateral network, because it can be made to
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perform the function equally well in either direction.
1.5 Network simplification techniques
In this section, we shall give the formula for reducing the networks consisting of resistors
connected in series or parallel.
1.5.1 Resistors in Series

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When a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance of the com-
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bination is given by
R = R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn (1.17)
Thus the total resistance is the algebraic sum of individual resistances.
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Figure 1.9 Resistors in series
1.5.2 Resistors in Parallel
When a number of resistors are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 1.10, then the
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equivalent resistance of the combination is computed as follows:

1 1 1 1
= + + ....... + (1.18)
R R1 R2 Rn
Thus, the reciprocal of a equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is the sum of
the reciprocal of the individual resistances. Reciprocal of resistance is conductance and
denoted by G. Consequently the equivalent conductance,
vt
G = G 1 + G 2 + · · · + Gn
Figure 1.10 Resistors in parallel
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1.5.3 Division of Current in a Parallel Circuit
Consider a two branch parallel circuit as shown in Fig. 1.11. The branch currents I1 and
in
I2 can be evaluated in terms of total current I as follows:
IR2 IG1
I1 = = (1.19)
R1 + R2 G1 + G2
IR1 IG2
n.
I2 = = (1.20)
R1 + R2 G1 + G2
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Figure 1.11 Current division in a parallel circuit
That is, current in one branch equals the total current multiplied by the resistance of the
other branch and then divided by the sum of the resistances.
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EXAMPLE 1.2
The current in the 6Ω resistor of the network shown in Fig. 1.12 is 2A. Determine the
current in all branches and the applied voltage.
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vt
Figure 1.12
SOLUTION
Voltage across 6Ω = 6 × 2
= 12 volts
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10 j Network Theory
Since 6Ω and 8Ω are connected in parallel, voltage

across 8Ω = 12 volts.
Therefore, the current through 12
in
= = 1:5 A
8Ω (between A and B) 8
Total current in the circuit = 2 + 1:5 = 3:5 A
Current in the 4Ω branch = 3.5 A
Current through 8Ω (betwen C and D) = 3:5

20
n.
20 + 8
= 2.5 A
Therefore, current through 20Ω = 3:5 2:5
Total resistance of the circuit
Therefore applied voltage, io = 1A

=4+
V = 3:5
6 8 8 20
+
6 + 8 8 + 20
= 13:143Ω
13:143 (∵ V = IR)
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= 46 Volts
EXAMPLE 1.3
Find the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.13.
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Figure 1.13
vt
SOLUTION
Voltage across 5Ω = 2:5 5 = 12:5 volts
Hence the voltage across the parallel circuit = 25 12.5 = 12.5 volts
Current through 20Ω = I1 or I2

12:5
= = 0:625A
20
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Therefore, current through R = I3 = I I1 I2

= 2:5 0:625 0:625
in
= 1:25 Amps
12:5
Hence; R= = 10Ω
1:25
n.
1.6 Kirchhoff’s laws
In the preceeding section, we have seen how simple resistive networks can be solved
for current, resistance, potential etc using the concept of Ohm’s law. But as the network
becomes complex, application of Ohm’s law for
solving the networks becomes tedious and hence
time consuming. For solving such complex net-
works, we make use of Kirchhoff’s laws. Gustav
Kirchhoff (1824-1887), an eminent German physi- io
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cist, did a considerable amount of work on the
principles governing the behaviour of eletric cir-
cuits. He gave his findings in a set of two laws: (i)
current law and (ii) voltage law, which together Figure 1.14 A simple resistive network
are known as Kirchhoff’s laws. Before proceeding for difining various circuit
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to the statement of these two laws let us familar- terminologies
ize ourselves with the following definitions encoun-
tered very often in the world of electrical circuits:
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(i) Node: A node of a network is an equi-potential surface at which two or more circuit
elements are joined. Referring to Fig. 1.14, we find that A,B,C and D qualify as
nodes in respect of the above definition.
(ii) Junction: A junction is that point in a network, where three or more circuit elements
are joined. In Fig. 1.14, we find that B and D are the junctions.
vt
(iii) Branch: A branch is that part of a network which lies between two junction points.
In Fig. 1.14, BAD,BCD and BD qualify as branches.
(iv) Loop: A loop is any closed path of a network. Thus, in Fig. 1.14, ABDA,BCDB and
ABCDA are the loops.
(v) Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided
into other loops. In Fig. 1.14, ABDA and BCDB are the examples of mesh. Once
ABDA and BCDB are taken as meshes, the loop ABCDA does not qualify as a mesh,
because it contains loops ABDA and BCDB.
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12 j Network Theory
1.6.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
The first law is Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL), which states that the algebraic sum of
in
currents entering any node is zero.
Let us consider the node shown in Fig. 1.15. The sum of the currents entering the
node is
ia + ib ic + id = 0
n.
Note that we have ia since the current ia is leaving the node. If we multiply the
foregoing equation by 1, we obtain the expression
ia ib + ic id = 0
which simply states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node is zero. Alternately,
we can write the equation as
io
ib + id = ia + ic
which states that the sum of currents entering a node
is equal to the sum of currents leaving the node. If the
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sum of the currents entering a node were not equal
to zero, then the charge would be accumulating at a
node. However, a node is a perfect conductor and
cannot accumulate or store charge. Thus, the sum of
Figure 1.15 Currents at a node
currents entering a node is equal to zero.
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1.6.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around any closed
path in a circuit is zero.
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In general, the mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

X
N
vj (t) = 0
j =1
where vj (t) is the voltage across the j th branch (with proper reference direction) in a loop
containing N voltages.
vt
In Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the algebraic sign

is used to keep track of the voltage polarity.
In other words, as we traverse the circuit, it is
necessary to sum the increases and decreases
in voltages to zero. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to keep track of whether the voltage is
increasing or decreasing as we go through each
element. We will adopt a policy of consider-
ing the increase in voltage as negative and a
decrease in voltage as positive. Figure 1.16 Circuit with three closed paths
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Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.16, where the voltage for each element is identified
with its sign. The ideal wire used for connecting the components has zero resistance,
in
and thus the voltage across it is equal to zero. The sum of voltages around the loop
incorporating v6 ; v3 ; v4 and v5 is
v6 v3 + v4 + v5 = 0
The sum of voltages around a loop is equal to zero. A circuit loop is a conservative
n.
system, meaning that the work required to move a unit charge around any loop is zero.
However, it is important to note that not all electrical systems are conservative. Ex-
ample of a nonconservative system is a radio wave broadcasting system.
EXAMPLE 1.4
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Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.17. Find each branch current and voltage across
each branch when R1 = 8Ω; v2 = 10 volts i3 = 2A and R3 = 1Ω. Also find R2 .
ut
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Figure 1.17
SOLUTION
us
Applying KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) at node A, we get
i1 = i2 + i3
and using Ohm’s law for R3 , we get
v3 = R3 i3 = 1(2) = 2V
vt
Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) for the loop EACDE, we get
10 + v1 + v3 = 0
) v1 = 10 v3 = 8V
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14 | Network Theory
Ohm’s law for R1 is

v1 = i1 R1
in
v1
⇒ i1 = = 1A
R1
Hence, i2 = i1 − i3
= 1 − 2 = −1A
n.
From the circuit, v2 = R2 i2
v2 −10
⇒ R2 = = = 10Ω
i2 −1
EXAMPLE 1.5
Referring to Fig. 1.18, find the follow-
ing:
(a) ix if iy = 2A and iz = 0A
(b) iy if ix = 2A and iz = 2iy io
ut
(c) iz if ix = iy = iz
SOLUTION Figure 1.18

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Applying KCL at node A, we get
5 + iy + iz = ix + 3
(a) ix = 2 + iy + iz
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= 2 + 2 + 0 = 4A
(b) iy = 3 + ix − 5 − iz
= −2 + 2 − 2iy
⇒ iy = 0A
vt
(c) This situation is not possible, since ix and iz are in opposite directions. The only
possibility is iz = 0, and this cannot be allowed, as KCL will not be satisfied (5 = 3).
EXAMPLE 1.6
Refer the Fig. 1.19.
(a) Calculate vy if iz = −3A
(b) What voltage would you need to replace 5 V source to obtain vy = −6 V if

iz = 0.5A?
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n.
Figure 1.19
SOLUTION
(a) vy = 1 (3 vx + iz )
(b)
Since
we get
vx = 5V and iz =
vy = 3(5)
vy = 1 (3 vx + iz ) =
3 = 12V
3A;
6
io
ut
= 3 vx + 0.5
) 3 vx = 6:5
Hence, vx = 2.167 volts
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EXAMPLE 1.7
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.20, find i1 and v1 , given R3 = 6Ω.
us
vt
Figure 1.20
SOLUTION
Applying KCL at node A, we get
i1 i2 + 5 = 0
From Ohm’s law, 12 = i2 R3
) i2 =
12
R3
=
12
6
= 2A
Hence; i1 = 5 i2 = 3A
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16 j Network Theory
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop CBAC, we get
in
v1 6i1 + 12 = 0
) v1 = 12 6i1
= 12 6(3) = 6volts
n.
EXAMPLE 1.8
Use Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law to evaluate (a) vx , (b) iin , (c) Is and (d) the power
provided by the dependent source in Fig 1.21.
io
ut
Figure 1.21
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SOLUTION
(a) Applying KVL, (Referring Fig. 1.21 (a)) we get
us
2 + vx + 8 = 0
) vx = 6V
vt
Figure 1.21(a)
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(b) Applying KCL at node a, we get
8vx
in
Is + 4vx + =
4 2
) Is + 4( 6)
6
4
=4
) Is 24 1:5 = 4
)
n.
Is = 29:5A
(c) Applying KCL at node b, we get
2 vx
iin = + Is + 6
2 4
) iin = 1 + 29:5
6
4
io 6 = 23A
(d) The power supplied by the dependent current source = 8 (4vx ) = 8 4 6 = 192W
ut
EXAMPLE 1.9
Find the current i2 and voltage v for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.22.
ol
us
Figure 1.22
SOLUTION
v
vt
From the network shown in Fig. 1.22, i2 =

6
The two parallel resistors may be reduced to
36
Rp = = 2Ω
3+6
Hence, the total series resistance around the loop is
Rs = 2 + Rp + 4
= 8Ω
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18 j Network Theory
Applying KVL around the loop, we have
21 + 8i 3i2 = 0 (1.21)
in
Using the principle of current division,
i2 =
iR2
=
i 3
R1 + R2 3+6
n.
3i i
= =
9 3
) i = 3i2 (1.22)
Substituting equation (1.22) in equation (1.21), we get
and
Hence;
21 + 8(3i2 )
io
3i2 = 0
i2 = 1A
v = 6i2 = 6V
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EXAMPLE 1.10
Find the current i2 and voltage v for resistor R in Fig. 1.23 when R = 16Ω.
ol
us
Figure 1.23
SOLUTION
Applying KCL at node x, we get

vt
4 i1 + 3i2 i2 = 0
v v
Also; i1 = =
4+2 6
v v
i2 = =
R 16
v v v
Hence; 4 +3 =0
6 16 16
) v = 96volts
v 96
and i2 = = = 6A
6 16
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EXAMPLE 1.11
A wheatstone bridge ABCD is arranged as follows: AB = 10Ω, BC = 30Ω, CD = 15Ω
in
and DA = 20Ω. A 2V battery of internal resistance 2Ω is connected between points A
and C with A being positive. A galvanometer of resistance 40Ω is connected between B
and D. Find the magnitude and direction of the galvanometer current.
SOLUTION
n.
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Applying KVL clockwise to the loop ABDA, we get

10ix + 40iz 20iy = 0
) 10ix 20iy + 40iz = 0 (1.23)
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Applying KVL clockwise to the loop BCDB, we get

30(ix iz ) 15(iy + iz ) 40iz = 0
) 30ix 15iy 85iz = 0 (1.24)
Finally, applying KVL clockwise to the loop ADCA, we get
vt
20iy + 15(iy + iz ) + 2(ix + iy ) 2 = 0

) 2ix + 37iy + 15iz = 2 (1.25)
Putting equations (1.23),(1.24) and (1.25) in matrix form, we get
2 32 3 2 3
10 20 40 ix 0
4 30 15 85 5 4 iy 5 = 4 0 5
2 37 15 iz 2
Using Cramer’s rule, we find that
iz = 0.01 A (Flows from B to D)
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20 j Network Theory
1.7 Multiple current source networks
Let us now learn how to reduce a network having multiple current sources and a number
in
of resistors in parallel. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24. We have assumed that
the upper node is v (t) volts positive with respect to the lower node. Applying KCL to
upper node yields
i1 (t) i2 (t) i3 (t) + i4 (t) i5 (t) i6 (t) = 0
n.
) i1 (t) i3 (t) + i4 (t) i6 (t) = i2 (t) + i5 (t) (1.26)
) io (t) = i2 (t) + i5 (t) (1.27)
io
ut
Figure 1.24 Multiple current source network
where io (t) = i1 (t) i3 (t) + i4 (t) i6 (t) is the

algebraic sum of all current sources present
ol
in the multiple source network shown in Fig.
1.24. As a consequence of equation (1.27), the
network of Fig. 1.24 is effectively reduced to
that shown in Fig. 1.25. Using Ohm’s law, the
currents on the right side of equation (1.27)
us
can be expressed in terms of the voltage and Figure 1.25 Equivalent circuit
individual resistance so that KCL equation
reduces to
1 1
io (t) = + v (t)
R1 R2
Thus, we can reduce a multiple current source network into a network having only one
vt
current source.
1.8 Source transformations
Source transformation is a procedure which transforms one source into another while
retaining the terminal characteristics of the original source.
Source transformation is based on the concept of equivalence. An equivalent circuit is
one whose terminal characteristics remain identical to those of the original circuit. The
term equivalence as applied to circuits means an identical effect at the terminals, but not
within the equivalent circuits themselves.
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We are interested in transforming the circuit shown in Fig. 1.26 to a one shown in
Fig. 1.27.
in
n.
Figure 1.26 Voltage source connected Figure 1.27 Current source connected
to an external resistance R
io to an external resistance R
We require both the circuits to have the equivalence or same characteristics between the
terminals x and y for all values of external resistance R. We will try for equivanlence of
ut
the two circuits between terminals x and y for two limiting values of R namely R = 0
and R = 1. When R = 0, we have a short circuit across the terminals x and y . It is
obligatory for the short circuit to be same for each circuit. The short circuit current of
Fig. 1.26 is
vs
ol
is = (1.28)
Rs
The short circuit current of Fig. 1.27 is is . This enforces,

vs
is = (1.29)
Rs
us
When R = 1, from Fig. 1.26 we have vxy = vs and from Fig. 1.27 we have vxy = is Rp .
Thus, for equivalence, we require that
vs = is Rp (1.30)
vs
vt
Also from equation (1.29), we require is = . Therefore, we must have

Rs

vs
vs = Rp
Rs
) Rs = Rp (1.31)
Equations(1.29) and (1.31) must be true simulaneously for both the circuits for the two
sources to be equivalent. We have derived the conditions for equivalence of two circuits
shown in Figs. 1.26 and 1.27 only for two extreme values of R, namely R = 0 and R = 1.
However, the equality relationship holds good for all R as explained below.
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22 j Network Theory
Applying KVL to Fig. 1.26, we get
vs = iRs + v
in
Dividing by Rs gives
vs v
=i+ (1.32)
Rs Rs
n.
If we use KCL for Fig. 1.27, we get
v
is = i + (1.33)
Rp
Thus two circuits are equal when
is =
vs
Rs
io
and Rs = Rp
Transformation procedure: If we have embedded within a network, a current source

ut
i in parallel with a resistor R can be replaced with a voltage source of value v = iR in
series with the resistor R.
The reverse is also true; that is, a voltage source v in series with a resistor R can be
v
replaced with a current source of value i = in parallel with the resistor R. Parameters
R
ol
within the circuit are unchanged under these transformation.
EXAMPLE 1.12
A circuit is shown in Fig. 1.28. Find the current i by reducing the circuit to the right of
the terminals x y to its simplest form using source transformations.
us
vt
Figure 1.28
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SOLUTION
The first step in the analysis is to transform 30 ohm resistor in series with a 3 V source
in
into a current source with a parallel resistance and we get:
n.
Reducing the two parallel resistances, we get:
io
ut
ol
The parallel resistance of 12Ω and the current source of 0.1A can be transformed into
us
a voltage source in series with a 12 ohm resistor.

vt
Applying KVL, we get
5i + 12i + 1:2 5=0

) 17i = 3:8
) i = 0:224A
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24 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.13
Find current i1 using source transformation for the circuit shown Fig. 1.29.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 1.29
Converting 1 mA current source in parallel with 47kΩ resistor and 20 mA current source
ut
in parallel with 10kΩ resistor into equivalent voltage sources, the circuit of Fig. 1.29
becomes the circuit shown in Fig. 1.29(a).
ol
us
Figure 1.29(a)
Please note that for each voltage source, “+” corresponds to its corresponding current
source’s arrow head.
vt
Using KVL to the above circuit,
47 + 47 103 i1 4i1 + 13:3 103 i1 + 200 = 0
Solving, we find that

i1 = 4.096 mA
EXAMPLE 1.14
Use source transformation to convert the circuit in Fig. 1.30 to a single current source in
parallel with a single resistor.
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in
n.
Figure 1.30
SOLUTION
The 9V source across the terminals a0 and b0 will force the voltage across these two
io
terminals to be 9V regardless the value of the other 9V source and 8Ω resistor to its
left. Hence, these two components may be removed from the terminals, a0 and b0 without
affecting the circuit condition. Accordingly, the above circuit reduces to,
ut
ol
Converting the voltage source in series with 4Ω resistor into an equivalent current
source, we get,
us
vt
Adding the current sources in parallel and

reducing the two 4 ohm resistors in parallel,
we get the circuit shown in Fig. 1.30 (a):
Figure 1.30 (a)
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26 j Network Theory
1.8.1 Source Shift
The source transformation is possible only in the case of practical sources. ie Rs 6= 1
in
and Rp 6= 0, where Rs and Rp are internal resistances of voltage and current sources
respectively. Transformation is not possible for ideal sources and source shifting methods
are used for such cases.
Voltage source shift (E shift):
n.
Consider a part of the network shown in Fig. 1.31(a) that contains an ideal voltage source.
io
ut
Figure 1.31(a) Basic network
Since node b is at a potential E with respect to node a, the network can be redrawn
equivalently as in Fig. 1.31(b) or (c) depend on the requirements.
ol
us
vt
Figure 1.31(b) Networks after E-shift Figure 1.31(c) Network after the E-shift
Current source shift (I shift)

In a similar manner, current sources also can be shifted. This can be explained with an
example. Consider the network shown in Fig. 1.32(a), which contains an ideal current
source between nodes a and c. The circuit shown in Figs. 1.32(b) and (c) illustrates the
equivalent circuit after the I - shift.
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in
n.
Figure 1.32(a) basic network
io
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.32(b) and (c) Networks after I--shift
EXAMPLE 1.15
Use source shifting and transformation techiniques to find voltage across 2Ω resistor shown
in Fig. 1.33(a). All resistor values are in ohms.
vt
Figure 1.33(a)
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28 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn by shifting 2A current source and 3V voltage source and further
in
simplified as shown below.
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Thus the voltage across 2Ω resistor is
V =3 2 1 +4
1
1 +4 1
=3V
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EXAMPLE 1.16
Use source mobility to calculate vab in the circuits shown in Fig. 1.34 (a) and (b). All
in
resistor values are in ohms.
n.
io
ut
Figure 1.34(a) Figure 1.34(b)
SOLUTION
(a) The circuit shown in Fig. 1.34(a) is simplified using source mobility technique, as
shown below and the voltage across the nodes a and b is calculated.
ol
us
b a
vt
Voltage across a and b is
1
Vab = =2V
3−1 + 10−1 + 15−1
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30 j Network Theory
(b) The circuit shown in Fig. 1.34 (b) is reduced as follows.
in
n.
Figure 1.34(c)
io Figure 1.34(d)
ut
ol
Figure 1.34(e)
us
From Fig. 1.34(e),
12 1 6
Vbc =
12 1 + 10 1 + 15 1
12 = 24 V
vt
Applying this result in Fig. 1.34(b), we get
vab = vac vbc

= 60 24 = 36 V
EXAMPLE 1.17
Use mobility and reduction techniques to solve the node voltages of the network shown
in Fig. 1.35(a). All resistors are in ohms.
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in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 1.35(a)
The circuit shown in Fig. 1.35(a) can be reduced by using desired techniques as shown in
ut
Fig. 1.35(b) to 1.35(e).
ol
us
vt
Figure 1.35(b)
From Fig. 1.35(e)

34
i= =2A
17
Using this value of i in Fig. 1.35(e),
Va = 92= 18 V
and Ve = Va 22 20 = 42V
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32 j Network Theory
in
n.
io
Figure 1.35(c)
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.35(d)
vt
Figure 1.35(e)
From Fig 1.35(a)

Vd = Ve + 30 = 42 + 30 = 12V
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Then at node b in Fig. 1.35(b),
Vb Vb Vd
in
45 + =0
2 8
Using the value of Vd in the above equation and rearranging, we get,

1 1 12
Vb + = 45
n.
2 8 8
) Vb = 69:6 V
At node c of Fig. 1.35(b)
Vc Vc Ve
)
5
+ 45 +
Vc

1
+
10
5 10
1
=0
= 45
Vc = 164 V io
42
10
ut
EXAMPLE 1.18
Use source mobility to reduce the network shown in Fig. 1.36(a) and find the value of Vx .
All resistors are in ohms.
ol
us
vt
Figure 1.36(a)
SOLUTION
The circuit shown in Fig. 1.36(a) can be reduced as follows and Vx is calculated.
Thus
Vx =
5
25
18 = 3:6V
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34 j Network Theory
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
1.9 Mesh analysis with independent voltage sources

vt
Before starting the concept of mesh analysis, we want to reiterate that a closed path or
a loop is drawn starting at a node and tracing a path such that we return to the original
node without passing an intermediate node more than once. A mesh is a special case of
a loop. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loops within it. The network
shown in Fig. 1.37(a) has four meshes and they are identified as Mi , where i = 1; 2; 3; 4.
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in
n.
Figure 1.37(a) A circuit with four meshes. Each mesh is identified by a circuit
The current flowing in a mesh is defined as mesh

current. As a matter of convention, the mesh cur-
rents are assumed to flow in a mesh in the clock-
wise direction.
io
ut
Let us consider the two mesh circuit of Fig.
1.37(b).
We cannot choose the outer loop, v ! R1 ! R2 !
v as one mesh, since it would contain the loop v !
R1 ! R3 ! v within it. Let us choose two mesh
ol
currents i1 and i2 as shown in the figure. Figure 1.37(b) A circuit with two meshes
We may employ KVL around each mesh. We will travel around each mesh in the
clockwise direction and sum the voltage rises and drops encountered in that particular
us
mesh. We will adpot a convention of taking voltage drops to be positive and voltage rises
to be negative . Thus, for the network shown in Fig. 1.37(b) we have
Mesh 1 : v + i1 R1 + (i1 i2 )R3 = 0 (1.34)
Mesh 2 : R3 (i2 i1 ) + R2 i2 = 0 (1.35)
Note that when writing voltage across R3 in mesh 1, the current in R3 is taken as
vt
i1 i2 . Note that the mesh current i1 is taken as ‘+ve’ since we traverse in clockwise
direction in mesh 1, On the other hand, the voltage across R3 in mesh 2 is written as
R3 (i2 i1 ). The current i2 is taken as +ve since we are traversing in clockwise direction
in this case too.
Solving equations (1.34) and (1.35), we can find the mesh currents i1 and i2 .
Once the mesh currents are known, the branch currents are evaluated in terms of
mesh currents and then all the branch voltages are found using Ohms’s law. If we have
N meshes with N mesh currents, we can obtain N independent mesh equations. This set
of N equations are independent, and thus guarantees a solution for the N mesh currents.
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36 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.19
For the electrical network shown in Fig. 1.38, determine the loop currents and all branch
in
currents.
n.
io
Figure 1.38
ut
SOLUTION
Applying KVL for the meshes shown in Fig. 1.38, we have
Mesh 1 : 0:2I1 + 2(I1 I3 ) + 3(I1 I2 ) 10 = 0

ol
) 5:2I1 3I2 2I3 = 10 (1.36)
Mesh 2 : 3(I2 I1 ) + 4(I2 I3 ) + 0:2I2 + 15 = 0
) 3I1 + 7:2I2 4I3 = 15 (1.37)
5I3 + 2(I3 I1 ) + 4(I3 I2 ) = 0
us
Mesh 3 :
) 2I1 4I2 + 11I3 = 0 (1.38)
Putting the equations (1.36) through (1.38) in matrix form, we have

2 32 3 2 3
5:2 3 2 I1 10
4 3 7:2 4 5 4 I2 5 = 4 15 5
vt
2 4 11 I3 0
Using Cramer’s rule, we get
I1 = 0:11A
I2 = 2:53A
and I3 = 0:9A
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The various branch currents are now calculated as follows:

Current through 10V battery = I1 = 0:11A
in
Current through 2Ω resistor = I1 I3 = 1:01A
Current through 5Ω resistor = I3 = 0:9A
n.
Current through 15V battery = I2 = 2:53A
The negative sign for I2 and I3 indicates that the actual directions of these currents
are opposite to the assumed directions.
1.10 Mesh analysis with independent current sources
Let us consider an electrical circuit source

having an independent current source as
shown Fig. 1.39(a).
io
ut
We find that the second mesh current i2 = is
and thus we need only to determine the first
mesh current i1 , Applying KVL to the first
mesh, we obtain
ol
(R1 + R2 )i1 R2 i2 = v
Since i2 = is ;
we get (R1 + R2 )i1 + is R2 = v
v is R2 Figure 1.39(a) Circuit containing both inde-
) i1 =
us
R1 + R2 pendent voltage and current sources
As a second example, let us take an electri-

cal circuit in which the current source is is
common to both the meshes. This situation
is shown in Fig. 1.39(b).
By applying KCL at node x, we recognize
vt
that, i2 i1 = is
The two mesh equations (using KVL) are
M esh 1 : R1 i1 + vxy v=0

M esh 2 : (R2 + R3 )i2 vxy = 0
Figure 1.39(b) Circuit containing an independent
current source common to both meshes
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38 j Network Theory
Adding the above two equations, we get

R1 i1 + (R2 + R3 )i2 = v
in
Substituting i2 = i1 + is in the above equation, we find that
R1 i1 + (R2 + R3 )(i1 + is ) = v
(R2 + R3 )is
v
) i1 =
R1 + R2 + R3
n.
In this manner, we can handle independent current sources by recording the relation-
ship between the mesh currents and the current source. The equation relating the mesh
current and the current source is recorded as the constraint equation.
EXAMPLE 1.20
Find the voltage Vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.40.
io
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.40
SOLUTION
Constraint equations:
I1 = 4 10 3 A
I2 = 2 10 3 A
vt
Applying KVL for the mesh 3, we get

4 103 [I3 I2 ] + 2 103 [I3 I1 ] + 6 103I3 3=0
Substituting the values of I1 and I2 , we obtain
I3 = 0:25 mA
Hence; Vo = 6 103I3 3
= 6 103 (0:25 10 3
) 3
= 1:5 V
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1.11 Supermesh
in
A more general technique for mesh analysis method,
when a current source is common to two meshes,
involves the concept of a supermesh. A supermesh is
created from two meshes that have a current source
as a common element; the current source is in the
n.
interior of a supermesh. We thus reduce the number
of meshes by one for each current source present.
Figure 1.41 shows a supermesh created from the two
meshes that have a current source in common. Figure 1.41 Circuit with a supermesh
shown by the dashed line
EXAMPLE 1.21
io
Find the current io in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.42(a).
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.42(a)
SOLUTION
This problem is first solved by the techique explained in Section 1.10. Three mesh currents
are specified as shown in Fig. 1.42(b). The mesh currents constrained by the current
vt
sources are
i=2 10 3
A
i2 i3 = 4 10 3
A
The KVL equations for meshes 2 and 3 respetively are
2 103 i2 + 2 103 (i2 i1 ) vxy = 0

6 + 1 103 i3 + vxy + 1 103 (i3 i1 ) = 0
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40 j Network Theory
in
n.
Figure 1.42(b)
Adding last two equations, we get io Figure 1.42(c)

ut
6 + 1 103 i3 + 2 103 i2 + 2 103 (i2 i1 ) + 1 103(i3 i1 ) = 0 (1.39)
Substituting i1 = 2 10 3A and i3 = i2 4 10 3A in the above equation,

we get

6 + 1 103 i2 4 10 + 2 103 i2 + 2 103 i2 2 10
ol
3 3

+1 103 i2 4 10 3
2 10 3
=0
Solving we get
us
10
i2 = mA
3
Thus; io = i1 i2
10
=2
3
4
= mA
vt
The purpose of supermesh approach is to avoid introducing the unknown voltage vxy .
The supermesh is created by mentally removing the 4 mA current source as shown in
Fig. 1.42(c). Then applying KVL equation around the dotted path, which defines the
supermesh, using the orginal mesh currents as shown in Fig. 1.42(b), we get
6 + 1 103 i3 + 2 103 i2 + 2 103 (i2 i1 ) + 1 103(i3 i1 ) = 0
Note that the supermesh equation is same as equation 1.39 obtained earlier by introduc-
ing vxy , the remaining procedure of finding io is same as before.
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EXAMPLE 1.22
For the network shown in Fig. 1.43(a), find the mesh currents i1 ; i2 and i3 .
in
n.
Figure 1.43(a)
io Figure 1.43(b)
ut
SOLUTION
The 5A current source is in the common
boundary of two meshes. The supermesh
is shown as dotted lines in Figs.1.43(b) and
1.43(c), the branch having the 5A current
ol
source is removed from the circuit diagram.
Then applying KVL around the dotted path,
which defines the supermesh, using the orig-
inal mesh currents as shown in Fig. 1.43(c),
us
we find that
10 + 1(i1 i3 ) + 3(i2 i3 ) + 2i2 = 0

Figure 1.43(c)
For mesh 3, we have
1(i3 i1 ) + 2i3 + 3(i3 i2 ) = 0
vt
Finally, the constraint equation is

i1 i2 = 5
Then the above three eqations may be reduced to
Supemesh: 1i1 + 5i2 4i3 = 10
Mesh 3 : 1i1 3i2 + 6i3 = 0
current source : i1 i2 = 5
Solving the above simultaneous equations, we find that,
i1 = 7.5A, i2 = 2.5A, and i3 = 2.5A
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42 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.23
Find the mesh currents i1 ; i2 and i3 for the network shown in Fig. 1.44.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 1.44
ut
Here we note that 1A independent current source is in the common boundary of two
meshes. Mesh currents i1 ; i2 and i3 , are marked in the clockwise direction. The supermesh
is shown as dotted lines in Figs. 1.45(a) and 1.45(b). In Fig. 1.45(b), the 1A current
source is removed from the circuit diagram, then applying the KVL around the dotted
path, which defines the supermesh, using original mesh currents as shown in Fig. 1.45(b),
ol
we find that
2 + 2(i1 i3 ) + 1(i2 i3 ) + 2i2 = 0
us
vt
Figure 1.45(a) Figure 1.45(b) .
For mesh 3, the KVL equation is

2(i3 i1 ) + 1i3 + 1(i3 i2 ) = 0
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Finally, the constraint equation is
i1 i2 = 1
in
Then the above three equations may be reduced to
Supermesh : 2i1 + 3i2 3i3 = 2
Mesh 3 : 2i1 + i2 4i3 = 0
n.
Current source : i1 i2 = 1
Solving the above simultaneous equations, we find that
i1 = 1.55A, i2 = 0.55A, i3 = 0.91A
1.12 Mesh analysis for the circuits involving dependent sources
io
The persence of one or more dependent sources merely requires each of these source
quantites and the variable on which it depends to be expressed in terms of assigned mesh
currents. That is, to begin with, we treat the dependent source as though it were an
independent source while writing the KVL equations. Then we write the controlling
ut
equation for the dependent source. The following examples illustrate the point.
EXAMPLE 1.24
(a) Use the mesh current method to solve for ia in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.46.
(b) Find the power delivered by the independent current source.
ol
(c) Find the power delivered by the dependent voltage source.
us
Figure 1.46
vt
SOLUTION
(a) We mark two mesh currents i1 and i2 as shown in Fig. 1.47. We find that i = 2:5mA.
Applying KVL to mesh 2, we find that
2400(i2 0:0025) + 1500i2 150(i2 0:0025) = 0 (∵ ia = i2 2:5 mA)
) 3750i2 = 6 0:375
= 5:625
) i2 = 1:5 mA
ia = i2 2:5 = 1:0mA
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44 j Network Theory
(b) Applying KVL to mesh 1, we get

vo + 2:5(0:4) 2:4ia = 0
) vo = 2:5(0:4) 2:4( 1:0) = 3:4V
in
Pind.source = 3:4 2:5 10 3
= 8.5 mW(delivered)
(c) Pdep.source = 150ia (i2 )
n.
= 150( 1:0 10 3
)(1:5 10 3)
= 0.225 mW(absorbed) Figure 1.47
EXAMPLE 1.25
io
Find the total power delivered in the circuit using mesh-current method.
ut
ol
Figure 1.48
us
SOLUTION
Let us mark three mesh currents i1 , i2 and i3 as shown in Fig. 1.49.
KVL equations :
Mesh 1: 17:5i1 + 2:5(i1 i3 )
+5(i1 i2 ) = 0
) 25i1 5i2 2:5i3 = 0
Mesh 2: 125 + 5(i2 i1 )
vt
+7:5(i2 i3 ) + 50 = 0
) 5i1 + 12:5i2 7:5i3 = 75
Constraint equations :
i3 = 0:2Va
Va = 5(i2 i1 )
Thus; i3 = 0:2 5(i2 i1 ) = i2 i1 :
Figure 1.49
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Making use of i3 in the mesh equations, we get

Mesh 1 : 25i1 5i2 2:5(i2 i1 ) = 0
in
) 27:5i1 7:5i2 = 0
Mesh 2 : 5i1 + 12:5i2 7:5(i2 i1 ) = 75
) 2:5i1 + 5i2 = 75
n.
Solving the above two equations, we get
i1 = 3:6 A; i2 = 13:2 A
and i3 = i2 i1 = 9:6 A
Applying KVL through the path having 5Ω ! 2:5Ω ! vcs ! 125V source, we get,
) vcs = 125
= 125 io
5(i2 i1 ) + 2:5(i3 i1 ) + vcs 125 = 0
5(i2
48
i1 )
2:5(9:6
2:5(i3 i1 )
3:6) = 62 V
ut
Pvcs = 62(9:6) = 595:2W (absorbed)
P50V = 50(i2 i3 ) = 50(13:2 9:6) = 180W (absorbed)
P125V = 125i2 = 1650W (delivered)
EXAMPLE 1.26
ol
Use the mesh-current method to find the power delivered by the dependent voltage source
in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.50.
us
vt
Figure 1.50
SOLUTION
Applying KVL to the meshes 1, 2 and 3 shown in Fig 1.51, we have

Mesh 1 : 5i1 + 15(i1 i3 ) + 10(i1 i2 ) 660 = 0
) 30i1 10i2 15i3 = 660
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46 j Network Theory
Mesh 2 : 20ia + 10(i2 i1 ) + 50(i2 i3 ) = 0

) 10(i2 i1 ) + 50(i2 i3 ) = 20ia
in
) 10i1 + 60i2 50i3 = 20ia
Mesh 3 : 15(i3 i1 ) + 25i3 + 50(i3 i2 ) = 0
) 15i1 50i2 + 90i3 = 0
n.
io
ut
Figure 1.51
Also ia = i2 i3
ol
Solving, i1 = 42A, i2 = 27A, i3 = 22A, ia = 5A.
Power delivered by the dependent voltage source = P20ia = (20ia )i2
= 2700W (delivered)
1.13 Node voltage anlysis

us
In the nodal analysis, Kirchhoff’s current law is used to write the equilibrium equations.
A node is defined as a junction of two or more branches. If we define one node of the
network as a reference node (a point of zero potential or ground), the remaining nodes of
the network will have a fixed potential relative to this reference. Equations relating to all
nodes except for the reference node can be written by applying KCL.
vt
Refering to the circuit shown

in Fig.1.52, we can arbitrarily
choose any node as the reference
node. However, it is convenient
to choose the node with most con-
nected branches. Hence, node 3 is
chosen as the reference node here.
It is seen from the network of Fig. Figure 1.52 Circuit with three nodes where the
1.52 that there are three nodes. lower node 3 is the reference node
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Hence, number of equations based on KCL will be total number of nodes minus one.
That is, in the present context, we will have only two KCL equations referred to as node
in
equations. For applying KCL at node 1 and node 2, we assume that all the currents leave
these nodes as shown in Figs. 1.53 and 1.54.
n.
Figure 1.53 Simplified circuit for
applying KCL at node 1
Applying KCL at node 1 and 2, we find that

io
Figure 1.54 Simplified circuit for
applying KCL at node 2
ut
(i) At node 1: i1 + i2 + i4 = 0
v1 va v1 v2 v1
) R1
+
R2
+
R4
0
=0

ol
va
) v1
1
R1
+
1
R2
+
R4
1
v2
R2
1
=
R1
(1.40)
(ii) At node 2: i2 + i3 + i5 = 0
us
v2 v1 v2 vb v2
) R2
+
R3
+
R5
=0

vb
) v1
1
R2
+ v2
1
R2
+
1
R3
+
1
R5
=
R3
(1.41)
Putting equations (1.40) and (1.41) in matrix form, we get

2 32 3 2 v 3
vt
1 1 1 1 v1 a
6 R1 + + 76 7 6 R1 7
6 R2 R4 R2 76 7=6 7
6 76 7 6 7
4 1 1 1 1 54 5 4 vb 5
+ + v2
R2 R2 R3 R5 R3
The above matrix equation can be solved for node voltages v1 and v2 using Cramer’s
rule of determinants. Once v1 and v2 are obtainted, then by using Ohm’s law, we can find
all the branch currents and hence the solution of the network is obtained.
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48 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.27
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 1.55. Find the three node voltages va , vb and vc , when all
in
the conductances are equal to 1S.
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 1.55
ut
At node a: (G1 + G2 + G6 )va G2 v b G6 v c = 9 3
At node b: G2 va + (G4 + G2 + G3 )vb G4 v c = 3
At node c: G6 va G4 vb + (G4 + G5 + G6 )vc = 7
Substituting the values of various conductances, we find that
ol
3va vb vc = 6
va + 3vb vc = 3
va vb + 3vc = 7
Putting the above equations in matrix form, we see that
us
2 32 3 2 3
3 1 1 va 6
4 1 3 1 5 4 vb 5 = 3 5
4
1 1 3 vc 7
Solving the matrix equation using cramer’s rule, we get
va = 5:5V; vb = 4:75V; vc = 5:75V
vt
The determinant Δ used for computing va , vb and vc in general form is given by

P

a G Gab Gac
P

G = Gab G Gbc
b P
Gac Gbc G

c
P
where G is the sum of the conductances at node i, and Gij is the sum of conductances
i
conecting nodes i and j .
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The node voltage matrix equation for a circuit with k unknown node voltages is
Gv = is ;
2 3
in
va
6 vb 7
v=6 .
6 7
where; 7
4 .. 5
vk
n.
is the vector consisting of k unknown node voltages.
2 3
is1
6 is2 7
6
ia = 6 .
7
The matrix 7
4 ..
isk
io 5
is the vector consisting of k current sources and isk is the sum of all the source currents
entering the node k . If the k th current source is not present, then isk = 0.
ut
EXAMPLE 1.28
Use the node voltage method to find how much power the 2A source extracts from the
circuit shown in Fig. 1.56.
ol
us
Figure 1.56
SOLUTION
vt
Applying KCL at node a, we get

va va 55
2+ + =0
4 5
) va = 20V
P2Asource = 20(2) = 40W (absorbing)
Figure 1.57
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50 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.29
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 1.58(a).
in
(a) Use the node voltage method to find the branch currents i1 to i6 .
(b) Test your solution for the branch currents by showing the total power dissipated equals
the power developed.
n.
io
ut
Figure 1.58(a)
SOLUTION
(a) At node v1 :
v1 110 v1 v2 v1 v3
ol
+ + =0
2 8 16
) 11v1 2v2 v3 = 880
At node v2 :
v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
us
+ + =0
8 3 24
) 3v1 + 12v2 v3 = 0
At node v3 :
v3 + 110 v3 v2 v3 v1
+ + =0
2 24 16
)
vt
3v1 2v2 + 29v3 = 2640

Figure 1.58(b)
Solving the above nodal equations,we get
v1 = 74:64V; v2 = 11:79V; v3 = 82:5V
110 v1
Hence; i1 = = 17:68A
2
v2
i2 = = 3:93A
3
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v3 + 110
i3 = = 13:75A
2
in
v1 v2
i4 = = 7:86A
8
v2 v3
i5 = = 3:93A
24
v1 v3
n.
i6 = = 9:82A
16
(b) Total power delivered = 110i1 + 110i3 = 3457:3W
Total power dissipated = i21 2 + i22 3 + i23 2 + i24 8 + i25 24 + i26 16
= 3457.3 W
EXAMPLE 1.30
(a)Use the node voltage method to show that the output volatage vo in the circuit of
Fig 1.59(a) is equal to the average value of the source voltages.
(b) Find vo if v1 = 150V, v2 = 200V and v3 = 50V.
io
ut
ol
Figure 1.59(a)
us
SOLUTION
vo v1 vo v2 vo v3 vo vn
+ + + + =0
R R R R
vt
) nvo = v1 + v2 + + v n
= [v1 + v2 + + v ]
1
Hence; vo n
n
1X
n
= vk
n
k =1
1
(b) vo = (150 + 200 50) = 100V Figure 1.59(b)
3
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52 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.31
Use nodal analysis to find vo in the circuit of Fig. 1.60.
in
n.
Figure 1.60
io Figure 1.61
ut
SOLUTION
Referring Fig 1.61, at node v1 :

v1 + 6 v1 v1 + 3
+ + =0
6 3 2
v1 v1 v1
) 2:5
ol
+ + =
6 3 2
) v1 = 2:5 V

v1
vo =
2+1
1
2:5
1
us
=
3
= 0:83volts
EXAMPLE 1.32
Refer to the network shown in Fig. 1.62. Find the power delivered by 1A current source.
vt
Figure 1.62
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SOLUTION
Referring to Fig. 1.63, applying KVL
to the path va ! 4Ω ! 3Ω, we get
in
va = v1 v 3
v2 = 12V
v1 v1 v2
n.
At node v1 : + 1=0
4 2
v1 v1
) 4
+
2
12
1=0
v1 = 9:33 V
At node v2 :
)
)
v3
3
+
v3
3
v3
+
2
v3
v2
2
+1=0
12
+1=0
v3 = 6V
io Figure 1.63
ut
Hence; va = 9:33 6 = 3:33 volts
P1A source = va 1
= 3:33 1 = 3:33W (delivering)
ol
1.14 Supernode
Inorder to understand the concept of a supernode, let us consider an electrical circuit as

shown in Fig. 1.64.
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop containing R1 , voltage source and R2 , we get
us
va = vs + vb
) va vb = vs (Constraint equation) (1.42)
To account for the fact that the source voltage
is known, we consider both va and vb as part
of one larger node represented by the dotted
ellipse as shown in Fig. 1.64. We need a larger
vt
node because va and vb are dependent (see

equation 1.42). This larger node is called the
supernode.
Applying KCL at nodes a and b, we get
va
ia = 0
R1
vb
and + ia = is Figure 1.64 Circuit with a supernode
R2
incorporating va and vb .
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54 j Network Theory
Adding the above two equations, we find that

va vb
in
+ = is
R1 R2
) va G1 + vb G2 = is (1.43)
Solving equations (1.42) and (1.43), we can find the values of va and vb .
n.
When we apply KCL at the supernode, mentally imagine that the voltage source vs
is removed from the the circuit of Fig. 1.63, but the voltage at nodes a and b are held at
va and vb respectively. In other words, by applying KCL at supernode, we obtain
va G1 + va G2 = is
io
The equation is the same equation (1.43). As in supermesh, the KCL for supernode
eliminates the problem of dealing with a current through a voltage source.
Procedure for using supernode:
ut
1. Use it when a branch between non-reference nodes is connected by an independent
or a dependent voltage source.
2. Enclose the voltage source and the two connecting nodes inside a dotted ellipse to
form the supernode.
3. Write the constraint equation that defines the voltage relationship between the two
ol
non-reference node as a result of the presence of the voltage source.
4. Write the KCL equation at the supernode.
5. If the voltage source is dependent, then the constraint equation for the dependent
source is also needed.
us
EXAMPLE 1.33
Refer the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 1.65 and find va .
vt
Figure 1.65
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SOLUTION
in
The constraint equation is,
vb va = 8
) vb = va + 8
The KCL equation at the supernode
n.
is then,
va + 8 (va + 8) 12 va12
+ +
500 125 250
va
+ =0
Therefore;
EXAMPLE 1.34
500
va = 4V
io Figure 1.66
ut
Use the nodal analysis to find vo in the network of Fig. 1.67.
ol
us
Figure 1.67
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 1.68
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56 j Network Theory
The constraint equation is,
v2 v1 = 12
in
) v1 = v2 12
KCL at supernode:
v2 12 (v2 12) v3 v2 v2 v3
n.
1 10 1 10 1 10 1 103
3
+ 3
+ 3
+ =0
) 4 10 3 v2 2 10 3 v3 = 24 10 3
) 4v2 2v3 = 24
At node v3 :
)
v3 v2
1 103
+
io
v3 (v2 12)
1 103
= 2 10 3
2 10 3 v2 + 2 10 3 v3 = 10 10 3
ut
2v2 + 2v3 = 10
Solving we get v2 = 7V
v3 = 2V
ol
Hence; vo = v3 = 2V
EXAMPLE 1.35
Refer the network shown in Fig. 1.69. Find the current Io .
us
vt
Figure 1.69
SOLUTION
Constriant equation:
v 3 = v1 12
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in
n.
Figure 1.70
KCL at supernode:
v1 12
3 10 3
+
v1
2 10 3
+
v1 v2
3 103
io
=0
ut
) 7
6
10 3 v1
1
3
10 3v2 = 4 10 3
) 7
6
v1
1
3
v2 = 4
ol
KCL at node 2:
v2 v1 v2
+ 4 10 3
3 3 103
+ =0
103
us
) 1
3
10 3
v1 +
2
3
10 3
v2 = 4 10 3
) 1
3
v1 +
2
3
v2 = 4
Putting the above two nodal equations in matrix form, we get

2 7 1
32 3 2 3
v1 4
vt
6 6 7
3 76 6 7 6 7
6 7=6 7
4 1 2 54 5 4 5
3 3 v2 4
Solving the above two matrix equations using Cramer’s rule, we get
v1 = 2V
v1
) Io =
2 103
=
2
2 103
= 1mA
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58 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.36
Refer the network shown in Fig. 1.71. Find the power delivered by the dependent voltage
in
source in the network.
n.
SOLUTION
Refer Fig. 1.72, KCL at node 1: io
Figure 1.71
ut
v1 80 v1 v1 + 75ia
+ + =0
5 50 25
v1
where ia =
50 v
1
ol
v1 v1 v1 + 75
) 5
80
+
50
+
25
50 =0
Solving we get v1 = 50V
Figure 1.72
us
v1
) ia =
50
=
50
50
= 1A
v1 ( 75ia )
Also; i1 =
(10 + 15)
v1 + 75ia
=
(10 + 15)
vt
50 + 75 1
= = 5A
(10 + 15)
P75ia = (75ia )i1
= 75 1 5
= 375W (delivered)
EXAMPLE 1.37
Use the node-voltage method to find the power developed by the 20 V source in the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.73.
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in
n.
Figure 1.73
SOLUTION
io
ut
ol
Figure 1.74
us
va = 20 v2
v1 31ib = v3
v2
ib =
40
vt
Node equations :
(i) Supernode:
v1 v1 20 v3 v2 v3
+ + + + 3:125va = 0
20 2 4 80
v1 v1 (v1 35ib ) v2 (v1 35ib )
) 20
+
2
20
+
4
+
80
+ 3:125(20 v2 ) = 0
v2 v2
v1 v1 v1 35 v2 v1 35
) 20
+
2
20
+
4
40 +
80
40 + 3:125(20 v2 ) = 0
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60 j Network Theory
(ii) At node v2 :
v2 v2 v3 v2 20
+ + =0
in
40 4 1
v2 v2 (v1 35ib ) v2
) 40
+
4
+
1
20
=0
v2
n.
v2 v2 v1 35 v2
) 40
+
4
40 +
1
20
=0
Solving the above two nodal equations, we get
Then
v1 =
v 3 = v1
= v1
20:25V;
35ib
35
v2 io
v2 = 10V
ut
40
= 29V
20 v1 20 v2
Also; ig = +
2 1
20 + 20:25 (20 10)
ol
= +
2 1
= 30.125 A
P20V = 20ig = 20(30:125)
us
= 602.5 W (delivered)
EXAMPLE 1.38
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 1.75(a). Determine the current i1 .
vt
Figure 1.75(a)
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SOLUTION
Constraint equation:
in
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop containing 3V source, dependent voltage source,
2A current source and 4Ω resitor, we get
v1 3 0:5i1 + v2 = 0
)
n.
v1 v2 = 3 0:5i1
v2 4
Substituting i1 = , the above equation becomes
2
4v1 3v2 = 8
io
ut
ol
Figure 1.75(b)
us
KCL equation at supernode:
v1 v2
4
+
2
4
= 2 ) v1 + 2v2 = 0
Solving the constraint equation and the KCL equation at supernode simultaneously,
vt
we find that,
v2 = 727:3 mV
v1 = 2v2
= 1454:6 mV
v2 4
Then; i1 =
2
= 1:636A
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62 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 1.39
Refer the network shown in Fig. 1.76(a). Find the node voltages vd and vc .
in
n.
io
ut
Figure 1.76(a)
SOLUTION
vb vc
From the network, shown in Fig. 1.76 (b), by inspection,vb = 8 V, i1 =
2
ol
Constraint equation: va = 6i1 + vd
va vb va vd vc
KCL at supernode: + + = 3vc
2 2 2

) va
1 1
+
2 2
1
2
1
vb + [vd
2
vc ] = 3vc (1.44)
us
vt
Figure 1.76(b)
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Substituting vb = 8 V in the constrained equation, we get

(vb vc )
va = 6 + vd
in
2
= 3(vb vc ) + vd
= 3(8 vc ) + vd (1.45)
Substituting equation (1.45) into equation (1.44), we get
n.
1 1
[3(8 vc ) + vd ] (8) + [vd vc ] = 3vc
2 2
) 24 3vc + vd 4 + 21 vd 12 vc = 3vc
) 6:5vc + 1:5vd = 20 (1.46)
KCL at node c:
Substituting vb = 8V, we have

)
vc
vc
vc
2
2
vb
8
io
+
+
8 + vc
vc
vc
2
2
vd
vd
=4
=4
vd = 8
ut
) 2vc vd = 16
) vc 0:5vd = 8 (1.47)
Solving equations (1.46) and (1.47), we get
vc = 1.14V
ol
vd = 18.3V
EXAMPLE 1.40
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.77(a), determine all the node voltages.
us
vt
Figure 1.77(a)
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64 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
Refer Fig 1.77(b), by inspection, v2 = 5V
in
Nodes 1 and 3 form a supernode.
v1 v3 = 6
n.
KCL at super node:
v1 v2 v3
+ +2=0
10 1
Substituting v2 = 5V, we get
)
)
v1
v1
10
5
1
+=
5 + 10v3 =
v1 + 10v3 =
v3
2
20
15 io
ut
Figure 1.77(b)
Solving the constraint and the KCL equations at supernode simultaneously, we get
v1 = 4.091V
ol
v3 = 1.909V
KCL at node 4 :
v4 v4 v2
+ 2=0
us
2 4
Substituting v2 = 5V, we get
v4 v4 5
+ 2=0
2 4
Solving we get, v4 = 4:333V:
vt
1.15 Brief review of impedance and admittance
Let us consider a general circuit with two accessible terminals, as shown in Fig. 1.78. If
the time domain voltage and current at the terminals are given by
v = vm sin(!t + v )
i = im sin(!t + i )
then the phasor quantities at the terminals are Figure 1.78 General phasor
circuit
Vtusolution.in
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V = Vm v

I = Im i
in
We define the ratio of V to I as the impedence of the circuit, which is denoted as Z.
That is,
V
Z=
I
n.
It is very important to note that impedance Z is a complex quantity, being the ratio
of two complex quantities, but it is not a phasor. That is, it has no corresponding
sinusoidal time-domain function, as current and voltage phasors do. Impedence is a
complex constant that scales one phasor to produce another.
The impedence Z is written in rectangular form as
Z = R + jX
io
where R = Real[Z] is the resistance and X = Im[Z] is the reactance. Both R and X , like
Z, are measured in ohms. p
ut
The magnitude of Z is written as |Z| = R2+ X
2
1 X
and the angle of Z is denoted as Z = tan .
R
The relationships are shown graphically in Fig. 1.79.
The table below gives the various forms of Z for
ol
different combinations of R; L and C . Figure 1.79 Graphical representation
of impedance
Type of the circuit Impedance Z

us
1. Purely resistive Z=R
2. Purely inductive Z = j!L = jXL

j
3. Purely capactive Z= = jXC ‘
!C
vt
4. RL Z = R + j!L = R + jXL
j
5. RC Z=R =R jXC
!C
j
6. RLC Z = R + j!L = R + j (XL XC )
!C
The reciprocal of impendance is denoted by

1
Y=
Z
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66 j Network Theory
is called admittance and is analogous to conductance in resistive circuits. Evidently, since

Z is a complex number, so is Y. The standard representation of admittance is
in
Y = G + jB
The quantities G = Re[Y] and B = Im[Y] are respectively called conductance and sus-
pectence. The units of Y, G and B are all siemens.
n.
1.16 Kirchhoff’s Laws: Applied to alternating circuits
If a complex excitation, say vm ej (!t+) , is applied to a circuit, then complex voltages, such
as v1 ej (!t+1 ) ; v2 ej (!t+2 ) and so on, appear across the elements in the circuit. Kirchhoff’s
voltage law applied around a typical loop results in an equation such as
v1 e
Dividing by ej!t , we get

j(ωt+θ1 )
+ v2 e
io
j(ωt+θ2 )
v1 ej1 + v2 ej2 + : : : + vN ejN = 0

+ : : : + vN e
j (ωt+θN )
=0
ut
) V1 + V2 + : : : + VN = 0

where Vi = Vi i ; i = 1; 2; N
are the phasor voltage around the loop.
Thus KVL holds good for phasors also. A similar approach will establish KCL also.
ol
At any node having N connected branches,
I1 + I2 + + IN = 0

where I i = I i i ; i = 1; 2 N
Thus, KCL holds good for phasors also.
us
EXAMPLE 1.41
Determine V1 and V2 , the node voltage phasors using nodal technique for the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.80.
vt
Figure 1.80
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SOLUTION
First step in the analysis is to convert the circuit of Fig. 1.80 into its phasor version
in
(frequency domain representation).
5 cos 2t ) 5 / 0 ; ! = 2 rad=s
1
4
H ) j!L = j Ω
1
2
n.
j j
1
2
F ) !C
= j 1Ω; 1F ) !C
=
1
j Ω
2
io
ut
Figure 1.80(a)
ol
us
Figure 1.80(b)
vt
Fig. 1.80(a) and (b) are the two versions of the phasor circuit of Fig. 1.80.

Z1 = j 1Ωjj
1
j Ω
2

1
j1 j
2
= = j 1Ω
1
j1 j
2
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68 j Network Theory
Z2 = j Ωjj1Ω
1
2
in
1
j (1)
2 1 + j2
= = Ω
1 5
j +1
2
n.
KCL at node V1 :
5 /0 ) +
V1 V1 V2
2 (V1 + =0
j1 j1
) (2 + j 2)V1 j 1V2 = 10
KCL at node V2 :
V2
j1 io
V1
+
1
V2
+ j2
= 5∠0
ut
5
) j V2 j V1 + V2 2j V2 = 5
) j 1V1+ (1 j 1)V2 = 5
Putting the above equations in a matrix form, we get

2 32 3 2 3
ol
2 + j2 j1 V1 10
4 54 5=4 5
j1 1 j1 V2 5
Solving V1 and V2 by Cramer’s rule, we get

us
V1 = 2 j1 V
V2 = 2 + j 4 V
In polar form,
p
26:6 V
V1 =
p5 /
vt
V2 = 2 5 /63:4 V
In time domain,
F
v1 = 26.6 ) V
F5 cos(2t
v2 = 2 5 cos(2t + 63.4 ) V
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EXAMPLE 1.42
Find the source voltage Vs shown in Fig. 1.81 using nodal technique. Take I = 3 /45 A:
in
n.
SOLUTION io
Figure 1.81
ut
Refer to Fig. 1.81(a).
KCL at node 1:
V1 Vs V1 V1 V2
+ + =0
10 j5 5 + j2
) (11 + j 12)V1 (5 + j 2)Vs = 10V2
ol
(1.48)
us
vt
Figure 1.81(a)
KCL at node 2:
V2 V1 V2
+I+ =0
5 + j2 8 + j3
) (8 + j 3)V1 = (13 + j 5)V2 + (34 + j 31)I (1.49)

Also; V2 = 4I = 4(3 /45 ) = 12 /45
p p
= 6 2 + j6 2 (1.50)
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70 j Network Theory
Substituting equations (1.48) and (1.50) in equation (1.49), we get
in
(8 + j 3)V1 = 74:24 + j 290:62
300 /75:7
) V1 =
8:54 /20:6
= 35:1 /55:1
= 20:1 + j 28:8 V
n.
Substituting V1 and V2 in equation (1.48) yields
(5 + j 2)Vs = 209:4 + j 473:1

517:4 /113:9
Therefore;
EXAMPLE 1.43
Vs =
io5:38 /21:8
= 96.1 /92.1 V
Find the voltage v (t) in the network shown in Fig. 1.82 using nodal technique.
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.82
SOLUTION
Converting the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.82 into a phasor circuit diagram, we get
vt
Figure 1.83
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
At node V1 :
V1 ( 1 + j ) V1 V1 V2
in
+ + =0
j2 2 j2
) V 1 j V2 = 1 + j (1.51)
V2 V1 V2
At nodeV2 : + Ic = 0
n.
j2 j2
2( 1 + j )
Also Ic = 2Ix = = 1 j
j2
V2 V1 V2
Hence;
)
j2
+
io j2
=
j V1 + j 2V2 =
Solving equations (1.51) and (1.52) using Cramer’s rule we get

p
1
2
j
j2 (1.52)
ut
2 /135 V
V2 =
F
Therefore; v(t) = v2 (t) = 2 cos(4t + 135 ) V
EXAMPLE 1.44
ol
Refer to the circuit of Fig. 1.84. Using nodal technique, find the current i.
us
Figure 1.84
vt
SOLUTION
1 1 1
Reactance of F capacitor = = = j 1kΩ
j 5000 10
5 j!C 1 6
5
The parallel combinations of 2kΩ and j 1kΩ is
2 103 ( j 103 ) 2
j 2)kΩ
2 10
Zp = = (1
3 j 10 3 5
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72 j Network Theory
in
n.
Figure 1.85
The phasor circuit of Fig. 1.84 is as shown in Fig. 1.85.

Constraint equation :
KCL at supernode :
4 /0
io
V2 = V1 + 3000I
ut
V1 V1 V2
j 1) 103
+ + =0
500 2
5
(1 j 2) 103 (2
Substituting V2 = V1 + 3000I in the above equation, we get
4 /0
ol
V1 V1 V1 + 3000I
(2 j 1) 103
+ + =0
500 2
5
(1 j 2) 103
Also,
us
4 /0 V1
I= (1.53)
500
Hence,

V1 4
4∠0
V1 + 3000
V1 V1 500
vt
(2 j 1) 103
+ + =0
500 2
5
(1 j 2) 103
Solving for V1 and substituting the same in equation (1.53), we get I = 24 /53:1 mA
Hence, in time-domain, we have
i = 24 cos(5000t + 53.1 )mA
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EXAMPLE 1.45
Use nodal analysis to find Vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.86.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 1.86
ut
The voltage source and its two connecting nodes form the supernode as shown in
Fig. 1.87.
ol
us
Figure 1.87
vt
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop formed by 12 /0 source, j 2Ω and j 4Ω we get
12 /0 + Vo V1 = 0
) V1 = Vo 12 /0
KCL at supernode:
V1 V1 V2 Vo V2 Vo
+ + + =0
j2 1 1 j4
Vtusolution.in
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74 j Network Theory
Substituting V1 = Vo 12 in the above equation

j j
we get, (Vo 12) + (Vo 12 V2 ) + Vo V2 + Vo = 0
in
2 4
j j
) Vo
2
+1+1+
4
+ V2 ( 1 1) = 12 j6

) Vo 2
1
j 2V2 = 12 j6
n.
4
V1 V2 V2 Vo
V2
KCL at V2 : + + =0
1 2 1
Substituting V1 = Vo 12 /0 in the above equation
V2 (Vo 12 /0 ) + V2 + V2 Vo = 0
1
we get,
)
Solving the two nodal equations,we get
2
io
2Vo + V2 = 12 /0
5
2
j8.09 = 13.7 / 36.2 V

ut
Vo = 11.056
EXAMPLE 1.46
Find i1 in the circuit of Fig. 1.88 using nodal analysis.
ol
us
Figure 1.88
SOLUTION
The phasor equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 1.88(a).

KCL at node V1 :
20 /0
vt
V1 V1 V1 V2
+ + =0
10 j 2:5 j4
) (1 + j 1:5)V1 + j 2:5V2 = 20
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V1 V2
+ = 2I1
j4 j2
V1
But I1 =
j 2:5
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 1.88(a)
Hence;
)
V2
j4
V1 V2
j2
+=
j 0:55V1 j 0:75V2 = 0
Multiplying throughout by j 20, we get io

2V1
j 2:5
ut
11V1 + 15V2 = 0
Putting the two nodal equations in matrix form, we get

2 32 3 2 3
1 + j 1:5 j 2:5 V1 20
ol
4 54 5=4 5
11 15 V2 0
Solving the matrix equation, we get
V1 = 18:97 /18:43 V
us
V2 = 13:91 / 161:56 V
= 7:59 /108:4 A
V1
The current I1 =
j 2:5
Transforming this to the time-domain, we get
vt
i1 = 7.59 cos(4t + 108.4 )A
EXAMPLE 1.47
Use the node-voltage method to find the steady-state expression for vo (t) in the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.89 if
vg 1 = 10 cos(5000t + 53:13 )V
vg 2 = 8 sin 5000t V
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76 j Network Theory
in
n.
Figure 1.89
SOLUTION
io
The first step is to convert the circuit of Fig. 1.89 into a phasor circuit.
10 cos(5000t + 53:13 )V; ! = 5000rad=sec

8 sin 5000t = 8 cos(5000t 90 )V
L = 0:4 mH
)
)
)
10 /53:13 = 6 + j 8V
8 / 90 =
j!L = j 2Ω
j 8V
ut
C = 50F ) 1
j!C
= j 4Ω
The phasor circuit is shown in

Fig. 1.89(a).
ol
KCL at node 1:
Vo (6 + j 8) Vo
+
j2 6
Vo ( j 8)
us
+ =0
j4
Solving we get Vo = 12 /0 V
Figure 1.89(a)
Hence, the steady-state expression is

vt
vo (t) = 12 cos 5000t
EXAMPLE 1.48
Solve the example (1.47) using mesh-current method.
SOLUTION
Refer Fig. 1.90.
KVL to mesh 1 : [6 + j 2]I1 6I2 = 10 /53:13

KVL to mesh 2 : 6I1 + (6 j 4)I2 = 8 / 90
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Figure 1.90
Putting the above equations in matrix form, we get

2 32 3 " #
6 + j2 6 I1 10 /53:13
4
6 6
Solving for I1 and I2 , we get

j4
54
I2
I1 = 4 + j 3
5=
io 8 / 90
ut
I2 = 2 + j 3
Now; Vo = (I1 I2 )6 = 12
= 12 /0 V
vo = 12 cos 5000t Volts
ol
Hence in time domain,
EXAMPLE 1.49
Determine the current Io in the circuit of Fig. 1.91 using mesh analysis.
us
vt
Figure 1.91
SOLUTION
Refer Fig 1.92
KVL for mesh 1 :
(8 + j 10 j 2)I1 ( j 2)I2 j 10I3 = 0
) (8 + j 8)I1 + j 2I2 = j 10I3 (1.54)
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78 j Network Theory
KVL for mesh 2 :

(4 j2 j 2)I2 ( j 2)I1 ( j 2)I3 + 20 /90 = 0
in
) j 2I1 + (4 j 4)I2 + j 2I3 = j 20 (1.55)
For mesh 3; I3 = 5 (1.56)
Sustituting the value of I3 in the equations (1.54) and (1.55), we get
n.
(8 + j 8)I1 + j 2I2 = j 50
j 2I1 + (4 j 4)I2 = j 20 j 10
= j 30
Putting the above equations in matrix

form,we get
2
4
8 + j8
j2 4
j2
j4
32
54
I1
I2
3
5=4
2
j 50
j 30
3
5
io
ut
Figure 1.92
Using Cramer’s rule,we get

I2 = 6:12 / 35:22 A
The required current: Io = I2
ol
= 6.12 /144.78 A
EXAMPLE 1.50
Find Voc using mesh technique.
us
vt
Figure 1.93
SOLUTION
Applying KVL clockwise for mesh 1 :
600I1 j 300(I1 I2 ) 9=0
) (600 j 300)I1 + j 300I2 = 9
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 1.94
Also;
Hence;
2Va + 300I2
2( j 300(I1
Va =
io
j 300(I2
j 300(I1
I2 )) + 300I2
I1 ) = 0
I2)
j 300 (I2 I1 ) = 0
ut
) j 3I1 + (1 j 3)I2 = 0
Putting the above two mesh equations in matrix form, we get
2 32 3 " #
600 j 300 j 300 I1 9
4 54 5=
ol
j3 1 j3 I2 0
Using Cramer’s rule, we find that

I2 = 0:0124 / 16 A
Voc = 300I2 = 3.72 / 16 V
us
Hence;
EXAMPLE 1.51
p
Find the steady current i1 when the source voltage is vs = 10 2 cos(!t + 45 ) V and
the current source is is = 3 cos !t A for the circuit of Fig. 1.95. The circuit provides the
impedence in ohms for each element at the specified ! .
vt
Figure 1.95
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80 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
in
n.
Figure 1.96
circuit is shown in Fig. 1.96.

p
vs = 10 2 cos(!t + 45 )
is = 3 cos !t io
The first step is to convert the circuit of Fig. 1.95 into a phasor circuit. The phasor
)
)
p
Vs = 10 2 /45 = 10(1 + j )
Is = 3 /0
ut
ol
Figure 1.96(a)
us
I2 I1 = Is = 3 /0
Applying KVL clockwise around the supermesh we get
I1 Z1 + I2 (Z2 + Z3 ) Vs = 0
Substituting I2 = I1 + Is (from the constraint equation)
vt
we get, I1 Z1 + (I1 + Is )(Z2 + Z3 ) = Vs

) (Z1 + Z2 + Z3 )I1 = Vs (Z2 + Z3 )Is
(10 + j 10) (2 j 2)3
) I1 =
Vs (Z2 + Z3 )Is
Z1 + Z2 + Z3
=
2
= 2 + j 8 = 8:25 /76 A
Hence in time domain,
i1 = 8.25 cos(ωt + 76 ) A
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EXAMPLE 1.52
p
Find the steady-state sinusoidal current i1 for the circuit of Fig. 1.97, when vs = 10 2 cos
(100t + 45 ) V:
in
n.
Figure 1.97
io
ut
SOLUTION
The first step is to convert the circuit of Fig. 1.97 int to a phasor circuit. The phasor
circuit is shown in Fig. 1.98.
p
vs = 10 2 cos(100t + 45 )
ol
p
) Vs = 10 2 /45 ; ! = 100 rad= sec
L = 30 mH ) XL = j!L
= j 100 30 10 3
= j 3Ω
us
C = 5 mF ) XC =
1
j!C
1
j 2Ω
j 100 5 10
= 3
=
KVL for mesh 1 :

vt
(3 + j 3)I1 j 3I2 = 10 + j 10
KVL for mesh 2 :

(3 j 3)I1 + (j 3 j 2)I2 = 0
Putting the above two mesh equations in matrix form, we get

2 32 3 2 3
3 + j3 j3 I1 10 + j 10
4 54 5=4 5
3 j3 j1 I2 0
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82 j Network Theory
Using Cramer’s rule,we get
I1 = 1:05 /71:6 A
in
Thus the steady state time re-
sponse is,
i1 = 1.05 cos(100t + 71.6 )A
n.
Figure 1.98
EXAMPLE 1.53
Determine Vo using mesh analysis.
io
ut
ol
Figure 1.99
us
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 1.100
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
From Fig. 1.100, we find by inspection that,
I1 = 2Ia = 2(I2 − I3 )
in
I2 = 4 mA
Applying KVL clockwise to mesh 3, we get
1 × 103 (I3 − I2 ) + 1 × 103 (I3 − I1 ) + 2 × 103 I3 = 0
n.
Substituting I1 = 2(I2 − I3 ) and I2 = 4 mA in the above equation and solving for I3 ,
we get, I3 = 2 mA
Then, Vo = 2 × 103 I3
EXAMPLE 1.54
= 4V
io
Find Vo in the network shown in Fig. 1.101 using mesh analysis.
ut
ol
us
Figure 1.101
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 1.102
Vtusolution.in
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84 j Network Theory
By inspection, we find that I2 = 2 /0 A.

Applying KVL clockwise to mesh 1, we get
in
12 + I1 (2 j 1) + (I1 I2 )(4 + j 2) = 0
Substituting I2 = 2 /0 in the above equation yields,
12 + I1 (2 j 1 + 4 + j 2) 2(4 + j 2) = 0
= 3:35 /1:85 A
20 + j 4
)
n.
I1 =
6 + j1
Hence Vo = 4(I1 I2 )
= 5:42 /4:57 V
Wye Delta transformation
io
For reducing a complex network to a single impedance between any two terminals, the
reduction formulas for impedances in series and parallel are used. However, for certain
configurations of network, we cannot reduce the interconnected impedances to a single
equivalent impedance between any two terminals by using series and parallel impedance
ut
reduction techniques. That is the reason for this topic.
Consider the networks shown in Fig. 1.103 and 1.104.
ol
us
Figure 1.103 Delta resistance network Figure 1.104 Wye resistance network
It may be noted that resistors in Fig. 1.103 form a Δ (delta), and resistors in Fig.
1.104. form a Υ (Wye). If both these configurations are connected at only the three
terminals a, b and c, it would be very advantageous if an equivalence is established be-
vt
tween them. It is possible to relate the resistances of one network to those of the other
such that their terminal characteristics are the same. The relationship between the two
configurations is called Υ Δ transformation.
We are interested in the relationship between the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 and the
resitances Ra , Rb and Rc . For deriving the relationship, we assume that for the two
networks to be equivalent at each corresponding pair of terminals, it is necessary that
the resistance at the corresponding terminals be equal. That is, for example, resistance
at terminals b and c with a open-circuited must be same for both networks. Hence, by
equating the resistances for each corresponding set of terminals, we get the following set
of equations :
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(i) Rab (Υ) = Rab (Δ)
R2 (R1 + R3 )
)
in
Ra + Rb = (1.57)
R2 + R1 + R3
(ii) Rbc (Υ) = Rbc (Δ)
R3 (R1 + R2 )
) Rb + Rc = (1.58)
n.
R3 + R1 + R2
(iii) Rca (Υ) = Rca (Δ)
R1 (R2 + R3 )
) Rc + Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
(1.59)
Ra = io
Solving equations (1.57), (1.58) and (1.59) gives
R1 R2
R1 + R2 + R3
(1.60)
ut
R2 R3
Rb = (1.61)
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R3
Rc = (1.62)
R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, each resistor in the Υ network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent
ol
Δ branches, divided by the sum of the three Δ resistors.
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to an equivalent
delta network, we note from equations (1.60) to (1.62) that
R1 R2 R3 (R1 + R2 + R3 ) R1 R2 R3
us
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra = = (1.63)
(R1 + R2 + R3 )2 R1 + R2 + R3
Dividing equation (1.63) by each of the equations (1.60) to (1.62) leads to the following
relationships :
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc
R1 = (1.64)
Rb
vt
R2 = (1.65)
Rc
R3 = (1.66)
Ra
Hence each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products of Υ resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Υ resistor.
Then Υ and Δ are said to be balanced when
R1= R2 = R3 = RΔ and Ra = Rb = Rc = RΥ
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86 j Network Theory
Under these conditions the conversions formula become

1
RΥ = RΔ
in
3
and RΔ = 3RΥ
EXAMPLE 1.55
Find the value of resistance between the terminals a b of the network shown in
n.
Fig. 1.105.
io
ut
Figure 1.105
ol
SOLUTION
Let us convert the upper Δ to Υ
(6k)(18k)
Ra 1 = = 3 kΩ
6k + 12k + 18k
(6k)(12k)
us
Rb1 = = 2 kΩ
6k + 12k + 18k
(12k)(18k)
R c1 = = 6 kΩ
6k + 12k + 18k Figure 1.106
vt
The network shown in Fig. 1.106 is now reduced to that shown in Fig. 1.106(a)
Vtusolution.in
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Hence; Rab = 4 + 3 + 7:875 + 2

= 16.875kΩ
in
n.
io
Figure 1.106(a)
ut
EXAMPLE 1.56
Find the resistance Rab using Υ Δ transformation.
ol
us
Figure 1.107
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 1.108
Vtusolution.in
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88 j Network Theory
Let us convert the upper Δ between the points a1 , b1 and c1 into an equivalent Υ.
6 18
in
Ra 1 = = 3:6Ω
6 + 18 + 6
66
Rb1 = = 1:2Ω
6 + 18 + 6
6 18
R c1 = = 3:6Ω
n.
6 + 18 + 6
Figure 1.108 now becomes
io
ut
ol
Rab = 5 + 3:6 + 7:2 27:6jj

= 8:6 +

7:2 27:6
7:2 + 27:6
us
= 14:31Ω
EXAMPLE 1.57
Obtain the equvivalent resistance Rab for the circuit of Fig. 1.109 and hence find i.
vt
Figure 1.109
Vtusolution.in
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SOLUTION
Let us convert Υ between the terminals a, b and c into an equivalent Δ.
in
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra
Rab =
Rc
10 20 + 20 5 + 5 10
= = 70Ω
5
n.
Rbc =
Ra
10 20 + 20 5 + 5 10
= = 35Ω
10
Rca =
=
Rb
10 20 + 20 5 + 5 10
20
io
= 17:5Ω
The circuit diagram of Fig. 1.109 now becomes the circuit diagram shown in Fig.
ut
1.109(a). Combining three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain the circuit diagram of
Fig. 1.109(b).
ol
us
Figure 1.109(a)
70 30
70jj30 = = 21Ω
70 + 30
12:5 17:5
vt
12:5jj17:5 = = 7:292Ω
12:5 + 17:5
15 35
15jj35 = = 10:5Ω
15 + 35
Rab = (7:292 + 10:5)jj21 = 9:632Ω
vs
Thus; i= = 12:458 A Figure 1.109(b)
Rab
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90 j Network Theory
Nodal versus mesh analysis

The analysis of a complex circuit can usually be accomplished by either the node voltage
in
or mesh current method. One may ask : Given a network to be analyzed, how do we
know which method is better or more efficient? The choice is dictated by two factors.
When a circuit contains only voltage sources, it is probably easier to use the mesh
current method. Conversely, when the circuit contains only current sources, it will be
easier to use the node voltage method. Also, a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes
n.
is better analyzed using nodal analysis, while a circuit with fewer meshes than nodes is
better analyzed using mesh analysis. In other words, the best technique is one which gives
smaller number of equations.
Another point to consider while choosing between the two methods is, what informa-
tion is required. If node voltages are required, it may be advantageous to apply nodal
proceed directly with mesh current analysis.
io
analysis. On the other hand, if you need to know several currents, it may be wise to
It is often advantageous if we know both the techniques. The first advantage lies in
the fact that the second method can verify the results of the first method. Also, both the
ut
methods have limitations. For example, while analysing a transistor circuit, only mesh
method is suited and while analysing an Op-amp circuit, nodal method is only applicable.
Mesh technique is applicable for planar1 networks. However, nodal method suits to both
planar and nonplanar 2 networks.
ol
Reinforcement Problems
R.P 1.1
Find the power dissipated in the 80Ω resistor using mesh analysis.
us
vt
Figure R.P.1.1
1
A planar network can be drawn on a plane without branches crossing each other.
2
A nonplanar network is one in which crossover is identified and cannot be eliminated by redrawing
the branches.
Vtusolution.in
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SOLUTION
KVL clockwise to mesh 1 :
in
14I1 4I2 8I3 = 230
4I1 + 22I2 16I3 = 260
n.
8I1 16I2 + 104I3 = 0

Putting the above mesh equations in matrix form, we get
2
6
6
6
4
14
4 22
4 8
32
76
76
io
I1
3
7
7
2
6
6
16 7 6 I2 7 = 6 260 7
54 5 4
230
3
7
7
5
ut
8 16 104 I3 0
The current I3 is found from the above matrix equation by using Cramer’s rule.
I3 = 5A
Thus; P80 = 2
I3 R80 = 52 80 = 2000W(dissipated)
ol
R.P 1.2
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 1.2. The current io = 4A. Find the power dissipated
in the 70 Ω resistor.
us
vt
Figure R.P.1.2
SOLUTION
By inspection, we find that the mesh current i3 = io = 4A
KVL clockwise to mesh 1 : 75i1 70i2 5i3 = 180
Vtusolution.in
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92 j Network Theory
Substituting i3 = 4A; we get 75i1 70i2 = 200

KVL clockwise to mesh 2 : 70i1 + 88i2 10i3 = 0
in
Substituting the value i3 = 4A; we get 70i1 + 88i2 = 40
Puting the two mesh equations in matrix from, we get

75 70 i1 200
=
70 88 i2 40
n.
i1 = 12A; i2 = 10A
P70 = (i1 i2 )2 70 = 4 70
= 280 W (dissipated)
R.P 1.3
io
Solve for current I in the circuit of Fig. R.P. 1.3 using nodal analysis.
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P.1.3
SOLUTION
KCL at node V1 :
20 / 90
+ 5 /0 = 0
V1 V1 V1 V2
+ +
2 j2 j1
vt
) (0:5 j 0:5)V1 + j V2 = 5 j 10
KCL at node V2 :
5 /0 = 0
V2 V1 V2
+ 2I
j1 4
V1
Also, I=
j2
5 /0 = 0
V2 V1 V2 2
Hence, + + V1
j1 4 j2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
)
)
(0:25
V2 =
5
0:25 j
io
j )V2 = 5
Making use of V2 in the nodal equation at node V1 ; we get

ut
j5
5 j 10 = 0:5(1 j )V1
0:25 j

j 40
) (1 j )V1 = 10 j 20
1 j4
) V1 = 15:81 / 46:5 V
ol
V1 15:81 / 46:5
Hence;
2 / 90
I= =
j2
= 7:906 /43:5 A
us
R.P 1.4
Find Vo shown in the Fig. R.P. 1.4 using Nodal technique.
vt
Figure R.P.1.4 Figure R.P.1.4(a) .
Vtusolution.in
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94 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
We find from Fig RP 1.4(a) that,
V1 = Vo
in
Applying KVL clockwise along the path consisting of voltage source, capacitor, and 2Ω
resistor, we find that
12 /0 + V2 V1 = 0
n.
) V1 = V2 + 12 /0
or V2 = V1 12
KCL at Supernode :
V1 V3V1 V2 V2 V3
KCL at node 3 :
) (2
j2 2
+ +
io
j4
+
4
=0
j 2)V1 + (1 + j )V2 + ( 1 + j 2)V3 = 0
ut
V3 V1 V3 V2
+ 0:2Vo = 0 (1.67)
j2 4
Substituting Vo = V1 , we get
(0:8 j 2)V1 + V2 + ( 1 + j 2)V3 = 0 (1.68)
ol
Subtracting equation (1.68) from (1.67), we get
1:2V1 + j V2 = 0 (1.69)
Substituting V2 = V1 12 (from the constraint equation), we get
us
1:2V1 + j (V1 12) = 0

j 12
) V1 =
1:2 + j
= Vo
Hence Vo = 7.68 /50.2 V
R.P 1.5
vt
Solve for i using mesh analysis.
Figure R.P. 1.5
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SOLUTION
The first step in the analysis is to draw the phasor circuit equivalent of Fig. R.P.1.5.
in
n.
Figure R.P. 1.5(a)
10 cos 2t
6 sin 2t = 6 cos(2t
L = 2H
90)
! = 2
)
)
)
10 /0 V
6 / 90 =
io
XL = j!L = j 4Ω
j 6V
ut
C = 0:25F ) XC =
j!C
1
=
1
= j 2Ω
1
j2
4
Applying KVL clockwise to mesh 1 :

ol
10 + (4 j 2)I1 + j 2I2 = 0
) (2 j 1)I1 + j I2 = 5
Applying KVL clockwise to mesh 2 :

us
j 2I1 + (j 4 j 2)I2 + ( j 6) = 0
I1 + I 2 = 3
Putting the above mesh equations in a matrix form, we get

" #" # " #
2 j j I1 5
vt
=
1 1 I2 3
I1 = 2 + j 0:5;
I2 = 1 j 0:5;
Io = I1 I2 = 1 + j = 1:414 /45
Hence io (t) = 1:414 cos (2t + 45 ) A
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96 j Network Theory
R.P 1.6
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 1.6. Find I using mesh analysis.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure R.P.1.6
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P.1.6(a)
vt
I3 I2 = 2I
) I3 I2 = 2(I1 I2 )
) I3 = 2I1 I2
Also, for mesh 4, I4 = 5 A
( j 20) + (2 j 2)I1 + j 2I2 = 0

) (1 j )I1 + j I2 = j 10 (1.70)
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Applying KVL clockwise for the supermesh :
(j j 2)I2 + j 2I1 + 4I3 j I4 = 0
in
Substituting I3 = 2I1 I2 and I4 = 5A
we get (8 + j 2)I1 (4 + j )I2 = j 5 (1.71)
n.

1 j j I1 j 10
=
8 + j2 (4 + j ) I2 j5
Solving for I1 and I2 , we get
I1 =
I2 =
I = I1 I2
= 5:735 + j 5:44
io
(5:44 + j 4:26) A
(11:18 + j 9:7) A
ut
= 7.9 /43.49 A
R.P 1.7
Calculate Vo in the circuit of Fig. R.P. 1.7 using the method of source transformation.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 1.7
SOLUTION
vt
Transform the voltage source to a

current source and obtain the circuit
shown in Fig. R.P.1.7(a).
20 / 90
Is = = 4 / 90 A
5
Figure R.P.1.7(a)
5 (3 + j 4)
Zp = 5Ωjj3 + j 4 = = 2:5 + j 1:25Ω
5 + (3 + j 4)
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98 j Network Theory
Converting the current source in Fig. R.P. 1.7(b) to a voltage source gives the circuit
as shown in Fig. R.P. 1.7(c).
in
n.
Figure R.P.1.7(b) Figure R.P.1.7(c)
4j (2:5 + j 1:25)
Vs = Is Zp =
=5
Vo = 10I
=

Vs io
j 10V
Zp + Z2 + 10
10

ut
5 j 10
=
[2:5 + j 1:25 + 4 j 13 + 10]
10
= 5.519 / 28 V
R.P 1.8
ol
Find vx and ix in the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 1.8.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 1.8
SOLUTION
vx
Constraint equation: i2 i1 = 3 +
4
v3
) i2 = i1 + 3 +
4
The above equation becomes very clear if one writes KCL equation at node B of Fig.
R.P. 1.8(a).
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in
n.
Figure R.P. 1.8(b)
Figure R.P. 1.8(a)
But ix = i1 . Hence,
)
50 + 10i1 + 5i2 + 4i1 = 0
14i1 + 5i2 = 50
io
Applying KVL clockwise to the supermesh in Fig. R.P. 1.8(b), we get
50 + 10i1 + 5i2 + 4ix = 0
(1.72)
ut
Making use of vx = (i1 i2 ) 2 in the constraint equation, we get
(i1 i2 ) 2
i =i +3+
2 1
4
i1 i2
) i2 = i1 + 3 +
ol
2
) 2i2 = 2i1 + 6 + i1 i2
) 3i1 3i2 + 6 = 0
) i1 i2 = 2 (1.73)
us
Solving equations (1.72) and (1.73) gives i1 = 2:105 A; i2 = 4:105 A

Thus; vx = 2(i1 i2 ) = 4 V
and ix = i1 = 2:105 A
R.P 1.9
Obtain the node voltages v1 , v2 and v3 for the following circuit.
vt
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100 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
We have a supernode as shown in Fig. R.P. 1.9(a). By inspection, we find that V2 = 12V.
in
Refer Fig. R.P. 1.9(b) for further analysis.
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P.1.9(a) Figure R.P.1.9(b) .

v1 10 + 12 = 0 ) v1 = 2
ol
12 + 20 + v3 = 0
) v3 = 8V
Hence; v1 = 2 V, v2 = 12 V, v3 =
us
8V
R.P 1.10
Find the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P.1.10.
vt
Figure R.P. 1.10
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SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn marking the nodes c to j in Fig. R.P. 1.10(a). It can be seen that
in
the network consists of four identical stars :
(i) ae; ef; cb
(ii) ac; cf; cd
(iii) dg; gf; gj
(iv) bh; f h; hj
n.
Converting each stars in to its equivalent delta, the network is redrawn as shown in
Fig. R.P. 1.10(b), noting that each resistance in delta is 100 3 = 300Ω, eliminating
nodes c, e, g , h.
io
ut
ol
Figure R.P.1.10(a) Figure R.P.1.10(b) .

us
Reducing the parallel resistors, we get the circuit as in Fig. R.P. 1.10(c).
vt
Figure R.P.1.10(c)
Hence, there are two identical deltas af d and bf j . Converting them to their equivalent
stars, we get the circuit as shown in Fig. R.P.1.10(d).
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300 150
Rak = Rbl = Rkd = Rlj = = 75 Ω
600
in
1502
Rkf = Rf l = = 37:5 Ω
600
n.
Figure R.P.1.10(d)
io Figure R.P.1.10(e)
The circuit is further reduced to Fig. R.P. 1.10(e) and then to Fig. R.P. 1.10(f) and
(g). Then the equivalent resistance is
214:286 300
ut
Rab = = 125 Ω
514:286
ol
Figure R.P.1.10(f) Figure R.P.1.10(g)

us
R.P 1.11
Obtain the equivalent resistance Rad for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P.1.11.
a
vt
Figure R.P.1.11 Figure R.P.1.11(a)
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SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn as shown Fig. 1.11(a), marking the nodes a to f to identify the
in
deltas in it. It contains 3 deltas abc, bde and def with 3 equal resistors of 30 Ω each. For
30
each delta, their equivalent star contains 3 resistors each of value = 10Ω. Then the
3
circuit becomes as shown in Fig. R.P. 1.11(b) where f is isolated.
On simplification, we get the circuit as shown in Fig. R.P.1.11(c) and further reduced
n.
to Fig. R.P.1.11(d).
io
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P.1.11(d)
Then the equivalent ressitance,
Rad = 10 + 13:33 + 10 = 33:33 Ω
R.P 1.12
vt
Draw a network for the following mesh equations in matrix form :

2 32 3 2 3
5 + j5 j5 0 I1 30 / 0
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 j5 8 + j8 6 5 4 I2 5 = 4 0 5
0 6 10 I3 20 / 0
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SOLUTION
The general form of the mesh equations in matrix form for a network having three mashes
in
is given by 2 32 3 2 3
Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 V1 1
6 Z 7
4 21 Z22 Z23 7 6 7 6
5 4 I2 5 = 4 V2 2 5
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 V3 3
n.
and, Z11 = Z10 + Z12 + Z13
where Z10 = Sum of the impedances confined to mesh 1 alone

Z12 = Sum of the impedances common to meshes 1 and 2
io
Z13 = Sum of the impedances common to meshes 1 and 3
Similiar difenitions hold good for Z22 and Z33 : Also, Zij = Zji
For the present problem,
ut
Z11 = 5 + j 5Ω
Z12 = Z21 = j 5Ω
Z13 = Z31 = 0Ω
Z23 = Z32 = 6Ω
ol
We know that, Z11 = Z10 + Z12 + Z13
) 5 + j 5 = Z10 + j 5 + 0
) Z10 = 5Ω
us
Similarly; Z22 = Z20 + Z21 + Z23

) 8 + j 8 = Z20 + j 5 + 6
) Z20 = 2 + j 3Ω
Finally; Z33 = Z30 + Z31 + Z32
) 10 = Z30 + 0 + 6
) Z30 = 4Ω
vt
Making use of the above impedances, we can configure a network as shown below :
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R.P 1.13
Draw a network for the following nodal equations in matrix form.
in
2 3
1 1 1 2 3 2 3
6 + 7 Va 10 /0
6 j 10 10 10 74 5 4 5
4 1 1 1 5 Vb = 0
(1 j) +
10 5 10
n.
SOLUTION
The general form of the nodal equations in matrix form for a network having two nodes
is given by

where
Y11
Y21
Y12
Y22
V1
V2
io =
Y11 = Y10 + Y12 and Y22 = Y20 + Y21 :

I1 1
I2 2
ut
Y10 = sum of admittances connected at node 1 alone.
Y12 = Y21 = sum of admittances common to nodes 1 and 2.
Y20 = sum of admittances connected at node 2 alone:
ol
For the present problem,
1 1
Y11 = + S
j 10 10
1
Y12 = Y21 = S
us
10
1
Y22 = (1 j ) + 10 S
5
We know that, Y11 = Y10 + Y12
) 1 1 1
vt
+ = Y10 +
j 10 10 10
) Y10 =
1
j 10
S
Similarly; Y22 = Y20 + Y21
) 1
5
(1 j ) +
1
10
= Y20 +
1
10
) 1
Y20 = (1 j ) S
5
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Making use of the above admittances, we can configure a network as shown below :
in
n.
Exercise problems
E.P 1.1
io
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P.1.1. Using mesh analysis, find the current delivered
by the source. Verify the result using nodal technique.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 1.1
Ans : 5A
us
E.P 1.2
For the resistive circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 1.2. by using source transformation and mesh
analysis, find the current supplied by the 20 V source.
vt
Figure E.P. 1.2
Ans : 2.125A
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E.P 1.3
Find the voltage v using nodal technique for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 1.3.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 1.3
Ans :
E.P
v = 5V
1.4
io
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 1.4. Find the currents i1 and i2 using nodal analysis.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 1.4

us
Ans : i1 = 1 A, i2 = 1A
E.P 1.5
For the network shown in Fig. E.P. 1.5, find the currents through the resistors R1 and
R2 using nodal technique.
vt
Figure E.P. 1.5

Ans : 3.33A, 6.67A
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E.P 1.6
Use the mesh-current method to find the branch currents i1 ; i2 and i3 in the circuit of
in
Fig. E.P. 1.6.
n.
Figure E.P. 1.6
Ans :
E.P
i1 =
1.7
io
1.72A, i2 = 1.08A , i3 = 2.8A
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 1.7. Find the power delivered by the dependent
voltage source in the network.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 1.7
Ans : 375 Watts

us
E.P 1.8
Find the current Ix using (i) nodal analysis and (ii) mesh analysis.
vt
Figure E.P. 1.8

150(3 + j4)
Ans : Ix = A
95 + j30
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E.P 1.9
Determine the current ix in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 1.9
in
n.
Figure E.P. 1.9
Ans : ix = 3A
E.P 1.10
Determine the resistance between the terminals a
1.10. io b of the network shown in Fig. E.P.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 1.10

us
Ans : 23.6 Ω
E.P 1.11
Determine the resistance between the points A and B in the network shown in Fig. E.P.
1.11.
vt
Figure E.P. 1.11

Ans : 4.23 Ω
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E.P 1.12
Determine the current in the galvanometer branch of the bridge network shown in Fig.
in
E.P. 1.12.
n.
io
ut
Figure E.P. 1.12
Ans : 10.62μA
ol
us
vt
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Chapter
in
Network Topology
2
n.
2.1 Introduction
io
An important step in the procedure for solving any circuit problem consists first in selecting a
ut
number of independent branch currents as (known as loop currents or mesh currents) variables,
and then to express all branch currents as functions of the chosen set of branch currents. Alter-
nately a number of independent node pair voltages may be selected as variables and then express
all existing node pair voltages in terms of these selected variables.
For simple networks involving a few elements, there is no difficulty in selecting the inde-
ol
pendent branch currents or the independent node-pair voltages. The set of linearly independent
equations can be written by inspection. However for large scale networks particularly modern
electronic circuits such as integrated circuits and microcircuits with a larger number of inter-
connected branches, it is almost impossible to write a set of linearly independent equations by
inspection or by mere intuition. The problem becomes quite difficult and complex. A system-
us
atic and step by step method is therefore required to deal with such networks. Network topology
(graph theory approach) is used for this purpose. By this method, a set of linearly independent
loop or node equations can be written in a form that is suitable for a computer solution.
2.2 Terms and definitions

vt
The description of networks in terms of their geometry is referred to as network topology. The
adequacy of a set of equations for analyzing a network is more easily determined topologically
than algebraically.
Graph (or linear graph): A network graph is a network in which all nodes and loops are re-
tained but its branches are represented by lines. The voltage sources are replaced by short circuits
and current sources are replaced by open circuits. (Sources without internal impedances or ad-
mittances can also be treated in the same way because they can be shifted to other branches by
E-shift and/or I-shift operations.)
Branch: A line segment replacing one or more network elements that are connected in series or
parallel.
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Node: Interconnection of two or more branches. It is a terminal of a branch. Usually intercon-

nections of three or more branches are nodes.
in
Path: A set of branches that may be traversed in an order without passing through the same node
more than once.
Loop: Any closed contour selected in a graph.
Mesh: A loop which does not contain any other loop within it.
n.
Planar graph: A graph which may be drawn on a plane surface in such a way that no branch
passes over any other branch.
Non-planar graph: Any graph which is not planar.
Oriented graph: When a direction to each branch of a graph is assigned, the resulting graph is
called an oriented graph or a directed graph.
io
Connected graph: A graph is connected if and only if there is a path between every pair of nodes.
Sub graph: Any subset of branches of the graph.

ut
Tree: A connected sub-graph containing all nodes of a graph but no closed path. i.e. it is a set
of branches of graph which contains no loop but connects every node to every other node not
necessarily directly. A number of different trees can be drawn for a given graph.
Link: A branch of the graph which does not belong to the particular tree under consideration.
ol
The links form a sub-graph not necessarily connected and is called the co-tree.
Tree compliment: Totality of links i.e. Co-tree.
Independent loop: The addition of each link to a tree, one at a time, results one closed path called
an independent loop. Such a loop contains only one link and other tree branches. Obviously, the
us
number of such independent loops equals the number of links.

Tie set: A set of branches contained in a loop such that each loop contains one link and the
remainder are tree branches.
Tree branch voltages: The branch voltages may be separated in to tree branch voltages and link
voltages. The tree branches connect all the nodes. Therefore if the tree branch voltages are forced
to be zero, then all the node potentials become coincident and hence all branch voltages are forced
vt
to be zero. As the act of setting only the tree branch voltages to zero forces all voltages in the
network to be zero, it must be possible to express all the link voltages uniquely in terms of tree
branch voltages. Thus tree branch form an independent set of equations.
Cut set: A set of elements of the graph that dissociates it into two main portions of a network such
that replacing any one element will destroy this property. It is a set of branches that if removed
divides a connected graph in to two connected sub-graphs. Each cut set contains one tree branch
and the remaining being links.
Fig. 2.1 shows a typical network with its graph, oriented graph, a tree, co-tree and a non-planar
graph.
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Network Topology | 113
in
f
n.
io
ut
A non planer graph
Figure 2.1
ol
Relation between nodes, links, and branches
Let B = Total number of branches in the graph or network
N = total nodes
L = link branches
Then N − 1 branches are required to construct a tree because the first branch chosen connects
us
two nodes and each additional branch includes one more node.
Therefore number of independent node pair voltages = N − 1 = number of tree branches.
Then L = B − (N − 1) = B − N + 1
Number of independent loops = B − N + 1
2.3 Isomorphic graphs

vt
Two graphs are said to be ismorphic if they have

the same incidence matrix, though they look dif-
ferent. It means that they have the same num-
bers of nodes and the same numbers of branches.
There is one to one correspondence between the
nodes and one to one correspondence between the Figure 2.2
branches. Fig. 2.2 shows such graphs.
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114 | Network Theory
2.4 Matrix representation of a graph
For a given oriented graph, there are several representative matrices. They are extremely important
in
in the analytical studies of a graph, particularly in the computer aided analysis and synthesis of
large scale networks.
2.4.1 Incidence Matrix An
n.
It is also known as augmented incidence matrix. The element node incidence matrix A indicates
in a connected graph, the incidence of elements to nodes. It is an N × B matrix with elements of
An = (akj )
akj = 1, when the branch bj is incident to and oriented away from the k th node.
io
= −1, when the branch bj is incident to and oriented towards the k th node.
= 0, when the branch bj is not incident to the k th node.
As each branch of the graph is incident to exactly two nodes,

ut

n
akj = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3, · · · B.
k=0
That is, each column of An has exactly two non zero elements, one being +1 and the other
−1. Sum of elements of any column is zero. The columns of An are lineraly dependent. The rank
ol
of the matrix is less than N .
Significance of the incidence matrix lies in the fact that it translates all the geometrical features
in the graph into an algebraic expression.
Using the incidence matrix, we can write KCL as
us
An iB = 0, where iB = branch current vector.

But these equations are not linearly independent. The rank of the matrix A is N − 1. This
property of An is used to define another matrix called reduced incidence matrix or bus incidence
matrix.
For the oriented graph shown in Fig. 2.3(a), the incidence matrix is as follows:
vt
Nodes ↓ branches
⎡1 2 3 4 5 ⎤
a −1 1 −1 0 0
b ⎢ 1 0 0 1 0 ⎥
An = ⎢ ⎥
c ⎣ 0 −1 0 −1 −1 ⎦
d 0 0 1 0 1
Note that sum of all elements in each column is zero.
Figure 2.3(a)
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2.4.2 Reduced incidence matrix
Any node of a connected graph can be selected as a reference node. Then the voltages of the
in
other nodes (referred to as buses) can be measured with respect to the assigned reference. The
matrix obtained from An by deleting the row corresponding to the reference node is the element-
bus incident matrix A and is called bus incidence matrix with dimension (N − 1) × B. A is
rectangular and therefore singular.
n.
In An , the sum of all elements in each column is zero. This leads to an important conclusion
that if one row is not known in A, it can be found so that sum of elements of each column must be
zero.
From A, we have A iB = 0, which represents a set of linearly independent equations and there
are N − 1 independent node equations.
Nodes ↓
⎡1
a −1 1 −1
io
For the graph shown in Fig 2.3(a), with d selected as the reference node, the reduced incidence
matrix is
branches
2 3 4
0
5 ⎤
0
ut
A= b ⎣ 1 0 0 1 0 ⎦
c 0 −1 0 −1 −1
Note that the sum of elements of each column in A need not be zero.
⎡ ⎤
j1
⎢ j2 ⎥
ol
⎢ ⎥
Note that if branch current vector, jB = ⎢
⎢ j3 ⎥
⎥
⎣ j4 ⎦
j5
Then A iB = 0 representing a set of independent node equations.
us
Another important property of A is that determinant AAT gives the number of possible trees
of the network. If A = [At : Ai ] where At and Ai are sub-matrices of A such that At contains
only twigs, then det At is either + 1 or −1.
To verify the property that det AAT gives the number of all possible trees, consider the
reduced incidence matrix A of the example considered. That is,
vt
Then,
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤T ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤T

−1 1 −1 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 0

Det AAT = ⎣ 1 0 0 ⎦⎣ 1 0 0 ⎦ +⎣ 1 0 ⎦⎣ 1 0 ⎦ =8

0 −1 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 −1 −1
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Fig. 2.3(b) shows all possible trees corresponding to the matrix A.
in
n.
io
Figure 2.3(b)
To verify the property that the determinant of sub matrix At of A = At ; Ai is +1 or −1.

ut
For tree [2, 3, 4]
Nodes ↓ branches
⎡2 3 4 1 5 ⎤
From a +1 1 0 −1 0
A= b ⎣ 0 0 1 1 0 ⎦ = At ; Ai
ol
c −1 0 −1 0 −1

1 +1 0

Det Ai = 0 0 1 = 1
−1 0 −1
us
For another tree [2, 4, 5]

Nodes ↓ branches
⎡2 4 5 1 3 ⎤
a 1 0 0 −1 −1
A= b ⎣ 0 1 0 1 0 ⎦ = At ; Ai
c −1 −1 −1 0 0
vt

1 0 0

Det Ai = 0 1 0 = −1
−1 −1 −1
2.5 Loop equations and fundamental loop matrix (Tie-set Matrix)
From the knowledge of the basic loops (tie-sets), we can obtain loop matrix. In this matrix, the
loop orientation is to be the same as the corresponding link direction. In order to construct this
matrix, the following procedure is to be followed.
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Network Topology j 117
1. Draw the oriented graph of the network. Choose a tree.
2. Each link forms an independent loop. The direction of this loop is same as that of the
in
corresponding link. Choose each link in turn.
3. Prepare the tie-set matrix with elements biJ ,

where biJ = 1; when branch bJ in loop i and is directed in the same direction as the loop current.
1; when branch bJ is in loop i and is directed in the opposite direction as the loop
n.
=
current:
= 0; when branch bJ is not in loop i.
Tie-set matrix is an i b matrix.

Consider the example of Fig. 2.3(a).
io
ut
ol
Figure 2.4
Selecting (2, 4, 5) as tree, the co-tree is (1, 3). Fig. 2.4 leads to the following tie-set.
Loops

branches
us
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 0 1 0
2v 3
M=
2 0 1 1 0 1
666 v 1
777
64 vv 75
2
with VB = 3
vt
4
v5
Then MVB gives the following independent loop equations:
v1 + v2 v4 = 0
v2 + v3 v5 = 0
Looking column wise, we can express branch currents in terms of loop currents. This is done
by the following matrix equation.
J B = MT IL
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The above matrix equation gives J1 = i1 , J2 = i1 + i2 , J3 = i2 , J4 = i1 i2

Note that J stands for branch current while i stands for loop current.
in
In this matrix,
(i) Each row corresponds to an independent loop. Therefore the columns of the resulting
schedule automatically yield a set of equations relating each branch current to the loop
currents.
n.
(ii) As each column expresses a branch current in terms of loop currents, the rows of the
matrix automatically yield the closed paths in which the associated loop currents circulate.
Expressions for branch currents in terms of loop currents may be obtained in matrix form
as JB = MT IL .
where M is the tie-set matrix of L B .
In the present example,
JB =
io 2J 3
664 J 775
1
2
ut
J
iJ
3
4
and IL = i1
2
ol
2.6 Cut-set matrix and node pair potentials

us
vt
Figure 2.5(a) A directed graph Figure 2.5(b) Two separate graphs created by
the cut set {1, 2, 5, 6}
A cut-set of a graph is a set of branches whose removal, cuts the connected graph into two
parts such that the replacement of any one branch of the cut-set renders the two parts connected.
For example, two separated graphs are obtained for the graph of Fig. 2.5(a) by selecting the cut-set
consisting of branches [1, 2, 5, 6]. These seperated graphs are as shown in Fig. 2.5(b).
Just as a systematic method exists for the selection of a set of independent loop current vari-
ables, a similar process exists for the selection of a set of independent node pair potential variables.
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It is already known that the cut set is a minimal set of branches of the graph, removal of which
divides the graph in to two connected sub-graphs. Then it separates the nodes of the graph in
in
to two groups, each being one of the two sub-graphs. Each branch of the tie-set has one of its
terminals incident at a node on one sub-graph. Selecting the orientation of the cut set same as that
of the tree branch of the cut set, the cut set matrix is constructed row-wise taking one cut set at a
time. Without link currents, the network is inactive. In the same way, without node pair voltages
the network is active. This is because when one twig voltage is made active with all other twig
n.
voltages are zero, there is a set of branches which becomes active. This set is called cut-set. This
set is obtained by cutting the graph by a line which cuts one twig and some links. The algebraic
sum of these branch currents is zero. Making one twig voltage active in turn, we get entire set of
node equations.
This matrix has current values,
io
qiJ = 1, if branch J is in the cut-set with orientation same as that of tree branch.
= 1, if branch J is in the cut-set with orientation opposite to that of tree branch.
= 0, if branch J is not in the cut-set.
and dimension is (N 1) B .
ut
Row-by-row reading, it gives the KCL at each node and therefore we have QJB = 0.
The procedure to write cut-set matrix is as follows:
(i) Draw the oriented graph of a network and choose a tree.

ol
(ii) Each tree branch forms an independent cut-set. The direction of this cut-set is same as that
of the tree branch. Choose each tree branch in turn to obtain the cut set matrix. Isolate
the tree element pairs and energize each bridging tree branch. Assuming the bridging
tree branch potential equals the node pair potential, thus regarding it as an independent
variable.
us
(iii) Use the columns of the cut-set matrix to yield a set of equations relating the branch
potentials in terms of the node pair potentials. This may be obtained in matrix form as
VB = QT EN
where v and e are used to indicate branch potential and node voltage respectively.
In the example shown in Fig 2.5 (c), (3, 4, 5) are tree branches. Links are shown in dotted
vt
lines. If two tree branch voltages in 3 and 4 are made zero, the nodes a and c are at the same
potential. Similarly the nodes b and d are at the same potential. The graph is reduced to the form
shown in Fig. 2.5(d) containing only the cut-set branches. Then, we have
i5 i1 i2 i6 = 0
Similarly by making only e4 to exist (with e5 and e3 zero), the nodes a, b and c are at the same
potential, reducing the graph to the form shown in Fig. 2.5(e). Thus,
i4 + i2 + i6 = 0
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in
n.
Figure 2.5(c) Figure 2.5(d)
This corresponds to cut set 2 as shown in Fig. 2.5 (f).
io
ut
Figure 2.5(e) Figure 2.5(f)
For the remaining cut-set, e4 and e5 are made zero as in Fig. 2.5(g). e3 is active and hence,
the nodes a, d, and c are at the same potential. Thus
ol
i1 + i3 + i2 = 0
The corresponding cut-set 3 is shown in Fig 2.5(h).
us
vt
Figure 2.5(g) Figure 2.5(h)
Therefore, the cut set schedule is

Node pair branches
voltages
2 1 2 3 4 5 6 3
e1
e2
=
=
v5
v4 4 1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1 5 =Q
e3 = v3 1 1 1 0 0 0
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Note that QJB gives the following equilibrium equations:

−J1 − J2 − J5 + J6 = 0
in
J2 + J4 + J6 = 0
J1 + J2 + J3 = 0
Looking column-wise, we can express branch voltages in terms of node pair voltages as
⎡ ⎤
n.
v1 = −e1 + e3 −1 0 1
v2 = −e1 + e2 + e3 ⎢ −1 1 1 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ e1
v3 = e3 ⎢ ⎥
Or ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎣ e2 ⎦ = VB
v4 = e2 ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
v3 = e1 ⎣ 1 0 0 ⎦ e3
2.7
That is
v6 = −e1 + e2
VB = QT EN
Netwrok Equilibrium Equations

io −1 1 0
ut
Loop equations: A branch of a netwrok can, in general, be represented as shown in Fig. 2.6,
ol
us
Figure 2.6
where EB is the voltage source of the branch.

IB is the current source of the branch
vt
ZB is the impedance of the branch

JB is the current in the branch
The voltage-current relation is then given by
VB = (JB + IB ) ZB − EB
For a general network with many branches, the matrix equation is
VB = ZB (JB +IB ) − EB (2.1)
where VB , JB , IB , and EB are B × 1 vectors and ZB is the branch impedance matrix of B × B.
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Each row of the tie-set matrix corresponds to a loop and involves all the branches of the loop.
As per KV L, the sum of the corresponding branch voltages may be equated to zero. That is
in
MVB = 0 (2.2)
where M is the tie-set matrix.

In the same matrix, each column represents a branch current in terms of loop currents. Trans-
posed M is used to give the relation between branch currents and loop currents.
n.
JB = MT IL (2.3)
This equation is called loop transformation equation. Substituting equation (2.1) in (2.2),
we get
io
MZB {JB + IB } − MEB = 0
Substituting equation (2.3) in (2.4), we get
MZB MT IL + MZB IB − MEB = 0

(2.4)
ut
or MZB MT IL = MEB − MZB IB
With MZB MT = ZL , we have ZL IL = EL

If there are no current sources in the network, then
ol
ZL IL = MEB = EL (2.5)
where ZL is the loop impedance matrix and EL is the resultant loop voltage source vector.
Node equations: Next, each row of the cut-set matrix corresponds to a particular node pair
voltage and indicates different branches connected to a particular node. KCL can be applied to
us
the node and the algebraic sum of the branch currents at that node is zero.
QJB = 0 (2.6)
Each column of cut-set matrix relates a branch voltage to node pair voltages. Hence,
VB = QT EN (2.7)
vt
This equation is known as node transformation equation. Current voltage relation for a
branch is
JB = YB (VB +E B ) −I B
For a netwrok with many branches the above equation may be written in matrix form as
JB = YB VB + YB EB − IB (2.8)
where YB is branch admittance matrix of B × B.
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The matrix nodal equations may be obtained from equations 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8.
Substituting equation (2.8) in (2.6)
in
QYB VB + QYB EB − QIB = 0 (2.9)
Substituting equation (2.7) in (2.9)
QYB QT EN = Q (IB − YB EB )
n.
In the absence of voltage sources, the equation becomes
YN EN = QIB = IN
where YN is the node admittance matrix and IN is the node current vector.
Worked Examples
EXAMPLE 2.1
io
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 2.7(a). Draw the graph, one tree and its co-tree.
ut
ol
Figure 2.7(a)
us
SOLUTION
We find that there are four nodes (N = 4) and seven branches (B = 7). The graph is then drawn
and appears as shown in Fig. 2.7 (b). It may be noted that node d represented in the graph (Fig.
2.7(b)) represents both the nodes d and e of Fig. 2.7(a). Fig. 2.7(c) shows one tree of graph shown
in Fig. 2.7(b). The tree is made up of branches 2, 5 and 6. The co-tree for the tree of Fig. 2.7(c)
vt
is shown in Fig. 2.7(d). The co-tree has L = B − N + 1 = 7 − 4 + 1 = 4 links.
Figure 2.7(b)Graph Figure 2.7(c) Tree
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in
n.
Figure 2.7(d) Co-tree
EXAMPLE 2.2
Refer the network shown in Fig. 2.8(a). Obtain the corresponding incidence matrix.
io
ut
ol
SOLUTION
us
The network shown in Fig. 2.8(a) has five nodes and eight branches. The corresponding graph
appears as shown in Fig. 2.8(b).
The incidence matrix is formed by following the rule: The entry of the incidence matrix,
ak = 1, if the current of branch k leaves the node i
= 1, if the current of branch enters node i
= 0, if the branch k is not connected with node i.
vt
Incidence matrix:
Nodes Branch numbers

a b c d e f g h
1 +1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
2 1 +1 0 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 1 +1 0 1 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 +1 0 0 0 1
5 0 0 0 0 +1 +1 +1 +1
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2
Some times, we represent an incidence matrix as follows:
3
666 +1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
777
in
64 75
1 +1 0 0 0 0 1 0
A5 = 0 1 +1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 +1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 +1 +1 +1 +1
n.
where subscript 5 indicates that there are five nodes in the graph. It may be noted that from a
given incidence matrix, the corresponding graph can be drawn uniquely.
EXAMPLE 2.3
2 3
For the incidence matrix shown below, draw the graph.
1 2 3 4
664
a 1 0 0 0 1 0
b 0 1 0 0 1 1
c 0 0 1 0 0 1
d 0 0 0 1 0 0
5 6
io 7
0
0
1
1
8
1
0
1
0
775
ut
SOLUTION
ol
us
Figure 2.9
Observing the matrix, it can be seen that it is a reduced incidence matrix. Branches 1, 2, 3 and 4
are to be connected to the reference node. Branch 5 appears between the nodes a and b, 6 between
b and c, 7 between c and d and 8 between a and c. With this infromation, the oriented graph is
vt
drawn as shown in Fig. 2.9. Orientation is +1 for an arrow leaving a node d 1 for an arrow
entering a node.
EXAMPLE 2.4
2 3
Draw the graph of a netwrok of whose the incidence matrix is as shown below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
p
q 6640
0
0
1
1 1
1 0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1 775
r 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
s 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
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SOLUTION
Sum of the elements in columns 4, 9 are not zero. Therefore the given matrix is a reduced matrix.
in
Taking 0 as reference node, the oriented graph is as shown in Fig. 2.10 after making the nodes in
an order.
n.
io
Figure 2.10
ut
EXAMPLE 2.5
For the graph shown in Fig. 2.11(a), write the incidence matrix.
Express branch voltage in terms of node voltages and then write a
loop matrix and express branch currents in terms of loop currents.
ol
SOLUTION
With the orientation shown in Fig. 2.11(a), the incidence matrix is
prepaed as shown below.
2 3
us
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a
b 666 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
777 Figure 2.11(a)
64 75
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
c 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
d 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
e 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
vt
Branch voltages in terms of node voltages are

v1 = e a e d
v2 = eb ed etc. Figure 2.11(b)
For loop (tie-set) matrix, L = B N + 1 = 8 5 + 1 = 4. With twigs (1, 2, 3, 4), we have

chords (links) (5, 6, 7, 8) and the corresponding tree is as shown in Fig 2.11 (b). Introducing the
chords one at a time, the tie-set matrix is prepared as shown below.
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⎡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ⎤
i1 = J5 −1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 −1 ⎥
in
i2 = J6 ⎢ 1 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥
i3 = J7 ⎣ 0 0 −1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎦
i4 = J8 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
The branch currents in terms of loop currents are J1 = −i1 − i4 , J2 = i1 − i2 etc.
n.
EXAMPLE 2.6
For the network shown in Fig. 2.12(a), determine the number of all possible trees. For a tree
consisting of (1, 2, 3) (i) draw tie set matrix (ii) draw cut-set matrix.
io
ut
ol
Figure 2.12(a)
SOLUTION
If the intention is to draw a tree only for the purpose of tie-set and cut-set matrices, the ideal
us
current source is open circuited and ideal voltage source is short circuited. The oriented graph is
drawn for which d is the reference. Refer Fig. 2.12(b),
⎡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 ⎤
a 1 0 0 −1 1 −1
A = b ⎣−1 1 0 1 −1 0 ⎦
vt
c 0 −1 1 0 0 0
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1 0 0 1 −1 0 −1 1 −1 −1 0 0

= −1 1 0 0 1 1 + 0 −1 0 1 −1 0 = 12

in
0 −1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0
Therefore, possible number of trees = 12.

Fig. 2.12(b) shows the corresponding graph, tree, co-tree, and loops 1, 2, 3.
n.
io Co-tree (links)
ut
ol
Figure 2.12(b)
(i) Tie-set matrix for twigs (1, 2, 3) is

us
branches
Loop Currents ⎡ 1 2 3 4 5 6⎤
i1 = J4 1 1 1 1 0 0
i2 = J5 ⎣ 1 0 0 0 −1 0 ⎦
i3 = J6 1 1 1 0 0 1
vt
(ii) Cut-set matrix is
With e1 acting (e2 = e3 = 0) With e2 acting (e1 = e3 = 0) With e3 acting (e1 = e2 = 0)
Figure 2.12(c)
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2 3
branches 2
1 1 2
Node - pair voltage 1 2 3 4 5 6
in
e 1 = v1
e 2 = v2 4 1
0
0
1
0
0
1 1
1 0
1
1 5 a
5
c
e 3 = v3 0 0 1 1 0 1 6
4 3
n.
3
d
EXAMPLE 2.7
For the network shown in Fig. 2.13(a), write a tie-set schedule and then find all the branch currents
and voltages.
io
ut
ol
Figure 2.13(a)
SOLUTION
us
Fig. 2.13(b) shows the graph for the netwrok shown in Fig. 2.13(a). Also, a possible tree and
co-tree are shown in Fig. 13(c). Co-tree is in dotted lines.
vt
Figure 2.13(b) Figure 2.13(c)
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First, the tie-set schedule is formed and then the tie-set matrix is obtained.
Tie-set schedule:
in
Loop Branch numbers
currents 1 2 3 4 5 6
x +1 0 0 +1 1 0
y 0 +1 0 0 +1 1
z 0 0 +1 1 0 +1
n.
Tie-set matrix is
2 3
M= 4 1 0 0
0 1 0
1
0
1
1
0
1 5
0 0 1 1 0 1
2
The branch impedance matrix is
666
666
5 0 0 0 0 0
0 10 0 0 0 0
3
io
777
777
2
666
666
50
0
3
777
777
ut
0 0 5 0 0 0 0
4 5 4 5
ZB = EB =
0 0 0 10 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 5 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 5 0
The loop impedance matrix is
ol
ZL = MZB MT
5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1
=
us
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 5 0 1 1 0
2 32 32
0 0 0 0 0
35 0 1 1
= 4 1 0 0
0 1 0 54 5 0 0
0 10 0 54 1 0 0
0 1 0 5
2
0 0 1 0 0 5
32 32
0 0 1
3
vt
+ 4 1
0
1
1
0
1 54 10 0 0
0 5 0 54 0
1
0
1
1
0 5
2 1
3 2
0 1 0 0 5
3 2 0 1 1
3
= 4 5 0 0
0 10 0 5 4 +
15
5
5
10 5 4
10
5 =
20
5
5
20
10
5 5
2 3 0 0 5 10 5 15 10 5 20
MEB = 4 5 50
0
0
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The loop equations are obtained using the equation,

⎡ ZL IL = ME⎤B⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
in
20 −5 −10 x 50
⇒ ⎣ −5 20 −5 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−10 −5 20 z 0
Solving by matrix method, we get
n.
x = 4.1666 A, y = 1.16666 A, z = 2.5 A
The branch currents are computed using the equations:
IB = MT IL
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I1 1 0 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⇒
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
⎥ ⎢
⎥ ⎢ 0
⎥=⎢
⎥ ⎢ 1
⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣ −1
0 −1
1
0
0
1
io
1
−1
1
⎥ x
⎥
⎥⎣ y ⎦
⎥
⎥ z
0 ⎦
ut
Hence,
I1 = x = 4.1666 A, I2 = y = 1.6666 A, I3 = z = 2.5 A,
I4 = x − z = 1.6666 A, I5 = −x + y = −2.5 A, I6 = −y + z = 0.8334 A
The branch voltages are computed using the equation:
VB = ZB IB − EB
ol
us
Hence,
V1 = 5I1 − 50 = 29.167 V, V2 = 10I2 = 16.666 V, V3 = 5I3 = 12.50 V,
V4 = 10I4 = 16.666 V, V5 = 5I5 = −12.50 V, V6 = 5I6 = 4.167 V
vt
EXAMPLE 2.8
Refer the network shown in Fig. 2.14(a). Find the tie-set matrix and loop currents.
Figure 2.14(a)
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SOLUTION
In the circuit, 4 Ω in series with current source is shorted (as it is trival),
in
the graph is as shown in Fig. 2.14(b) with 1 as tree branch and 2 as link.
Using the equation,
MZB MT IL = MEB − MZB IB
with M = [1 1], we have Figure 2.14(b)
n.

T 4 0 1
MZB M = [1 1] =8
0 4 1

10 4 0 0
MEB − ZB IB = 1 1 −

= 1 1

10
−Vx
0
8I1 = 10 − Vx
io

0 4
= 10 − Vx
Vx /4
ut
but Vx = 4I1
⇒ 8I1 = 10 − 4I1 ⇒ I1 = 5/6A
As I1 = Vx /4 − I2 , I2 = 5/6A
EXAMPLE 2.9
ol
For the given cut-set matrix, draw the oriented graph
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 −1 0 0
⎢ 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 1 0 0 −1 −1 ⎦
us
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
SOLUTION
Data from the matrix: B = 7, Nt = 5, N = 4, L = 3. Tree branch voltages are e1 = v1 , e2 = v2 ,
e3 = v3 and e4 = v4 .
Therefore all these are connected to reference node. Individual cut-sets are
vt
which indicates that 5 is common to a and b, 7 is common to b and c, 6 is common to c and d.
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Therefore the graph is
in
5
n.
EXAMPLE 2.10
io
Refer the network shown in Fig. 2.15(a). Solve for branch currents and branch voltages.
ut
2S
2S 1S 4S
ol
Figure 2.15(a)
us
SOLUTION
The oriented graph for the network is shown in Fig. 2.15(b). A possible tree and cotree with
fundamental cut-sets are shown in Fig. 2.15(c).
(3) (3)
vt
(1) (2) (1) (2)
(4) (4)
Figure 2.15(b) Directed graph for the Figure 2.15(c) A possible tree (thick lines)
network shown in Fig. 2.40 and cotree (dotted lines)
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Cut-set schedule:
Branch Numbers
in
Tree branch voltages 1 2 3 4
e1 1 0 −1 0
e2 0 1 −1 1
Cut-set matrix:

n.
1 0 −1 0
Q=
0 1 −1 1
Branch admittance matrix:
⎡ ⎤
2 0 0 0
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
YB = ⎢
Cut-set admittance matrix:

⎣ 0
0
YN = QYB QT
1
0
0
io 0
2
0 4
⎥
0 ⎦
ut
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤

2 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 −1 0 ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥⎢ 0 1 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
0 1 −1 1 ⎣ 0 0 2 0 ⎦ ⎣ −1 −1 ⎦
0 0 0 4 0 1
ol
⎡ ⎤

1 0
2 0 −2 0 ⎢ 0 1 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
0 1 −2 4 ⎣ −1 −1 ⎦
0 1

us
4 2
=
2 7
Equilibrium equations:
YN EN = QIB
⎤ ⎡

10
vt
4 2 e1 1 0 −1 0 ⎢ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
⇒ =− ⎣
2 7 e2 0 1 −1 1 0 ⎦
0

4 2 e1 −10
⇒ =
2 7 e2 0
Solving using cramer’s rule, we get
−70 +20
e1 = V, e2 = V
24 24
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Branch voltage are found using the matrix equation:

VB = QT EN
in
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡
V1 1 0 −70 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
V2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 24 ⎥
⇒ ⎢ ⎥⎣
⎣ =
V3 ⎦ ⎣ −1 −1 ⎦ +20 ⎦
V4 0 1 24
n.
−70
Hence, V1 = V = −2.917V
24
+20
V2 = V = +0.833V
24
V4 =
20
24
70 20
V3 = + −
24 24
= +0.833V
io
= +2.084V
ut
Branch currents are found using the matrix equation (2.8):
JB = YB VB −IB
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
I1 2 0 0 0 V1 −10
⎢ I2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ V2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⇒ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥
⎣ I3 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 2 0 ⎦ ⎣ V3 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
ol
I4 0 0 0 4 V4 0
⇒ I1 = 2V1 + 10 = 4.166 A
I2 = V2 = 0.833 A
I3 = 2V3 = 4.168 A
us
I4 = 4V4 = 3.332 A
Verification:
Refer Fig. 2.15(a).
KCL equations
vt
I1 = I3 = 4.168 A
I3 = I2 + I4 = 0.833 + 3.332
= 4.166 A
and KVL equations:
V3 + V2 + V1 = 0
V2 − V4 = 0 are statisfied.
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EXAMPLE 2.11
For the oriented graph shown, express loop currents in terms of branch
in
currents for an independent set of columns as those pertinent to the links
of a tree:
(i) Composed of 5, 6, 7, 8
n.
(ii) Composed of 1, 2, 3, 6
Verify whether the two sets of relations for i’s in tems of J ’s are equivalent. Construct a tie-set
schedule with the currents in the links 4, 5, 7, 8 as loop currents and find the corresponding set of
closed paths.
SOLUTION
For the first set
io
ut
Loop Branch numbers
No: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 +1 0 0 0 +1 1 0 0
2 0 +1 0 0 0 +1 1 0
3 0 0 +1 0 0 0 +1 1
ol
4 0 0 0 + 1 0 0 +1
us
B = 5; 6; 7; 8 and L = 1; 2; 3; 4.
i1 = J1 , i2 = J2 , i3 = J3 , & i4 = J4 .
vt
Then for the second set, of the mesh currents indicated for the first set, we have
J4 = i4 i4 = J4
J5 = i1 i4 i1 = J1 + J5
J7 = i3 i2 i3 = J4 J8
J8 = i4 i3 i2 = J4 J7 J8
By applying KCL for the oriented graph,
i1 = J1 = J4 + J5 ; i2 = J2 = J3 J7 = J4 J7 J8 ; i3 = J3 = J4 J8 ; i4 = J4
Thus the two sets of relations for i’s in terms of J ’s are equivalent. The tie-set schedule with
the currents in links 4, 5, 7, 8 as loop currents are shown below.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Loop Branch numbers

No:↓ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 +1 −1
in
1 +1 0 0 0 0
2 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 +1 0
3 0 −1 −1 0 0 −1 0 +1
4 +1 +1 +1 +1 0 0 0 0
n.
EXAMPLE 2.12
io
In the graph shown in Figure 2.16(a), the ideal voltage source
e = 1 V. For the remaining branches each has a resistance of 1
ut
Ω with O as the reference. Obtain the node voltage e1 , e2 and
e3 using network topology.
ol
SOLUTION Figure 2.16(a)
With e shift, graph is as shown in Figure 2.16(b). Branches are numbered with orientation.
us
vt
Figure 2.16(b)
With T = (2, 5, 7) the cut set matrix is

⎡ ⎤
−1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Q = ⎣ 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 1 ⎦
0 0 0 1 1 −1 0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −1 0 0
⎢ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
in
⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
YB Q = ⎢
T
⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢
⎥⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥=⎢
⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎦⎣ 0 0 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 −1 ⎦
n.
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0
⎢ 1 0 0 ⎥
⎡ ⎤⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
−1 1 1 0 0 0 0 ⎢⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥
⎥ 3 −1 0
QYB Q = ⎣ 0 0 −1 −1 0
T
0 1 ⎦⎢ 0 −1 ⎥ = ⎣ −1 3 −1 ⎦
0 0 0 1 1 −1 0 ⎢
⎢
⎢
⎣
io ⎡
0
0
0
0
1
1
0 −1
1
⎤
0
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎦
0 −1 3
ut
1
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎡ ⎤⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
−1 1 1 0 0 0 0 ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥ −1
QYB EB = ⎣ 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 1 ⎦⎢
⎢ 0 ⎥=⎣ 0 ⎦
⎥
0 0 0 1 1 −1 0 ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥ −1
ol
⎣ 1 ⎦
0
According to the equation QYB QT EN = −QYB EB , we have

us
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 −1 0 e1 1
⎣ −1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ e2 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 −1 3 e3 1
Therefore, ⎡ ⎤
3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤−1 ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ 7 ⎥
⎥
vt
e1 3 −1 0 1 ⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ e2 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
e3 0 −1 3 1 ⎢ 7 ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
7
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 2.13
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.17, for a tree consisting of ab, bc, cd form a tie-set schedule and
in
obtain equilibrium loop equations. Choose branch numbers same as their resistance values. Solve
for loop currents.
n.
io
ut
Figure 2.17
SOLUTION
ol
The oriented graph is
us
vt
Figure 2.17(a)
Tree with nodes ab, bc, and cd and links are shown in dotted line.
The tie set matrix is
B
2 1 2 3 4 5 6
3i
M= 4 0
1
1 1
1 0
0
1
1 0
0 0 5i1
2
0 0 0 1 1 1 i3
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
MZBMT
n.
2 32 32 3
= 4 0
1
1 1
1 0 54 1 0 0
0 2 0 54 0
1
1 0
1 0 5
0
2 0 0
32
0 0 3
32
1 0 0
3
4 54 54 5
2
4
+
5
0
1
1
2 0
io
1 0
0 0
1 1
3 2
5 4
4 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 6
5 0 5
0 1
1 0
3
0 0
5
1
1
1
ut
= 2 3 0 + 0 4 4
2 0 0 0
3 5 4 15
= 4 10
2
2
7
5
4 5
ol
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
5 4 15
666 6
777 666 1 0 0 0 0 0
777 666 4
777 666 2
777
666 777 666 777 666 777 666 777
4 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 4
2 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 11
4 5 4 54 5 4 5
EB ZB I B =
us
=
2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0
2 3
6 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 6
2 3 666 2
777 2 3
4 5 666 777 4 5
4
0 1 1 0 1 0 15
vt
11
4 5
M (EB ZB IB ) = 1 1 0 1 0 0 = 4
2
0 0 0 1 1 1 4
0
6
Then the loop equations,

2 32 i 3 2 3
4 10
2
2
7
5
4 54 i 5 4 5
1
2 =
15
4
5 4 15 i3 4
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The loop currents are

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤−1 ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
in
i1 10 −2 −5 15 963
⎣ i2 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 1 ⎣
7 −4 ⎦ ⎣ −4 ⎦ = 50 ⎦
575
i3 −5 −4 15 −4 181
EXAMPLE 2.14
n.
For the network shown in Fig. 2.18(a), prepare a cut-set schedule and obtain equilibrium equa-
tions. Number the branches by their ohmic values.
io
ut
ol

us
SOLUTION
Numbering the branches same as those of ohmic values, the oriented graph is as shown in
Fig. 2.18(b). Choosing 4, 5, 6 as tree branches, the tie set schedule is as shown below.
vt
Figure 2.18(c)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
⎡ ⎤
ea 1 1 0 0 1 0
Q = eb ⎣ 0 −1 −1 0 0 1 ⎦
−1
in
ec 0 1 1 0 0
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
1−1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1
⎡ ⎤⎢ 0 2−1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ 1 −1 0 ⎥
1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎢⎢
⎥⎢
⎥⎢
⎥
0 0 3−1 0 0 0 0 −1 1 ⎥
QYB QT = ⎣ 0 −1 −1 0 0 1 ⎦⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
n.
⎢ 0 0 0 4 −1 0 0 ⎥⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥
−1 0 1 1 0 0 ⎢⎣
⎥⎢
⎦⎣
⎥
0 0 0 0 5−1 0 1 0 0 ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 6−1 0 1 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎤⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 −1
= ⎣ 0 −1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 2−1
−1 0
⎡
1
0 1 0
0 0 3
⎤ ⎡ −1
4
0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 −1
−1
0
+ ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 5−1
0
0 −1
⎤⎡
0 ⎦
1
0 0 1
⎤
0 ⎦⎣ 1 0 0 ⎦
io
ut
1 0 0 0 0 6−1 0 1 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 1 1 ⎡ 17 1 ⎤
− −1 0 0 − −1
⎢ 2 2 ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 10 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
ol
⎢ 1 5 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
=⎢ − − ⎥+⎢ 0 0 ⎥=⎢ − 1 − ⎥
⎢ 2 6 3 ⎥ ⎢ 6 ⎥ ⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 4 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ −1 − ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 ⎦ 1 19
3 3 4 −1 −
3 12
us
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−5 1−1 0 0 0 0 0 0 −5
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 2 −1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ −6 ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 3−1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ −21 ⎥ ⎢ 7 ⎥
IB −YB EB = ⎢
⎢
⎥−⎢
⎥ ⎢
⎥⎢
⎥⎢
⎥=⎢
⎥ ⎢
⎥
⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 4−1 0 0 ⎥⎢ −140 ⎥ ⎢ 35 ⎥
⎣ −2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 0 5−1 0 ⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ −2 ⎦
vt
−6 0 0 0 0 0 6−1 0 −6
⎡ ⎤
−5
⎡ ⎤⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 0 1 0 ⎢ ⎢
⎥
⎥ −4
7
Q (IB −YB EB ) = ⎣ 0 −1 −1 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎢
⎢
⎥ = ⎣ −16 ⎦
⎥
35
−1 0 1 1 0 0 ⎢ ⎣
⎥
⎦ 47
−2
−6
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Equations in matrix form therefore is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1.7 −0.5 −1 e1 −4
in
⎣ −0.5 1 −0.33 ⎦ ⎣ e2 ⎦ = ⎣ −16 ⎦
−1 −0.33 1.58 e3 47
Without matrix method:
n.
From the matrix Q, looking row wise, we have by KCL
J1 + J2 + J5 = 0
−J2 − J3 + J6 = 0
−J1 + J3 + J4 = 0
Looking column wise, we have

v1 = ea − ec ; v2 = ea − eb ; v3 = eb − ec ;
io
v4 = ec ; v5 = ea ; v6 = eb
Writing set (a) in terms of branch voltages and then (b) branch voltage in terms of node pair
voltages,
ut
For (i)
v2 v5
v1 + + = −4
2 4
ea − eb ea
ea − ec + + = −4
ol
2 5
1.7ea − 0.5eb − ec = −4 (2.10)
For (ii)
v2 − 6 v3 − 21 v6
us
− − + +6=0
2 3 6
eb − ea eb − ec eb
+ + = −16
2 3 6
−0.5ea + eb − 0.33ec = −16 (2.11)
For (iii)
vt
v3 − 21 v4 − 140
−5 − v1 + + =0
3 4
v3 v4
−v1 + + = 47
3 4
ec − eb ec
−ea + ec + + = 47
3 4
19
ea − 0.33eb − ec = 47 (2.12)
12
(2.10), (2.11), and (2.12) are the required equations.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 2.15
Device a tree for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.19(a), for which all the currents pass through 1 Ω.
in
For this tree write the tie-set matrix to obtain equilibrium equations.
16W
2W 6W
10A
1W
n.
20A
10W 0.8W
1.5W
Figure 2.19(a)
SOLUTION
io
Performing “I shift” the network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.19(b).
ut
20A 10A 10A 16 6
2
1
20A 0.8
10 1.5
ol
Figure 2.19(b)
The oriented graph is as shown in Fig 2.19(c) for which the tree is shown in Fig. 2.19(d) to
us
satisfy the condition.

vt
With link 2, row a of tie-set is

1 1 0 1 1 1 0
With link 3, row b of tie-set is
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
With link 7 row c of tie-set is
0 0 0 −1 0 −1 1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
So that ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
M=⎣ 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 ⎦
in
0 0 0 −1 0 −1 1
n.
MZBMT
⎣
⎡
1 1
= 0 0
⎤
⎦ 2 0
0 10

1 0 0
1 0 1

io
⎡
⎣
0 1
+ 1 0
⎤
⎦

16 0
0 1.5

0 1 0
1 0 −1

ut
0 1 0 −1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 6 0 0 1 1 0
+ ⎣ 1 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 1 −1 ⎦
0 −1 1 0 0 0.8 0 0 1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 −1.5 7 −1 20.5 7 −2.5
ol
12 0 0 1.5 7
⎣ 0 0 0 ⎦+⎣ 0 16 0 ⎦+⎣ 7 7 −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 7 23 −1 ⎦
0 0 0 −1.5 0 1.5 −1 −1 18 −2.5 −1 3.3
us
vt
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
260 0 0 260
= ⎣ 0 ⎦ + ⎣ −160 ⎦ + ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ −160 ⎦
0 0 0 0
Matrix equation is
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
20.5 7 −2.5 i1 260
⎣ 7 23 −1 ⎦ ⎣ i2 ⎦ = ⎣ −160 ⎦
−2.5 −1 3.3 i3 0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 2.16
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.20(a), construct a tree in which v1 and v2 are tree branch voltages,
write a cut-set matrix and obtain equilibrium equations. Solve for v1 .
in
n.
Figure 2.20(a)
io Figure 2.20(b)
ut
SOLUTION
Performing E shift and I shift, the circuit is redrawn as
shown in Fig. 2.20(b).
With v1 and v2 as tree branch voltages the graph is as
shown in Fig. 2.20(c), with tree branches with full lines and
ol
the links in dotted lines.
1 0 0 1
Figure 2.20(c)
2 : 32 3
Q=
0 1 1 1
664 775 664 775

us
01 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0:05 0 0 0 1
QGB QT =
0 1 1 1 0 0 0:02 0 0 1
0:1
: 0 0
0 2 0:2
0

0:2
0:3 0:2

1 1
0:05 0:2 0:2 0:2 0:27

= + =
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
vt
IB GEB =
664 2
2 775 664 0:1 0
0 0:05
0
0
0
0 775 664 0
20 775 664 2
1 775
0 0:02
=
0 0 0 0 0
266 3
0 0 0 0 0:2 80 16
2
775
QIB GB EB =
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 4 1
0
=
14
15
16
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Therefore the equilibrium equation is

0.3 0.2 e1 14
in
=
0.2 0.27 e2 15
Therefore,

−1

e1 0.3 0.2 14 19.024
= =
e2 0.2 0.27 15 41.463
n.
EXAMPLE 2.17
(a) Construct a tree for the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.21(a) so that i1 is a link current.
Assign a complete set of link currents and
find i1 (t).
(b) Construct another tree in which v1 is a tree

branch voltage. Assign a complete set of io
ut
tree branch voltages and find v1 (t)v.
Take i(t) = 25 sin 103 t Amp, v(t) = 15 cos 103 (t)
Figure 2.21(a)
SOLUTION
ol
(a) The circuit after I shift is as shown in Fig. 2.21(b). The
oriented graph is as shown in Fig. 2.21(c). With branches as
numbered, and 1 as a link the tree is as shown in Fig. 2.21(d)
Links are shown in dotted line (links are 1 and 4).
us
The tie-set martix is

1 −1 1 0
M=
0 −1 1 1
The branch impedence matrix is

vt
⎡ ⎤ Figure 2.21(b)
1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 −j1 0 0 ⎥
ZB = ⎢⎣ 0
⎥
0 1 0 ⎦
0 0 0 j2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡⎤
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 −j1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
EB −ZB IB = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎣ 0 ⎦−⎣ 0
⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 25 ⎦ ⎣ −25 ⎦
j15 0 0 0 j2 0 j15
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
⎡ ⎤

0

1 −1 1 0 ⎢ 0 ⎥ −25
⎢ ⎥=
in
M (EB − ZB IB ) = ⎣ −25 ⎦
0 −1 1 1 −25 + j15
j15
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤

1 0 0 0 1 0

1 −1 1 0 ⎢ 0 −j1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
MZB M = T ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 −1 ⎥ = 2 − j1 1 − j1
n.
0 −1 1 1 ⎣ 0 0 1 0 ⎦⎣ 1 1 ⎦ 1 − j1 1 + j1
0 0 0 j2 0 1
io
ut
Equilibrium equations are

2 − j1 1 − j1 I1 −25
=
1 − j1 1 + j1 I2 −25 + j15
ol

−25 1 − j1 2 − j1 1 − j1
Therefore I1 = ÷
1 − j1 1 + j1

−25 + j15 1 + j1
= 15.72 /−148◦ Amp
us

Therefore I1 = 15.72 sin 103 t − 148◦ Amp
(b) With 1 as tree branch, the oriented tree is as shown in Fig. 2.21(c). Links are shown with
dotted lines, with e1 and e2 as node pair voltages the cut-sets are shown.
The cut-set matrix is
vt

ea 1 0 −1 1
eb 0 1 1 0
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 j1 0 0 ⎥
Y=⎢
⎣ 0 0 1
⎥
⎦
0
0 0 0 −j0.5 Figure 2.21(e)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 j1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
IB −YB EB = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
in
⎣ 25 ⎦ − ⎣ 0 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 25 ⎦
0 0 0 0 −j0.5 j15 −7.5
⎡ ⎤

0

1 0 −1 1 ⎢ ⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ −32.5
Q (IB −YB EB ) = =
n.
0 1 1 0 ⎣ 25 ⎦ 25
−7.5
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤

1 0 0 0 1 0
⎢
1 0 −1 1 ⎢ 0 j1 0 ⎥ ⎢
0 ⎥⎢ 0 1 ⎥
QYB QT = ⎥
0 1 1 0 ⎣ 0 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ −1 1 ⎦
Equilibrium equations are

=

2 − j0.5
−1
−1
1 + j1

io
0 0 0 −j0.5 1 0
ut

2 − j0.5 −1 E1 −32.5
=
−1 1 + j1 E2 25

−32.5 −1 2 − j0.5 −1
Therefore E1 = ÷

25 1 + j1 −1 1 + j1
ol
= 15.72 /−148◦ volts

Therefore E1 = 15.72 sin 103 t − 148◦ volts
us
2.8 Dual Networks
Two electrical circuits are duals if the mesh equations that characterize one of them have the same
mathematical form as the nodal equations that characterize the other.
Let us consider the series Ra − La − Ca network excited by a voltage source va as shown
in Fig. 2.22(a), and the parallel Gb − Cb − Lb network fed by a current source ib as shown
vt
in Fig. 2.22(b).
Figure 2.22(a) Series RLC network Figure 2.22(b) Parallel RLC network
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The equations governing the circuit behaviour are:

(i)
La dia + Ra ia + 1
Z i dt = va
dt Ca a
in
La didta + Ra ia + C1

La didta + Ra ia + C1
Z i dt a
= va
= va (2.13)
a
Z v dt
n.
a
Cb dvdtb + Gb vb + 1
(ii)
b LZ b = ib
dv
Cb dtb + Gb vb + L Z v dt = ib
1
b
dv
io
Cb dtb + Gb vb + L 1
b
b
v dt b = ib
Comparing equations (2.13) and (2.14), we get the similarity between the networks of Fig.
(2.14)
ut
2.22(a) and Fig 2.22(b). The solution of equation (2.13) will be identical to the solution of equa-
tion (2.14) when the following exchanges are made:
La Cb ; Ra Gb; Ca Lb
va ib ; ia vb ;
ol
Hence, the series network in Fig. 2.22(a) and parallel network in Fig. 2.22(b) are duals of each
other. The advantage of duality is that there is no need to analyze both types of circuits, since the
solution of one automatically gives the solution of the other with a suitable change of symbols for
the physical quantities. Table 2.1 gives the corresponding quantitites for dual electrical networks.
us
Table 2.1: Table of dual quantities

Loop basis Node basis
1. A loop made up of several branches 1. A node joining the same number of branches.
2. Voltage sources 2. Current sources
3. Loop currents 3. Node voltages
4. Inductances 4. Capacitances
vt
5. Resistances 5. Conductance
6. Capacitances 6. Inductances
Only planar1 networks have duals. The duals of planar networks could be obtained by a graphical
technique known as the dot method. The dot method has the following procedure:
1. Put a dot in each independent loop of the network. These dots correspond to independent
nodes in the dual network.
1
Planar networks are those that can be laid on a plane without branches crossing one another.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
2. Put a dot outside the network. This dot corresponds to the reference node in the dual
network.
in
3. Connect all internal dots in the neighbouring loops by dahsed lines cutting the common
branches. These branches that are cut by dashed lines will form the branches connecting
the corresponding independent nodes in the dual network. As an example, if a common
branch contains R and L in series, then the parallel combination of G and C should be put
n.
between the corresponding independent nodes in the dual network.
4. Join all internal dots to the external dot by dashed lines cutting all external branches. Duals
of these branches cut by dashed lines will form the branches connecting the independent
nodes and the reference node.
5. Convention for sources in the dual network:
io
(i) a clockwise current source in a loop corresponds to a voltage source with a positive
polarity at the dual independent node.
(ii) a voltage rise in the direction of a clockwise loop current corresponds to a current
ut
flowing toward the dual independent node.
EXAMPLE 2.18
Draw the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a). Write the mesh equations for the given network
and node equations for its dual. Verify whether they are dual equations.
ol
us
vt
Figure 2.23(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Z
SOLUTION
For the given network, the mesh equations are
R1 i1 + L1 D (i1 i2 ) + 1
(i1 i3 ) dt = vg
in
C
R2 i3 + L2 Di3 + R3 (i3 i2 ) + C1
Z (i3
i2 = i0
i2 ) dt = 0
n.
The dual network, as per the procedure described in the theory is prepared as shown in Fig.
2.23(b) and is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.23(c). The node equations for this network are
io
ut
ol
Figure 2.23 (b)

Z
Z
us
G1 V1 + C1 D (v1 v2 ) + L1 (v1 v3 ) dt = ig
G2 v3 + C2 Dv3 + G3 (v3 v2 ) + L1 (v3 v2 ) dt = 0
vt
Figure 2.23 (c)
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EXAMPLE 2.19
For the bridge network shown in Fig. 2.24(a), draw its dual. Write the integro-differential form of
in
the mesh equations for the given network and node equations for its dual. The values for resistors
one in ohms, capacitors are in farads and inductors are in Henrys.
n.
io
Figure 2.24(a)
ut
SOLUTION
The dual for the given network is shown in Fig. 2.24(c) using the procedure shown in Fig. 2.24(b).
Z
The integro-differential form for the network is
10i1 + D (i1 i2 ) +
Z (i1 i3 ) dt = 10 sin 50t
1
ol
4
Z
D (i2 i1 ) + 2Di2 + 5
Z (i2 i3 ) dt = 0
1
3i3 + (i3 i1 ) dt + (i3 i2 ) dt = 0

1 1
us
4 5
vt
Figure 2.24(b)
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Z
Figure 2.24(c)
The node equations for the dual network are
10v1 + D (v1 v2 ) +
Z (v1 v3 ) dt = 10 sin 50t
1
4
3v3 +
1
4
Z
D (v2 v1 ) + 2Dv2 + 5
(v3 v1 ) dt +
io1
1
5
Z (v2
(v3
v3 ) dt = 0
v2 ) dt = 0
ut
EXAMPLE 2.20
A network with a controlled source is shown in Fig. 2.25(a). Draw the dual for the given network
and write equations for both the networks.
ol
us
Figure 2.25(a)
SOLUTION
The dual for the given network is shown in Fig. 2.25(c) using the procedure given in Fig. 2.25(b).
vt
ix
Figure 2.25(b)
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in
S S
n.
Figure 2.25(c)
Mesh equations for the given network are ix = i1 − i4
5ix + 10 (i1 − i2 ) dt = 2e−10t
io
i2 − i3 = −0.2ix
i3 = −0.1e−10t
−5ix + (i4 − i3 ) 20 + 10 × 10−3 Di4 = 0
ut
The node equations for the dual network are vx = v1 − v4

5vx + 10 (v1 − v2 ) dt = 2e−10t
v2 − v3 = −0.2vx
v3 = −0.1e−10t
ol
−5vx + (v4 − v3 ) 20 + 10 × 10−3 Dv4 = 0
Exercise Problems
us
E.P 2.1
Consider the bridge circuit of Fig. E.P. 2.1. Using node d as the datum, determine the graph,
select a tree, find the cut set equations, and determine va .
0.25
vt
Figure E.P. 2.1
Ans: 7.58 V
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E.P 2.2
Identify the 16 trees in the graph of Fig. E.P. 2.2.
in
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E.P 2.3 io
Figure E.P. 2.2
ut
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 2.3 The ohmic values also represent the branch numbers.
Form a tree with tree branches 4, 5, 6 and find the various branch currents using the concept of
tie-set and cut-set matrices.
ol
us
vt
Figure E.P. 2.3
Ans: I1 = 24:114 A I2 = 0:297 A I3 = 4:5 A

I4 = 28:6112 A I5 = 4:206 A I6 = 24:407 A
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E.P 2.4
Refer the network shown in Fig.E.P. 2.4. Find the current supplied by the 10 V battery and the
in
power dissipated in the 10-ohm resistor (connected across a b) by using tie-set and cut-set
matrices.
n.
io
Figure E.P. 2.4
ut
Ans: 1.047 A, 2.209 W
E.P 2.5
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 2.5. Find the power dissipated by the 2 Ω resistor by
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constructing tie-set and cut-set matrices.
us
vt
Figure E.P. 2.5
Ans: 6.4 KW
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in
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io
Many electric circuits are complex, but it is an engineer’s goal to reduce their complexity to
analyze them easily. In the previous chapters, we have mastered the ability to solve networks
containing independent and dependent sources making use of either mesh or nodal analysis. In
ut
this chapter, we will introduce new techniques to strengthen our armoury to solve complicated
networks. Also, these new techniques in many cases do provide insight into the circuit’s operation
that cannot be obtained from mesh or nodal analysis. Most often, we are interested only in the
detailed performance of an isolated portion of a complex circuit. If we can model the remainder
of the circuit with a simple equivalent network, then our task of analysis gets greatly reduced and
ol
simplified. For example, the function of many circuits is to deliver maximum power to load such
as an audio speaker in a stereo system. Here, we develop the required relationship betweeen a
load resistor and a fixed series resistor which can represent the remaining portion of the circuit.
Two of the theorems that we present in this chapter will permit us to do just that.
us
3.1 Superposition theorem
The principle of superposition is applicable only for linear systems. The concept of superposition
can be explained mathematically by the following response and excitation principle :
i1 ! v1
i2 ! v2
vt
then; i1 + i2 ! v1 + v2
The quantity to the left of the arrow indicates the excitation and to the right, the system
response. Thus, we can state that a device, if excited by a current i1 will produce a response
v1 . Similarly, an excitation i2 will cause a response v2 . Then if we use an excitation i1 + i2 , we
will find a response v1 + v2 .
The principle of superposition has the ability to reduce a complicated problem to several easier
problems each containing only a single independent source.
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Superposition theorem states that,

In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current or voltage at any
in
point in the network may be calculated as algebraic sum of the individual contributions of each
source acting alone.
When determining the contribution due to a particular independent source, we disable all
the remaining independent sources. That is, all the remaining voltage sources are made zero by
replacing them with short circuits, and all remaining current sources are made zero by replacing
n.
them with open circuits. Also, it is important to note that if a dependent source is present, it must
remain active (unaltered) during the process of superposition.
Action Plan:
(i) In a circuit comprising of many independent sources, only one source is allowed to be active
io
in the circuit, the rest are deactivated (turned off).
(ii) To deactivate a voltage source, replace it with a short circuit, and to deactivate a current
source, replace it with an open circuit.
(iii) The response obtained by applying each source, one at a time, are then added algebraically
ut
to obtain a solution.
Limitations: Superposition is a fundamental property of linear equations and, therefore, can be
applied to any effect that is linearly related to the cause. That is, we want to point out that,
superposition principle applies only to the current and voltage in a linear circuit but it cannot be
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used to determine power because power is a non-linear function.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Find the current in the 6 Ω resistor using the principle of superposition for the circuit of Fig. 3.1.
us
vt
Figure 3.1
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
6 6
i1 = = A
3+6 9
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Circuit Theorems j 161
As a next step, set the voltage to zero by replacing it with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3.3.
i2 =
2 3 6
= A
in
3+6 9
n.
Figure 3.2
The total current i is then the sum of i1 and i2
i
io
= i1 + i2 =
12
9
A
Figure 3.3
ut
EXAMPLE 3.2
Find io in the network shown in Fig. 3.4 using superposition.
ol
us
Figure 3.4
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
vt
Figure 3.5
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in
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6

0
io = = 0:3 mA
(8 + 12) 103
iA =
R1
io
As a second step, set the voltage source to zero. This means the voltage source in Fig. 3.4 is
replaced by a short circuit as shown in Figs. 3.6 and 3.6(a). Using current division principle,
iR2
+ R2
ut
where R1 jj
= (12 kΩ 12 kΩ) + 12 kΩ
= 6 kΩ + 12 kΩ
= 18 kΩ
ol
and R2 = 12 kΩ
)
4 10 3 12 103
iA =
(12 + 18) 103
= 1:6 mA Figure 3.6
us
Again applying the current division principle,

00
io =
iA 12= 0:8 mA
12 + 12
Thus; io = io 0 + io 00 = 0:3 + 0:8 = 0:5 mA
vt
Figure 3.6(a)
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EXAMPLE 3.3
Use superposition to find io in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.7.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 3.7
ut
As a first step, keep only the 12 V source active and rest of the sources are deactivated. That is,
2 mA current source is opened and 6 V voltage source is shorted as shown in Fig. 3.8.
12

0
io =
ol
(2 + 2) 103
= 3 mA
us
vt
Figure 3.8
As a second step, keep only 6 V source active. Deactivate rest of the sources, resulting in a
circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.9.
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Applying KVL clockwise to the upper loop, we get
2 10 3 00
2 10 3 00
6=0
in
io io
) io
00
=
4
6
103
= 1:5 mA
n.
io
Figure 3.9
ut
As a final step, deactivate all the independent voltage sources and keep only 2 mA current
source active as shown in Fig. 3.10.
ol
us
Figure 3.10
Current of 2 mA splits equally.

vt
000
Hence; io = 1mA
Applying the superposition principle, we find that
io = io 0 + io 00 + io 000
=3 1:5 + 1
= 2:5 mA
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EXAMPLE 3.4
Find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 3.11.
in
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SOLUTION
Figure 3.11
io
We need to find the current i due to the two independent sources.
As a first step in the analysis, we will find the current resulting from the independent voltage
ut
source. The current source is deactivated and we have the circuit as shown as Fig. 3.12.
Applying KVL clockwise around loop shown in Fig. 3.12, we find that
5i1 + 3i1 24 = 0
) i1 =
24
8
= 3A
ol
As a second step, we set the voltage source to zero and determine the current i2 due to the
current source. For this condition, refer to Fig. 3.13 for analysis.
us
vt
Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13
Applying KCL at node 1, we get

v1 3i2
i2 +7= (3.1)
2
v1 0
Noting that i2 =
3
we get, v1 = 3i2 (3.2)
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Making use of equation (3.2) in equation (3.1) leads to

3i2 3i2
i2 + 7 =
in
2
) i2 =
7
4
A
Thus, the total current
i = i1 + i2
n.
7 5
=3 A= A
4 4
EXAMPLE 3.5
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.14, find the terminal voltage Vab using superposition principle.
io
ut
As a first step in the analysis, deactivate the in-
ol
dependent current source. This results in a cir-
cuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Applying KVL clockwise gives
4 + 10 0+3 Vab1 + Vab1 = 0
)
us
4Vab1 = 4
) Vab1 = 1V
Figure 3.15
Next step in the analysis is to deactivate the
independent voltage source, resulting in a cir-
cuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.16.
vt
Applying KVL gives
10 2+3 Vab2 + Vab2 = 0

) 4Vab2 = 20
) Vab2 = 5V
Figure 3.16
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According to superposition principle,
= Vab1 + Vab2
in
Vab
= 1 + 5 = 6V
EXAMPLE 3.6
Use the principle of superposition to solve for vx in the circuit of Fig. 3.17.
n.
io
ut
Figure 3.17
SOLUTION
According to the principle of superposition,
ol
vx = vx 1 + vx 2
where vx1 is produced by 6A source alone in the circuit and vx2 is produced solely by 4A current
source.
To find vx1 , deactivate the 4A current source. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in
us
Fig. 3.18.
KCL at node x1 :
vx1 vx 1 4ix1
+ =6
2 8
vx 1
vt
But ix1 =
2
v
vx 1 vx 1 4 x21
Hence; + =6
2 8
) vx1
2
+
vx 1
8
2vx1
=6
) 4vx1 + vx1 2vx1 = 48 Figure 3.18
) vx 1 =
48
3
= 16V
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To find vx2 , deactivate the 6A current source, resulting in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
3.19.
in
KCL at node x2 :
vx 2 ( 4ix2 )
v x2
+ =4
8 2
) vx 2 vx + 4ix2
+ 2 =4 (3.3)
n.
8 2
Applying KVL along dotted path, we get
vx 2 + 4ix2 2ix2 = 0
) vx 2 = 2ix2 or ix2 =
vx2
(3.4)
vx 2 +4
vx2

io 2
ut
vx2 2
+ =4
8 2
) vx 2
8
+
vx 2
2
2vx2
=4
) vx 2 vx 2
=4
)
8 2
ol
vx 2 4vx2 = 32
) vx 2 =
32
3
V
Hence, according to the superposition principle,

us
vx = vx 1 + vx 2 Figure 3.19
32
= 16 = 5:33V
2
EXAMPLE 3.7
Which of the source in Fig. 3.20 contributes most of the power dissipated in the 2 Ω resistor ?
vt
The least ? What is the power dissipated in 2 Ω resistor ?
Figure 3.20
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SOLUTION
The Superposition theorem cannot be used to identify the individual contribution of each source
in
to the power dissipated in the resistor. However, the superposition theorem can be used to find the
total power dissipated in the 2 Ω resistor.
n.
io
ut
Figure 3.21
According to the superposition principle,

= i01 + i02
ol
i1
where i01 = Contribution to i1 from 5V source alone.

and i02 = Contribution to i1 from 2A source alone.
Let us first find i01 . This needs the deactivation of 2A source. Refer to Fig. 3.22.
us
0
5
i1 = = 1:22A
2 + 2:1
Similarly to find i02 we have to disable the 5V source by shorting it.
Referring to Fig. 3.23, we find that
0
i2 =

2 2:1
= 1:024 A
2 + 2: 1
vt
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Total current,
= i01 + i02
in
i1
= 1:22 1:024
= 0:196 A
Thus; P2Ω = (0:196)2 2
n.
= 0:0768 Watts
= 76:8 mW
EXAMPLE 3.8
Find the voltage V1 using the superposition principle. Refer the circuit shown in Fig.3.24.
io
ut
Figure 3.24
ol
SOLUTION
According to the superposition principle,
us
V1 = V10 + V100
where V10 is the contribution from 60V source alone and V100 is the contribution from 4A current
source alone.
To find V10 , the 4A current source is opened, resulting in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.25.
vt
Figure 3.25
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Applying KVL to the left mesh:
in
30ia 60 + 30 (ia ib ) =0 (3.5)
Also ib = 0:4iA
= 0:4 ( ia ) = 0:4ia (3.6)
n.
30ia 60 + 30ia
30 0:4ia = 0
) ia =
60
= 1:25A

48
ib = 0:4ia = 0:4 1:25
Hence; V1
0
io
= 0:5A
= (ia
= 22:5 V
ib ) 30
ut
To find, V100 , the 60V source is shorted as shown in Fig. 3.26.
ol
us
Figure 3.26
Applying KCL at node a:

00
Va Va V1
+ =4
20 10
) 30Va 20V100 = 800 (3.7)
vt
Applying KCL at node b:

00 00
V1 V1 Va
+ = 0:4ib
30 10
Also; Va = 20ia ) 20
ib =
Va
00 00
V1 V1 0:4Va
Va
Hence; + =
30 10 20
) 7:2Va + 8V100 = 0 (3.8)
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Solving the equations (3.7) and (3.8), we find that

00
V1 = 60V
in
Hence V1 = V10 + V100
= 22:5 + 60 = 82:5V
n.
EXAMPLE 3.9
(a) Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.27. Before the 10 mA current source is attached to
terminals x y , the current ia is found to be 1.5 mA. Use the superposition theorem to find
the value of ia after the current source is connected.
(b) Verify your solution by finding ia , when all the three sources are acting simultaneously.
io
ut
ol
Figure 3.27
SOLUTION
According to the principle of superposition,
us
ia = ia1 + ia2 + ia3
where ia1 , ia2 and ia3 are the contributions to ia from 20V source, 5 mA source and 10 mA source
respectively.
As per the statement of the problem,
vt
ia1 + ia2 = 1:5 mA
To find ia3 , deactivate 20V source and the 5 mA source. The resulting circuit diagram is

shown in Fig 3.28.
10mA 2k
ia3 = = 1 mA
18k + 2k
Hence, total current
ia = ia1 + ia2 + ia3

= 1:5 + 1 = 2:5 mA
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in
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Figure 3.28
(b) Refer to Fig. 3.29

KCL at node y:
18
Vy
103
+
Vy
2
20
103

= (10+5) 10 3
io
ut
Solving, we get Vy= 45V:
Vy 45
Hence; ia =
18 103
=

18 103
= 2:5 mA
ol
Figure 3.29
3.2 Thevenin’s theorem
In section 3.1, we saw that the analysis of a circuit may be greatly reduced by the use of su-
perposition principle. The main objective of Thevenin’s theorem is to reduce some portion of a
us
circuit to an equivalent source and a single element. This reduced equivalent circuit connected to
the remaining part of the circuit will allow us to find the desired current or voltage. Thevenin’s
theorem is based on circuit equivalence. A circuit equivalent to another circuit exhibits identical
characteristics at identical terminals.
vt
Figure 3.30 A Linear two terminal network Figure 3.31 The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit of Fig. 3.30 can be replaced by the one
shown in Fig. 3.31 (The load resistor may be a single resistor or another circuit). The circuit to
the left of the terminals x y in Fig. 3.31 is known as the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
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The Thevenin’s theorem may be stated as follows:

A linear two–terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source Vt in series with a resistor Rt , Where Vt is the open–circuit voltage at the termi-
in
nals and Rt is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources
are turned off or Rt is the ratio of open–circuit voltage to the short–circuit current at the
terminal pair.
Action plan for using Thevenin’s theorem :
n.
1. Divide the original circuit into circuit A and circuit B .
io
In general, circuit B is the load which may be linear or non-linear. Circuit A is the balance of
the original network exclusive of load and must be linear. In general, circuit A may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors or other linear elements.
ut
2. Separate the circuit A from circuit B .
ol
3. Replace circuit A with its Thevenin’s equivalent.
4. Reconnect circuit B and determine the variable of interest (e.g. current ‘i’ or voltage ‘v ’).
us
vt
Procedure for finding Rt :

Three different types of circuits may be encountered in determining the resistance, Rt :
(i) If the circuit contains only independent sources and resistors, deactivate the sources and find
Rt by circuit reduction technique. Independent current sources, are deactivated by opening
them while independent voltage sources are deactivated by shorting them.
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(ii) If the circuit contains resistors, dependent and independent sources, follow the instructions
described below:
in
(a) Determine the open circuit voltage voc with the sources activated.
(b) Find the short circuit current isc when a short circuit is applied to the terminals a b
voc
(c) Rt =
isc
n.
(iii) If the circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then
(a) voc = 0 (since there is no energy source)
(b) Connect 1A current source to terminals
a b and determine vab .
(c) Rt =
vab
1
io Figure 3.32
For all the cases discussed above, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.32.
ut
EXAMPLE 3.10
Using the Thevenin’s theorem, find the current i through R = 2 Ω. Refer Fig. 3.33.
ol
us
Figure 3.33
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 3.34
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Since we are interested in the current i through R, the resistor R is identified as circuit B and
the remainder as circuit A. After removing the circuit B, circuit A is as shown in Fig. 3.35.
in
n.
Figure 3.35
To find Rt , we have to deactivate the independent voltage source. Accordingly, we get the
circuit in Fig. 3.36.
Rt
=

5 20
jj
= (5 Ω 20 Ω) + 4 Ω
+4=8Ω
io
ut
5 + 20 Rt
Referring to Fig. 3.35,
50 + 25I = 0 ) I = 2A
Figure 3.36
ol
Hence Vab = Voc = 20(I ) = 40V
Thus, we get the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit which is as shown in Fig.3.37.

us
vt
Reconnecting the circuit B to the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.38, we get
40
i = = 4A
2+8
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EXAMPLE 3.11
(a) Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a b for the circuit shown
in
in Fig. 3.39 by finding the open-circuit voltage and the short–circuit current.
(b) Solve the Thevenin resistance by removing the independent sources. Compare your result
with the Thevenin resistance found in part (a).
n.
Figure 3.39 io
ut
SOLUTION
ol
us
Figure 3.40
(a) To find Voc :
vt
Apply KCL at node 2 :

V2 V2 30
+ 1:5 = 0
)
60 + 20 40
V2 = 60 Volts
Hence; Voc =I
V 60 0
=
2
60 + 20
60
= 60
60
80
= 45 V
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To find isc :
in
n.
_
Applying KCL at node 2:
)
V2
20
+
40
V2 = 30V
V2
V2
io
30
1:5 = 0
ut
isc = = 1:5A
20
Voc 45
Therefore; Rt = =
isc 1:5
= 30 Ω
Figure 3.40 (a)
ol
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a b is as shown in Fig. 3.40(a).
(b) Let us now find Thevenin resistance Rt by deactivating all the independent sources,
us
Rt Rt
vt
Rt jj
= 60 Ω (40 + 20) Ω
60
= = 30 Ω (verified)
2
It is seen that, if only independent sources are present, it is easy to find Rt by deactivating all
the independent sources.
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EXAMPLE 3.12
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.41 with respect to terminals a b.
in
n.
Figure 3.41
SOLUTION
To find Voc = Vab :
Applying KVL around the mesh of
Fig. 3.42, we get io
ut
20 + 6i 2i + 6i = 0
) i = 2A
Since there is no current flowing in

ol
10 Ω resistor, Voc = 6i = 12 V
To find Rt : (Refer Fig. 3.43)
Since both dependent and indepen- Figure 3.42
dent sources are present, Thevenin resis-
us
tance is found using the relation,

voc
Rt =
isc
20 + 6i1 2i + 6 (i1 i2 ) =0
) 12i1 6i2 = 20 + 2i
vt
Since i = i1 i2 , we get
12i1 6i2 = 20 + 2 (i1 i2 )
) 10i1 4i2 = 20
10i2 + 6 (i2 i1 ) =0
) 6i1 + 16i2 = 0 Figure 3.43
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Solving the above two mesh equations, we get
=
120
A ) = i2 =
120
A
in
i2 isc
136 136
voc 12
Rt = = = 13:6 Ω
isc 120
136
n.
EXAMPLE 3.13
Find Vo in the circuit of Fig. 3.44 using Thevenin’s theorem.
io
ut
Figure 3.44
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
ol
Since we are interested in the voltage across 2 kΩ resistor, it is removed from the circuit of
Fig. 3.44 and so the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.45.
us
vt
Figure 3.45
By inspection, i1 = 4 mA
Applying KVL to mesh 2 :
12 + 6 10 3
(i2
+ 3 103 i2 = 0
i1 )
3
) 12 + 6 10 3
i2 4 10 3
+3 10 i2 =0
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Vtusolution.in
Solving, we get i2 = 4 mA
Applying KVL to the path 4 kΩ ! a b ! 3 kΩ, we get
in
4 10 3
i1 + Voc 3 10 = 03
i2
) Voc = 4 10 + 3 10
3
i1
3
i2
= 4 10 4 10 + 3 10 4 10
3 3 3 3
= 28V
n.
To find Rt :
Deactivating all the independent sources, we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.46.
io
ut
Figure 3.46
Rt jj
= Rab = 4 kΩ + (6 kΩ 3 kΩ) = 6 kΩ
ol
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.47.
us

vt
If we connect the 2 kΩ resistor to this equivalent network, we obtain the circuit of Fig. 3.48.
Vo =i 2 10 3
=
28
(6 + 2) 10
2 10
3
3
= 7V
EXAMPLE 3.14
The wheatstone bridge in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (a) is balanced when R2 = 1200 Ω. If the
galvanometer has a resistance of 30 Ω, how much current will be detected by it when the bridge
is unbalanced by setting R2 to 1204 Ω ?
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.49(a)
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
i1 =
120
=
120
A
io
We are interested in the galavanometer current. Hence, it is removed from the circuit of Fig.
3.49 (a) to find Voc and we get the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (b).
ut
900 + 600 1500
120 120
i2 = = A
1204 + 800 2004
Applying KVL clockwise along the path
1204Ω ! b a !
900 Ω, we get
ol
1204i2 Vt 900i1 = 0
) Vt = 1204i2900i1
= 1204
120
2004
900 1500
120
= 95:8 mV
us
Figure 3.49(b)
To find Rt :
Deactivate all the independent sources and look into the terminals a b to determine the
Thevenin’s resistance.
vt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Rt jj
= Rab = 600 900 + 800 1204 jj

900 600 1204 800
in
= +
1500 2004
= 840:64 Ω
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of the

95.8 mV source in series with 840.64Ω resistor. If we
n.
connect 30Ω resistor (galvanometer resistance) to this
equivalent network, we obtain the circuit in Fig. 3.50. Figure 3.50
iG =

95:8 10 3
= 110:03 A
EXAMPLE 3.15
840:64 + 30 Ω
io
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.51, find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between terminals a and b.
ut
ol
us
Figure 3.51
SOLUTION
With ab shorted, let Isc = I . The circuit after
transforming voltage sources into their equiv-
vt
alent current sources is as shown in Fig 3.52.

Writing node equations for this circuit,
At a : 0:2Va 0:1 Vc + I = 3
At c : 0:1Va + 0:3 Vc 0:1 Vb = 4
At b : 0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb I =1
As the terminals a and b are shorted Va = Vb

Figure 3.52
and the above equations become
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
0:2Va 0:1 Vc + I = 3
0:2Va + 0:3 Vc = 4
in
0:2Va 0:1 Vc 1=1
Solving the above equations, we get the short circuit current, I = Isc = 1 A.
Next let us open circuit the terminals a and b and this makes I = 0. And the node equations
n.
written earlier are modified to
0:2Va 0:1 Vc = 3
0:1Va + 0:3 Vc 0:1 Vb = 4
0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb = 1
Solving the above equations, we get
Va = 30V and Vb = 20V

io
ut
Hence, Vab = 30 20 = 10 V = Voc = Vt
Voc 10
Therefore Rt = = = 10Ω
Isc 1
The Thevenin’s equivalent is as shown in Fig 3.53
ol
Figure 3.53
EXAMPLE 3.16
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.54. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals a b.
us
vt
Figure 3.54
SOLUTION
To begin with let us transform 3 A current source and 10 V voltage source. This results in a
network as shown in Fig. 3.55 (a) and further reduced to Fig. 3.55 (b).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
io
Figure 3.55(a)
Again transform the 30 V source and following the reduction procedure step by step from
Fig. 3.55 (b) to 3.55 (d), we get the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.56.
ut
ol
us

vt
Figure 3.55(d) Figure 3.56 Thevenin equivalent

circuit
EXAMPLE 3.17
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b. Refer the circuit diagram
shown in Fig. 3.57.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
Figure 3.57
n.
SOLUTION
Since the circuit has no independent sources, i = 0 when the terminals a b are open. There-
fore, Voc = 0.
The onus is now to find Rt . Since Voc = 0 and isc = 0, Rt cannot be determined from
Voc
Rt = . Hence, we choose to connect a source of 1 A at the terminals a b as shown in Fig.
isc
KCL at node a : Va 2i
Rt
io
3.58. Then, after finding Vab , the Thevenin resistance is,
=
Vab
Va
1
ut
+ 1=0
5 10
Va
Also; i =
Va
10
Va 2 10 Va
Hence; + 1=0
5 10
ol
) Va =
50
13
V
50 Va
Hence; Rt Ω
= =
1 13
us
Alternatively one could find Rt by connecting a 1V source at the terminals a b and then find
1
the current from b to a. Then Rt = . The concept of finding Rt by connecting a 1A source
iba
between the terminals a b may also be used for circuits containing independent sources. Then
set all the independent sources to zero and use 1A source at the terminals a b to find Vab and
Vab
hence, Rt = .
1
vt
For the present problem, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen between the terminals a b
is shown in Fig. 3.58 (a).
Figure 3.58 Figure 3.58 (a)
Vtusolution.in
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EXAMPLE 3.18
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit between the terminals a b for the circuit of Fig. 3.59.
in
n.
Figure 3.59
SOLUTION
from b to a. (Refer Fig. 3.60 a).

Rt =
1
Ω
io
As there are no independent sources in the circuit, we get Voc = Vt = 0:
To find Rt , connect a 1V source to the terminals a b and measure the current I that flows
ut
I
ol
us
Figure 3.60(a)

Vx
I = 0:5Vx +
4
Since; Vx = 1V
vt
1
we get, I = 0:5 + = 0:75 A
4 Figure 3.60(b)
1
Hence; Rt = = 1:33 Ω
0:75
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in 3.60(b).
Alternatively, sticking to our strategy, let us connect 1A current source between the terminals
Vab
a b and then measure Vab (Fig. 3.60 (c)). Consequently, Rt = = Vab Ω:
1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
0:5Vx +
Vx
4
=1 ) Vx = 1:33V
Vab Vx
Hence Rt = = = 1:33 Ω
1 1
n.
The corresponding Thevenin equivalent
circuit is same as shown in Fig. 3.60(b) Figure 3.60(c)
3.3 Norton’s theorem
to Thevenin’s theorem.
io
An American engineer, E.L. Norton at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a theorem similar
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a current source iN in parallel with resistor RN , where iN
ut
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not wish to turn off
the independent sources, then RN is the ratio of open circuit voltage to short–circuit current
at the terminal pair.
ol
us
Figure 3.61(a) Original circuit Figure 3.61(b) Norton’s equivalent circuit
Figure 3.61(b) shows Norton’s equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b of the
original circuit shown in Fig. 3.61(a). Since this is the dual of the Thevenin circuit, it is clear that
voc
RN = Rt and iN = . In fact, source transformation of Thevenin equivalent circuit leads to
Rt
vt
Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Procedure for finding Norton’s equivalent circuit:
(1) If the network contains resistors and independent sources, follow the instructions below:
(a) Deactivate the sources and find RN by circuit reduction techniques.
(b) Find iN with sources activated.
(2) If the network contains resistors, independent and dependent sources, follow the steps given
below:
(a) Determine the short-circuit current iN with all sources activated.
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(b) Find the open-circuit voltage voc .

voc
(c) Rt = RN =
in
iN
(3) If the network contains only resistors and dependent sources, follow the procedure
described below:
(a) Note that iN = 0.
n.
(b) Connect 1A current source to the terminals a b and find vab .
vab
(c) Rt =
1
Note: Also, since vt = voc and iN = isc
Rt =
voc
isc
io
= RN
The open–circuit and short–circuit test are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equiva-
lent.
ut
3.3.1 PROOF OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS
The principle of superposition is employed to provide the proof of Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems.
ol
Derivation of Thevenin’s theorem:
Let us consider a linear circuit having two accessible terminals x y and excited by an external
current source i. The linear circuit is made up of resistors, dependent and independent sources. For
us
the sake of simplified analysis, let us assume that the linear circuit contains only two independent
voltage sources v1 and v2 and two independent current sources i1 and i2 . The terminal voltage v
may be obtained, by applying the principle of superposition. That is, v is made up of contributions
due to the external source and independent sources within the linear network.
Hence; v = a0 i + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2 (3.9)
= a0 i + b 0 (3.10)
vt
where b0 = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2
= contribution to the terminal voltage v by
independent sources within the linear network.
Let us now evaluate the values of constants a0 and b0 .
(i) When the terminals x and y are open–circuited, i = 0 and v = voc = vt . Making use of
this fact in equation 3.10, we find that b0 = vt .
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
(ii) When all the internal sources are deactivated, b0 = 0. This enforces equation 3.10 to
become
)
in
v = a0 i = Rt i a0 = Rt
Rt
n.
Vt
Figure 3.62 Current-driven circuit Figure 3.63 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.62
io
where Rt is the equivalent resistance of the linear network as viewed from the terminals x y .
Also, a0 must be Rt in order to obey the ohm’s law. Substuting the values of a0 and b0 in equation
3.10, we find that
v = Rt i + v1
ut
which expresses the voltage-current relationship at terminals x y of the circuit in Fig. 3.63.
Thus, the two circuits of Fig. 3.62 and 3.63 are equivalent.
Derivation of Norton’s theorem:

ol
Let us now assume that the linear circuit described earlier is driven by a voltage source v as shown
in Fig. 3.64.
The current flowing into the circuit can be obtained by superposition as
= c0 v + d 0 (3.11)
us
where c0 v is the contribution to i due to the external voltage source v and d0 contains the contri-
butions to i due to all independent sources within the linear circuit. The constants c0 and d0 are
determined as follows :
(i) When terminals x y are short-circuited, v =
0 and i = isc . Hence from equation (3.11),
vt
we find that i = d0 = isc , where isc is the

short-circuit current flowing out of terminal x,
which is same as Norton current iN
Thus, d0 = iN
Figure 3.64
Voltage-driven circuit
(ii) Let all the independent sources within the linear network be turned off, that is d0 = 0. Then,
equation (3.11) becomes
i = c0 v
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For dimensional validity, c0 must have the

dimension of conductance. This enforces c0 =
1
in
where Rt is the equivalent resistance of the
Rt
linear network as seen from the terminals x y.
Thus, equation (3.11) becomes
1
n.
i = v isc
Rt
Figure 3.65 Norton’s equivalent of
1
= v iN voltage driven circuit
Rt
This expresses the voltage-current relationship at the terminals x y of the circuit in Fig.
EXAMPLE 3.19
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Fig. 3.66.
io
(3.65), validating that the two circuits of Figs. 3.64 and 3.65 are equivalents.
ut
ol
Figure 3.66
us
SOLUTION
As a first step, short the terminals a b. This
results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.67.
0 24
vt
3 + isc = 0
)
4
isc = 9A
To find RN , deactivate all the independent

sources, resulting in a circuit diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.68 (a). We find RN in the same way as Figure 3.67
Rt in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
RN =
4 12
=3Ω

4 + 12
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Thus, we obtain Nortion equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.68(b).
EXAMPLE 3.20
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.69. Find the value of ib using Norton equivalent circuit. Take
R = 667 Ω.
io
ut
ol
Figure 3.69
SOLUTION
Since we want the current flowing through R, remove
R from the circuit of Fig. 3.69. The resulting circuit
us
diagram is shown in Fig. 3.70.

To find iac or iN referring Fig 3.70(a) :
0
ia = = 0A
1000
12
isc = A = 2 mA Figure 3.70
6000
vt
Figure 3.70(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
To find RN :
The procedure for finding RN is same that of Rt
in
in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
voc
Rt = RN =
isc
To find voc , make use of the circuit diagram shown
n.
in Fig. 3.71. Do not deactivate any source.
Applying KVL clockwise, we get
Figure 3.71
12 + 6000ia + 2000ia + 1000ia = 0
) ia =
4
3000
A
)
Therefore;
voc = ia
RN =
voc
isc
= 3
4
1000 = V
4
3
2 10 3
= 667 Ωio
ut
The Norton equivalent circuit along with resistor R is as shown below:
isc 2mA
ib = = = 1mA
2 2
ol
us
Figure : Norton equivalent circuit with load R
EXAMPLE 3.21
Find Io in the network of Fig. 3.72 using Norton’s theorem.
vt
Figure 3.72
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
We are interested in Io , hence the 2 kΩ resistor is removed from the circuit diagram of Fig. 3.72.
in
The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.73(a).
n.
Figure 3.73(a)
To find iN or isc : io Figure 3.73(b)

ut
Refer Fig. 3.73(b). By inspection, V1 = 12 V
Applying KCL at node V2 :
V2 V1 V2 V2 V1
+ + =0
6 kΩ 2 kΩ 3 kΩ
ol
Substituting V1 = 12 V and solving, we get
V2 = 6V
V1 V2 V1
isc = + = 5 mA
3 kΩ 4 kΩ
us
To find RN :
Deactivate all the independent sources (refer Fig. 3.73(c)).
vt
Vtusolution.in
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Referring to Fig. 3.73 (d), we get
jj jj
= Rab = 4 kΩ [3 kΩ + (6 kΩ 2 kΩ)] = 2:12 kΩ
in
RN
Hence, the Norton equivalent circuit

along with 2 kΩ resistor is as shown in
Fig. 3.73(e).

n.
isc RN
Io = = 2:57mA
R + RN
Figure 3.73(e)
EXAMPLE 3.22
Find Vo in the circuit of Fig. 3. 74.
io
ut
ol
Figure 3.74
us
SOLUTION
Since we are interested in Vo , the voltage across 4 kΩ resistor, remove this resistance from the
circuit. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.75.
vt
Figure 3.75
Vtusolution.in
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To find isc , short the terminals a b :
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
i1 i2 = 4mA (3.12)
in
KVL around supermesh :
4+2 10 3
i1 +4 10 3
i2 =0 (3.13)
KVL around mesh 3 :
10 ( 10 (
n.
3 3
8 i3 i2 ) +2 i3 i1 ) =0
Since i3 = isc , the above equation becomes,
8 10 ( 3
isc i2 ) +2 10 ( 3
isc i1 ) =0 (3.14)
Solving equations (3.12), (3.13) and (3.14) simultaneously, we get isc = 0:1333 mA.
To find RN :
io
Deactivate all the sources in Fig. 3.75. This yields a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.76.
ut
ol
us
Figure 3.76
vt
RN = 6 kΩ 10 kΩjj
=

6 10
= 3:75 kΩ
6 + 10
Hence, the Norton equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig 3.76 (a).
To the Norton equivalent circuit, now connect the
4 kΩ resistor that was removed earlier to get the Figure 3.76(a)
network shown in Fig. 3.76(b).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
= isc (RN jj R)
in
Vo
RN R
= isc
RN +R
= 258 mV
n.
Figure 3.76(b) Norton equivalent circuit with R = 4 kΩ
EXAMPLE 3.23
io
Find the Norton equivalent to the left of the terminals a b for the circuit of Fig. 3.77.
ut
ol
Figure 3.77
SOLUTION
To find isc :
us
vt
Note that vab = 0 when the terminals a b are short-circuited.

5
Then i = = 10 mA
500
Therefore, for the right–hand portion of the circuit, isc = 10i = 100 mA.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
To find RN or Rt :
in
n.
Writing the KVL equations for the left-hand mesh, we get
Also for the right-hand mesh, we get

vab = 25(10i) =
vab
io
5 + 500i + vab = 0
250i
(3.15)
ut
Therefore i =
250
Substituting i into the mesh equation (3.15), we get
vab

5 + 500 + vab = 0
250
)
ol
vab= 5V
voc vab 5
RN = Rt = = = 50 Ω
isc isc 0:1
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in
us
Fig 3.77 (a).
Figure 3.77 (a)
EXAMPLE 3.24
vt
Find the Norton equivalent of the network shown in Fig. 3.78.
Figure 3.78
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Since there are no independent sources present in the network of Fig. 3.78, iN = isc = 0.
in
To find RN , we inject a current of 1A between the terminals a b. This is illustrated in
Fig. 3.79.
n.
KCL at node 1:
Figure 3.79
io Figure 3.79(a) Norton

equivalent circuit
ut
v1 v1 v2
1= +
)
100 50
0:03v1 0:02v2 = 1
KCL at node 2: v2 v2 v1
+ + 0:1v1 = 0
)
ol
200 50
0:08v1 + 0:025v2 = 0
Solving the above two nodal equations, we get
v1 = 10:64 volts )
voc = 10:64 volts
us
10:64
voc
Hence; R N = Rt = = = 10:64 Ω
1 1
Norton equivalent circuit for the network shown in Fig. 3.78 is as shown in Fig. 3.79(a).
EXAMPLE 3.25
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the network shown in Fig. 3.80 (a).
vt
Figure 3.80(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
in
Performing source transformation on 5A current source, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.80 (b).
Applying KVL around Left mesh :
50 + 2ia 20 + 4ia = 0
)
n.
70
ia = A
6
Applying KVL around right mesh:
20 + 10ia + Voc 4ia = 0

) Voc =
To find isc (referring Fig 3.80 (c)) :

KVL around Left mesh :
90 V
io Figure 3.80(b)
ut
50 + 2ia 20 + 4 (ia isc ) =0
) 6ia 4isc = 70
KVL around right mesh :
ol
4 (isc ia ) + 20 + 10ia = 0
) 6ia + 4isc = 20
Figure 3.80(c)
us
Solving the two mesh equations simultaneously, we get isc = 11:25 A

voc 90
Hence, Rt = RN = = =8Ω
isc 11:25
Performing source transformation on Thevenin equivalent circuit, we get the norton equivalent
circuit (both are shown below).
vt
Thevenin equivalent circuit Norton equivalent circuit
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 3.26
If an 8 kΩ load is connected to the terminals of the
in
network in Fig. 3.81, VAB = 16 V. If a 2 kΩ load is
connected to the terminals, VAB = 8V. Find VAB if a
20 kΩ load is connected across the terminals.
SOLUTION
n.
Figure 3.81
io
ut
Applying KVL around the mesh, we get (Rt + RL ) I = Voc
If RL = 2 kΩ; I = 10 mA ) Voc = 20 + 0:01Rt

If RL = 10 kΩ; I = 6 mA ) Voc = 60 + 0:006Rt
ol
Solving, we get Voc = 120 V, Rt = 10 kΩ.

Voc 120
If RL = 20 kΩ; I =
(RL + Rt )
=
(20 103 + 10 10 ) = 4 mA
3
us
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
In circuit analysis, we are some times interested

in determining the maximum power that a circuit
can supply to the load. Consider the linear circuit
vt
A as shown in Fig. 3.82.

Circuit A is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit as seen from a and b (Fig 3.83).
We wish to find the value of the load RL such that Figure 3.82 Circuit A with load RL
the maximum power is delivered to it.
The power that is delivered to the load is given by
Vt
2
2
p =i RL = RL (3.16)
Rt + RL
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Assuming that Vt and Rt are fixed for a given source, the maximum power is a function of
RL .In order to determine the value of RL that maximizes p, we differentiate p with respect to
in
RL and equate the derivative to zero.
" #
dp (Rt + RL )2 2 (Rt + RL )
= Vt2 =0
dRL (RL + Rt )2
which yields RL = Rt (3.17)
n.
To confirm that equation (3.17) is a maximum,
2
d p
it should be shown that 2 < 0. Hence, maxi-
dRL
mum power is transferred to the load when RL is
equal to the Thevenin equivalent resistance Rt .
The maximum power transferred to the load is
obtained by substituting RL = Rt in equation
3.16.
Accordingly,
io Figure 3.83 Thevenin equivalent circuit
ut
is substituted for circuit A
2
Vt R L Vt
2
Pmax = =
(2RL )2 4RL
ol
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a source
represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RL is equal to the
Thevenin resistance Rt .
EXAMPLE 3.27
us
Find the load RL that will result in maximum power delivered to the load for the circuit of Fig.
3.84. Also determine the maximum power Pmax .
vt
Figure 3.84
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.85(a).
Next let us determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a b.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
180
i = = 1A

150 + 30
in
Voc = Vt = 150 i = 150 V
To find Rt , deactivate the 180 V source. This results in the

circuit diagram of Fig. 3.85(b).
jj
n.
Rt = Rab = 30 Ω 150 Ω
=
30 150 = 25 Ω
Figure 3.85(a)
30 + 150
The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the
load resistor is shown in Fig. 3.86.
Maximum power transfer is obtained when
RL = Rt = 25 Ω:
Then the maximum power is
io
ut
(150)2
2
Vt
Pmax
4RL
=
4 25
=
Figure 3.85(b)
= 2:25 Watts
The Thevenin source Vt actually provides a total
power of
ol
Pt = 150 i

= 150
150
25 + 25
= 450 Watts
us
Thus, we note that one-half the power is dissipated in RL .

Figure 3.86
EXAMPLE 3.28
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.87. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Also
find the maximum power transferred to RL .
vt
Figure 3.87
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Disconnecting RL , results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.88(a).
in
n.
Figure 3.88(a)
io
To find Rt , deactivate all the independent voltage sources as in Fig. 3.88(b).
ut
ol
Rt jj
= Rab = 6 kΩ 6 kΩ 6 kΩ jj
us
= 2 kΩ
To find Vt :
Refer the Fig. 3.88(d).
vt
V3 V1 = 12 V
By inspection, V2 =3V
KCL at supernode :
V3 V2 V1 V1 V2
+ + =0
6k 6k 6k
) V3
6k
3
+
V3
6k
12
+
V3 12 3
6k
=0
Figure 3.88(d)
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) V3 3 + V3 12 + V3 15 = 0
)
in
3V3 = 30
) V3 = 10
) Vt = Vab = V3 = 10 V
n.
Figure 3.88(e)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the load resistor RL is shown in Fig. 3.88(e).
= i2 RL
Pmax
io

2RL
= 12:5 mW
Vt
2
RL
ut
Alternate method :
It is possible to find Pmax , without finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit. However, we have to
find Rt . For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 2 kΩ. Insert the value of RL in the original
circuit given in Fig. 3.87. Then use any circuit reduction technique of your choice to find power
dissipated in RL .
ol
Refer Fig. 3.88(f). By inspection we find that, V2 = 3 V.
V3 V1 = 12
) = V3 12
us
V1
KCL at supernode :
V3 V2 V1 V2 V3 V1
+ + + =0
6k 6k 2k 6k
) V3 3
+
V3 12 3
+ +
V3
=0
V3 12
vt
6k 6k 2k 6k
) V3 3 + V3 15 + 3V3 + V3 12 = 0
) 6V3 = 30
) V3 =5 V Figure 3.88(f)
V3
2 25
Hence; Pmax = = = 12:5 mW
RL 2k
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EXAMPLE 3.29
Find RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum power that can be transferred in the
in
network shown in Fig. 3.89.
n.
io
Figure 3.89
ut
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.89(a).
ol
us
vt
Figure 3.89(a)
To find Rt , let us deactivate all the independent sources, which results the circuit as shown in
Fig. 3.89(b).
Rt = Rab = 2 kΩ + 3 kΩ + 5 kΩ = 10 kΩ
For maximum power transfer RL = Rt = 10 kΩ.

Let us next find Voc or Vt .
Refer Fig. 3.89 (c). By inspection, i1 = 2 mA & i2 = 1 mA.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
Figure 3.89(b)
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop 5 kΩ ! 3 kΩ ! 2 kΩ ! , we get a b
5k + 3k (
i2 ) + 2k + = 0
i1 i2 i1 Vt

) 5 10 1 10
3 3 +3 1032 10 1 10 +2 10
3 2 10 3 3 3 + Vt = 0
n.
) 5 9 4 + Vt = 0
) Vt = 18 V:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with load resistor RL is as shown in Fig. 3.89 (d).
18
Then,
i=
Pmax
(10 + 10) 103
io
= PL = (0:9 mA)2
= 0:9 mA

10 kΩ
ut
= 8:1 mW
ol
us
EXAMPLE 3.30
Find the maximum power dissipated in RL . Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.90.
vt
Figure 3.90
Vtusolution.in
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SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit results in a circuit diagram as shown
in
in Fig. 3.91.
n.
io
Figure 3.91
As a first step in the analysis, let us find Rt . While finding Rt , we have to deactivate all the
independent sources. This results in a network as shown in Fig 3.91 (a) :
ut
ol
Figure 3.91(a)
jj
us
Rt = Rab = [140 Ω 60 Ω] + 8 Ω
=

140 60
+ 8 = 50 Ω:
140 + 60
For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 50 Ω. Next step in the analysis is to find Vt .
Refer Fig 3.91(b), using the principle of
current division,

vt
i R2
i1 =
+
R1 R2
20 170
= = 17 A
170 + 30
i2 =
= 20 30
i R1
R1 + R2 170 + 30
600
= = 3A
200
Figure 3.91(a)
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Applying KVL clockwise to the loop comprising of 50 Ω ! 10 Ω ! 8 Ω ! a b, we get
0+
in
50i2 10i1 + 8 Vt =0
) 50(3) 10 (17) + Vt = 0
) Vt = 20 V
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with load resistor RL is
n.
as shown in Fig. 3.91(c).
Figure 3.91(c)
20
iT = = 0:2A
50 + 50
2
Pmax = iT
50 = 0:04 50 = 2 W
EXAMPLE 3.31
Find the value of
find Pmax .
RL
io
for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.92. Also
ut
ol
us
Figure 3.92
SOLUTION
Disconnecting RL from the original circuit, we get the network shown in Fig. 3.93.
vt
Figure 3.93
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Let us draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b and then insert
the value of RL = Rt between the terminals a b. To find Rt , let us deactivate all independent
in
sources which results in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.94.
n.
Rt
Figure 3.94
= Rab
jj
io
ut
=8Ω 2Ω
=

8 2
= 1:6 Ω
8+2
Next step is to find Voc or Vt .
ol
By performing source transformation on the circuit shown in Fig. 3.93, we obtain the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.95.
us
vt
Figure 3.95
Applying KVL to the loop made up of 20 V ! 3 Ω ! 2 Ω ! 10 V ! 5 Ω ! 30 V, we get

20 + 10i 10 30 = 0
) i=
60
10
= 6A
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Again applying KVL clockwise to the path 2 Ω ! 10 V ! a b, we get

2i 10 Vt = 0
)
in
Vt = 2i 10
= 2(6) 10 = 2 V
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with load resistor

RL is as shown in Fig. 3.95 (a).
n.
Pmax = i2T RL
Vt
2
Figure 3.95(a) Thevenin equivalent
= = 625 mW
4Rt circuit
EXAMPLE 3.32
io
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Hence find Pmax .
ut
ol
Figure 3.96
SOLUTION
Removing RL from the original circuit gives us the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.97.
us
vt
Figure 3.97
To find Voc :
KCL at node A :
0
ia 0:9 + 10i0a = 0
) 0
ia = 0:1 A

Hence; Voc = 3 10i0a
=3 10 0 1 = 3 V
:
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To find Rt , we need to compute isc with all independent sources activated.

KCL at node A:
in
00
ia 0:9 + 10ia 00 = 0
) ia
00
= 0:1 A
Hence isc = 10ia = 10 00
01=1A
:
Voc 3
n.
Rt = = =3Ω
isc 1
Hence, for maximum power transfer RL = Rt = 3 Ω.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL = 3 Ω
inserted between the terminals a b gives the net-
work shown in Fig. 3.97(a).
Pmax
iT =
3
3+3
= i2T RL
= 0:5 A
3
io
ut
= (0:5)2
= 0.75 W
Figure 3.97(a)
EXAMPLE 3.33
Find the value of RL in the network shown that will achieve maximum power transfer, and deter-
ol
mine the value of the maximum power.
us
Figure 3.98(a)
SOLUTION
vt
Removing RL from the circuit of Fig. 3.98(a), we

get the circuit of Fig 3.98(b).
Applying KVL clockwise we get

12 + 2 103 i + 2Vx0 = 0
Also 0
Vx =1 10 3
i

Hence; 12 + 2 10 3i +2 1 10 3i =0
12
4 10
i = = 3 mA Figure 3.98(b)
3
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Applying KVL to loop 1 kΩ !2 !Vx

b a, we get
1 10 3
in
i + 2Vx0 Vt =0

) Vt =1 10 + 2 1 10
3
i
3
i
= 1 10 + 2 10 3 3
i
= 3 10 3 10 3 3
n.
=9V
To find Rt , we need to find isc . While finding isc ,

none of the independent sources must be deacti-
vated.
Applying KVL to mesh 1:
)
)
12 + Vx 00 + 0 = 0
10
Vx
3
00
= 12
)
io
ut
1 i1 = 12 i1 = 12 mA
Applying KVL to mesh 2:
1 10 3
i2 + 2Vx 00 = 0
) 10 3
ol
1 i2 = 24
i2 = 24 mA
isc = i1 i2
us
= 12 + 24 = 36 mA
Vt Voc
Hence; Rt = =
isc isc
9
=
36 10 3
= 250 Ω
vt
For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 250 Ω.

Thus, the Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL is
as shown in Fig 3.98 (c) :
9 9
iT = = A
250 + 250 500
2
Pmax = iT 250

=
9 2
500
250 Figure 3.98 (c) Thevenin equivalent circuit
= 81 mW
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EXAMPLE 3.34
The variable resistor RL in the circuit of Fig. 3.99 is adjusted untill it absorbs maximum power
in
from the circuit.
(a) Find the value of RL .
(b) Find the maximum power.
n.
Figure 3.99
io
ut
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.99(a).
ol
us
Figure 3.99(a)
KCL at node v1 :
vt
v1 100 v1 13i0a v1 v2
+ + =0 (3.18)
2 5 4
0
100 v1
ia = (3.19)
2
v2 v1
= va0 (applying K C L at v2 ) (3.20)
4
0
va = v1 v2 (potential across 4 Ω) (3.21)
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From equations (3.20) and (3.21), we have

v2 v1
in
= v1 v2
)
4
v2 v1 = 4v1 4v2
) 5v1 5v2 = 0
) v1 = v2 (3.22)
n.
Making use of equations (3.19) and (3.22) in (3.18), we get
(100 v1 )
v1 100 v2 13 v1 v1
+ 2 + =0
2 5 4

)
)
)
5 (v1
5v1
100) + 2
500 + 2v1
20v1 = 1800
io v1
13
13

(100
2
v1 )
=0
100 + 13v1 = 0
ut
) v1 = 90 Volts
Hence; vt = v2 = v1 = 90 Volts
voc vt
We know that, Rt = =
isc isc
ol
The short circuit current is calculated using the circuit shown below:
us
vt
00
100 v1
Here ia =
2
Applying KCL at node v1 :

v1 100 v1 13ia v1 0
+ + =0
2 5 4
(100 v1 )
) v1 100 v1 13 v1
+ 2 + =0
2 5 4
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Solving we get v1 = 80 volts = va00

Applying KCL at node a :
in
0 v1
+ isc = va00
4
) isc
4
=
v1
+ va00
80
n.
= + 80 = 100 A
4
voc vt
Hence; Rt = =
isc isc
90
= = 0: 9 Ω
100
Hence for maximum power transfer,
RL
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL = 0:9 Ω

= Rt = 0:9 Ω
io
ut
is as shown.
90 90
it = =
0:9 + 0:9 1:8
2
Pmax = it 0:9
90 2
ol
=
1:8
0 9 = 2250 W
:
EXAMPLE 3.35
us
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.100 :

(a) Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer.
(b) Find the maximum power that can be delivered to RL .
vt
Figure 3.100
Vtusolution.in
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SOLUTION
Removing the load resistor RL , we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.100(a). Let us proceed
in
to find Vt .
n.
io
Figure 3.100(a)
ut
0
ia = i1 i3

200 + 1 (i1 i2 ) + 20 (i1 i3 ) + 4i1 = 0
)
ol
25i1 i2 20i3 = 200
14i0a + 2 (i2 i3 ) + 1 (i2 i1 ) =0
)
us
14 (i1 i3 ) + 2 (i2 i3 ) + 1 (i2 i1 ) =0

) 13i1 + 3i2 16i3 = 0
2 (i3 i2 ) 100 + 3i3 + 20 (i3 i1 ) =0
) 20i1 2i2 + 25i3 = 100
vt
Solving the mesh equations, we get

i1 = 2:5A; i3 = 5A
Applying KVL clockwise to the path comprising of a b ! 20 Ω, we get
Vt 20i0a = 0
) Vt = 20i0a
= 20 (i1 i3 )
= 20 ( 2:5 5)
= 150 V
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Next step is to find Rt .

Voc Vt
Rt = =
in
isc isc
n.
When terminals a b
io
are shorted, i00a = 0. Hence, 14 i00a is also zero.
ut
ol
us
200 + 1 (i1 i2 ) + 4i1 = 0

) 5i1 i2 = 200
vt
2 (i2 i3 ) + 1 (i2 i1 ) =0
) i1 + 3i2 2i3 = 0
100 + 3i3 + 2 (i3 i2 ) =0

) 2i2 + 5i3 = 100
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Solving the mesh equations, we find that

i1 = 40A; i3 = 20A;
)
in
i3 = 60A
isc = i1
150 Vt
Rt = = = 2:5 Ω
isc 60
For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 2:5 Ω. The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL is
n.
as shown below :
io
ut
Pmax = i21 RL
2
=
150
2:5 + 2:5
25:
= 2250 W
ol
EXAMPLE 3.36
A practical current source provides 10 W to a 250 Ω load and 20 W to an 80 Ω load. A resistance
RL , with voltage vL and current iL , is connected to it. Find the values of RL , vL and iL if
(a) vL iL is a maximum, (b) vL is a maximum and (c) iL is a maximum.
us
SOLUTION
Load current calculation:
r
10
10W to 250 Ω corresponds to iL =
250
r mA
= 200
vt
20
20W to 80 Ω corresponds to iL =
80
= 500 mA
Using the formula for division of current between two parallel branches :
i2 =
i R1
R1 + R2
IN RN
In the present context, 0: 2 = (3.23)
RN + 250
IN RN
and 0:5 = (3.24)
RN + 80
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= 1:7 A
in
IN
RN = 33:33 Ω
(a) If vL iL is maximum,
n.
RL = RN = 33:33 Ω
iL = 1:7 33:33
33:33 + 33:33
= 850 mA
vL = iL RL = 850 10 33 33
3
:
(b) vL = IN (RN
RL = . 1
Then, iL = 0 and
jj RL )
= 28:33 V
is a maximum when

io
RN RL jj is a maximum, which occurs when
ut
vL = 1:7 RN
= 1 7 33 33
: :
= 56:66 V
IN R N
(c) iL = is maxmimum when RL = 0 Ω
ol
RN + RL
) iL = 1:7A and vL = 0 V
3.5 Sinusoidal steady state analysis using superposition, Thevenin and

Norton equivalents
us
Circuits in the frequency domain with phasor currents and voltages and impedances are analogous
to resistive circuits.
To begin with, let us consider the principle of superposition, which may be restated as follows :
For a linear circuit containing two or more independent sources, any circuit voltage or
current may be calculated as the algebraic sum of all the individual currents or voltages caused
vt
by each independent source acting alone.
Figure 3.101 Thevenin equivalent circuit Figure 3.102 Norton equivalent circuit
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The superposition principle is particularly useful if a circuit has two or more sources acting
at different frequencies. The circuit will have one set of impedance values at one frequency and a
in
different set of impedance values at another frequency. Phasor responses corresponding to differ-
ent frequencies cannot be superposed; only their corresponding sinusoids can be superposed. That
is, when frequencies differ, the principle of superposition applies to the summing of time domain
components, not phasors. Within a component, problem corresponding to a single frequency,
however phasors may be superposed.
n.
Thevenin and Norton equivalents in phasor circuits are found exactly in the same manner
as described earlier for resistive circuits, except for the subtitution of impedance Z in place of
resistance R and subsequent use of complex arithmetic. The Thevenin and Norton equivalent
circuits are shown in Fig. 3.101 and 3.102.
The Thevenin and Norton forms are equivalent if the relations
hold between the circuits.

(a) Zt = ZN
io (b) Vt = ZN IN
A step by step procedure for finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as follows:
ut
1. Identify a seperate circuit portion of a total circuit.
2. Find Vt = Voc at the terminals.
3. (a) If the circuit contains only impedances and independent sources, then deactivate all the
independent sources and then find Zt by using circuit reduction techniques.
ol
(b) If the circuit contains impedances, independent sources and dependent sources, then
either short–circuit the terminals and determine Isc from which
Voc
Zt =
Isc
us
or deactivate the independent sources, connect a voltage or current source at the terminals, and
determine both V and I at the terminals from which
V
Zt =
I
A step by step procedure for finding Norton equivalent circuit is as follows:
vt
(i) Identify a seperate circuit portion of the original circuit.

(ii) Short the terminals after seperating a portion of the original circuit and find the current
through the short circuit at the terminals, so that IN = Isc .
(iii) (a) If the circuit contains only impedances and independent sources, then deactivate all the
independent sources and then find ZN = Zt by using circuit reduction techniques.
(b) If the circuit contains impedances, independent sources and one or more dependent
Voc
sources, find the open–circuit voltage at the terminals, Voc , so that ZN = Zt = :
Isc
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EXAMPLE 3.37
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits at the terminals a b for the circuit in
in
Fig. 3.103.
n.
SOLUTION
As a first step in the analysis, let us find Vt :
io
Figure 3.103
ut
ol

8 (4 /0 ) 32
us
Io = =
8 + j 10 j 5 8 + j5
j 320
Vt = Io (j 10) = = 33:92 /58 V
8 + j5
To find Zt , deactivate all the independent sources. This results in a circuit diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.103 (a).
vt
Figure 3.103(a) Figure 3.103(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit
Vtusolution.in
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jj
Zt = j 10 (8 j 5) Ω
(j 10)(8 j 5)
in
=
j 10 + 8 j5
= 10 /26 Ω
The Thevenin equivalent circuit as

viewed from the terminals a b is
n.
as shown in Fig 3.103(b). Performing
source transformation on the Thevenin
equivalent circuit, we get the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Figure : Norton equivalent circuit
IN =
Vt
Zt
=
10 /26
= 3:392 /32 A io
33:92 /58
ut
ZN = Zt = 10 /26 Ω
EXAMPLE 3.38
Find vo using Thevenin’s theorem. Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.104.
ol
us
Figure 3.104
vt
SOLUTION
Let us convert the circuit given in Fig. 3.104 into a frequency domain equiavalent or phasor circuit
(shown in Fig. 3.105(a)). ! = 1
10 cos (t 45 ) ! 10 / 45 V

5 sin (t + 30 ) = 5 cos (t 60 ) ! 5 / 60 V
L = 1H ! j !L =j 11= 1Ω j
= 1F !
1 1
C
j !C
=
j11 = 1Ω j
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in
n.
Figure 3.105(a)
Disconnecting the capicator from the original circuit, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.105(b). This circuit is used for finding Vt .
io
ut
Figure 3.105(b)
ol
KCL at node a :
Vt 10 / 45 Vt 5 / 60
+ =0
3 j1
Solving; Vt = 4:97 / 40:54
us
To find Zt deactivate all the independent sources Figure 3.105(c)

in Fig. 3.105(b). This results in a network as
shown in Fig. 3.105(c) :
jj
Zt = Zab = 3Ω j 1 Ω
j3 3
= = (1 + j 3) Ω
vt
3+j 10
The Thevenin equivalent circuit along with the capicator
is as shown in Fig 3.105(d).
Vt
Vo = ( j 1)
Zt j 1
4:97 / 40:54
= ( j 1)
0:3(1 + j 3) j 1
= 15:73 /247:9 V
Hence; vo = 15:73 cos (t + 247:9 ) V
Figure 3.105(d) Thevenin equivalent circuit
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EXAMPLE 3.39
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.106.
in
n.
SOLUTION
Since terminals a b are open,
io
Figure 3.106
ut
Va = Is 10
= 20 /0 V
Applying KVL clockwise for the mesh on the right hand side of the circuit, we get
ol
3Va + 0 (j 10) + Voc Va = 0
Voc = 4Va
us
= 80 /0 V
Let us transform the current source with 10 Ω parallel resistance to a voltage source with 10 Ω
series resistance as shown in figure below :
vt
To find Zt , the independent voltage source is deactivated and a current source of I A is

connected at the terminals as shown below :
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Applying KVL clockwise we get,
V0a 3V0a j 10I + Vo = 0

) 4Va0
j 10I + Vo = 0
Since
we get
Hence;
40I
Zt =
I
V0a = 10I
= Vo
j 10I
Vo
= 40 + j 10Ω io
ut
Hence the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig 3.106(a) : Figure 3.106(a)
ol
EXAMPLE 3.40
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.107.
us
vt
Figure 3.107
SOLUTION
The phasor equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.107 is shown in Fig. 3.108.
KCL at node a :
Voc 2Voc Voc
10 + =0
j 10 j5
) Voc = j
100 100
3
=
3
/ 90 V
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Figure 3.108
To find Isc , short the terminals a of Fig. 3.108 as in Fig. 3.108(a).

b
io
ut
Figure 3.108 (a) Figure 3.108 (b)
ol
Since Voc = 0, the above circuit takes the form shown in Fig 3.108 (b).
Isc = 10 /0 A
100
Voc / 90 10
Zt = 3
us
Hence; = = / 90 Ω
Isc 10 /0
3
The Thevenin equivalent and the Norton equivalent circuits are as shown below.
vt
Figure Thevenin equivalent Figure Norton equivalent
EXAMPLE 3.41
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits in frequency domain for the network shown in
Fig. 3.109.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.109
SOLUTION
Let us find Vt = Vab using superpostion theorem.
(i) Vab due to 100 /0
io
ut
ol
us
100 /0 100

I1 = = A
j 300 + j 100 j 200
Vab1 = I1 (j 100)
100
= (j 100) = 50 /0 Volts
j 200
(ii) Vab due to 100 /90

vt
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100 /90
I2 =
in
j 100 j 300
Vab2 = I2 ( j 300)
100 /90
= ( j 300) = j 150 V
j 100 j 300
n.
Hence; Vt = Vab1 + Vab2
= 50 + j 150
= 158:11 /108:43 V
To find Zt , deactivate all the independent sources.
io
ut
jj
ol
Zt = j 100 Ω j 300 Ω
j 100( j 300)
= = j 150 Ω
j 100 j 300
Hence the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.109(a). Performing source trans-
us
formation on the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we get the Norton equivalent circuit.
Vt 158:11 /108:43
IN = = = 1:054 /18:43 A
Zt 150 /90
ZN = Zt = j 150 Ω
The Norton equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.109(b).

vt
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3.6 Maximum power transfer theorem
in
We have earlier shown that for a resistive network, maximum power is transferred from a source to
the load, when the load resistance is set equal to the Thevenin resistance with Thevenin equivalent
source. Now we extend this result to the ac circuits.
n.
Figure 3.110 Linear circuit
io
Figure 3.111 Thevenin equivalent circuit
ut
In Fig. 3.110, the linear circuit is made up of impedances, independent and dependent sources.
This linear circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.111. The load
impedance could be a model of an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin
impedance Zt and the load impedance ZL are
ol
Zt = Rt + jXt
and ZL = RL + jXL
The current through the load is

us
Vt Vt
I= =
Zt + ZL (Rt + jXt ) + (RL + jXL )
p
The phasors I and Vt are the maximum values. The corresponding RM S values are obtained
by dividing the maximum values by 2. Also, the RM S value of phasor current flowing in the
load must be taken for computing the average power delivered to the load. The average power
vt
delivered to the load is given by
P =
2
jj
1 2
I RL
=
jV j
t
2 RL
2
(3.25)
(Rt + RL ) (Xt + XL )2
2
Our idea is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this, we
@P @P
get and equal to zero.
@RL @XL
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
@P
= h
j j
Vt
2
RL (Xt + XL )
i2
@XL
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
h i
in
@P
j j
Vt
2
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2 2RL (Rt + RL )
@RL
= h i2
2 (Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
n.
@P
Setting = 0 gives
@XL
XL = Xt (3.26)
@P
and Setting = 0 gives
@RL
q
RL
io= Rt2 + (Xt + XL )2

Combining equations (3.26) and (3.27), we can conclude that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected such that XL = Xt and RL = Rt . That is the maximum aver-
age power of a circuit with an impedance Zt that is obtained when ZL is set equal to complex
(3.27)
ut
conjugate of Zt .
Setting RL = Rt and XL = Xt in equation (3.25), we get the maximum average power as
P =
j jVt
2
8Rt
ol
In a situation where the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power transfer is
obtained by putting XL = 0 in equation (3.27). That is,
q
RL = Rt2 + Xt2 = Zt j j
us
Hence for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the load resistance is
equal to the magnitude of Thevenin impedance.
3.6.1 Maximum Power Transfer When Z is Restricted
Maximum average power can be delivered to ZL only if ZL = Zt . There are few situations in
vt
which this is not possible. These situations are described below :
(i) RL and XL may be restricted to a limited range of values. With this restriction,
q XL as close as possible to Xt and then adjust RL as close as possible to

choose
Rt2 + (XL + Xt )2 :
(ii) Magnitude of ZL can be varied but its phase angle cannot be. Under this restriction,
greatest amount of power is transferred to the load when [ZL ] = Zt . j j
Zt is the complex conjugate of Zt .
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 3.42
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum power to the load and determine the maxi-
in
mum power quantity obtained for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.112.
n.
Figure 3.112
SOLUTION
We select, ZL = Zt for maximum power transfer.
Hence ZL = 5 + j 6
io
ut
10 /0
I= = 1 /0
5+5
Hence, the maximum average power transfered to the
load is
ol
P =
1 2
2
jj
I RL
1

= (1)2 5 = 2:5 W
2
us
EXAMPLE 3.43
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum average power to the load and determine the
maximum average power transferred to the load ZL shown in Fig. 3.113.
vt
Figure 3.113
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The first step in the analysis is to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit by disconnecting the load
ZL . This leads to a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.114.
in
n.
Hence
io
Figure 3.114
Vt = Voc = 4 /0

3
= 12 /0 Volts(RMS)
ut
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources of Fig. 3.114. This leads to a circuit
diagram as shown in Fig 3.114 (a):
Zt = 3 + j 4 Ω
ol
us
Figure 3.114 (a) Figure 3.115
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with ZL is as shown in Fig. 3.115.

vt
For maximum average power transfer to the load, ZL = Zt = 3 j 4.

12 /0
It = = 2 /0 A(RMS)
3 + j4 + 3 j4
Hence, maximum average power delivered to the load is
P = jj
It
2
RL = 4(3) = 12 W
1
It may be noted that the scaling factor is not taken since the phase current is already
2
expressed by its RM S value.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 3.44
Refer the circuit given in Fig. 3.116. Find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum average
in
power.
n.
SOLUTION io
Figure 3.116
ut
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit diagram leads to a circuit diagram as
shown in Fig. 3.117.
ol
us
Figure 3.117
Vt = Voc = I1 (j 20)
=
150 /30 j 20
vt
(40 j 30 + j 20)
= 72:76 /134 Volts:
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources present in Fig. 3.117 as shown in
Fig 3.117 (a).
jj
Zt = (40 j 30) j 20
j 20 (40 j 30)
= = (9:412 + j 22:35) Ω
j 20 + 40 j 30
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The Value of RL that will absorb the maximum

average power is
p
in
RL j j
= Zt = (9:412)2 + (22:35)2
= 24:25 Ω
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL inserted
n.
is as shown in Fig 3.117 (b).
Maximum average power absorbed by RL is
Pmax =
1
2
jj
It
2
RL
Figure 3.117 (a)
72:76 /134
where
)
It =
(9:412 + j 22:35 + 24:25)
= 1:8 /100:2 A
1
Pmax = (1:8)
2
2
24:25 io
ut
= 39:29 W
ol
Figure 3.117 (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit
EXAMPLE 3.45
For the circuit of Fig. 3.118: (a) what is the value of ZL that will absorb the maximum average
us
power? (b) what is the value of maximum power?

vt
Figure 3.118
SOLUTION
Disconnecting ZL from the original circuit we get the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.119. The first
step is to find Vt .
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Vt = Voc = I1 ( j 10)
120 /0

in
= ( j 10)
10 + j 15 j 10
= 107:33 / 116:57 V
The next step is to find Zt . This re-
n.
quires deactivating the independent Figure 3.119
voltage source of Fig. 3.119.
Zt = (10 + j 15) ( jj j 10)
=8
j 10 (10
j 10
j 14
+ j 15)
+ 10 + j 15
Ω io
ut
The value of ZL for maximum average power absorbed is
Zt = 8 + j 14 Ω
The Thevenin equivalent circuit along with ZL = 8 + j 14 Ω is as shown below:

ol
us
107:33 / 116:57
It =
vt
8 j 14 + 8 + j 14
107:33
= / 116:57 A
16
Hence; Pmax =
1
jj 2
It R L
2

=
1 107:33 2
2 16
8
= 180 Walts
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 3.46
(a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.120, what is the value of ZL that results in maximum average
in
power that will be transferred to ZL ? What is the maximum power ?
(b) Assume that the load resistance can be varied between 0 and 4000 Ω and the capacitive
reactance of the load can be varied between 0 and 2000 Ω. What settings of RL and XC
transfer the most average power to the load ? What is the maximum average power that can
n.
be transferred under these conditions?
io
ut
Figure 3.120
SOLUTION
(a) If there are no constraints on RL and XL , the load indepedance ZL = Zt = (3000 j 4000) Ω.
ol
Since the voltage source is given in terms of its RM S value, the average maximum power
delivered to the load is
Pmax = Itjj 2
RL
10 /0
us
where It =
3000 + j 4000 + 3000 j 4000
10
=

2 3000
A
) 2
jj
Pmax = It RL
=
100

4 (3000)2
3000
vt
= 8:33 mW
(b) Since RL and XC are restricted, we firstqset XC as close to 4000 Ω as possible; hence
2
XC = 2000 Ω. Next we set RL as close to Rt2 + (XC + XL ) as possible.
q
Thus, RL = 30002 + ( 2000 + 4000)2 = 3605:55 Ω
Since RL can be varied between 0 to 4000 Ω, we can set RL to 3605:55 Ω. Hence ZL is
adjusted to a value
ZL = 3605:55 j 2000 Ω:
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
10 /0
It =
3000 + j 4000 + 3605:55 j 2000
in
= 1:4489 / 16:85 mA
The maximum average power delivered

to the load is
jj
n.
2
Pmax = It RL

= 1:4489 10 3 2
3605 55
:
= 7:57 mW
Note that this is less than the power that can be delivered if there are no constraints on RL
and XL .
EXAMPLE 3.47
io
A load impedance having a constant phase angle of 45 is connected across the load terminals
a and b in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.121. The magnitude of ZL is varied until the average power
ut
delivered, which is the maximum possible under the given restriction.
(a) Specify ZL in rectangular form.
(b) Calculate the maximum average power delivered under this condition.
ol
us
Figure 3.121
SOLUTION
Since the phase angle of ZL is fixed at 45 , for maximum power transfer to ZL it is mandatory
vt
that
jZ j = jpZ j
L t
= (3000)2 + (4000)2
= 5000 Ω:
Hence; j j
ZL = ZL / 45
=
5000
2
j p
5000
2
p
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
10 /0
It =
(3000 + 3535:53) + j (4000 3535:53)
in
= 1:526 / 4:07 mA
Pmax jj
= It 2
RL

= 1:526 10 3 2
3535 53
:
n.
= 8:23 mW
This power is the maximum average power that can be delivered by this circuit to a load
impedance whose angle is constant at 45 . Again this quantity is less than the maximum
is 8.33 mW.
3.7 Reciprocity theorem

io
power that could have been delivered if there is no restriction on ZL . In example 3.46 part (a),
we have shown that the maximum power that can be delivered without any restrictions on ZL
ut
The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of exci-
tation to response is constant when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.
Conditions to be met for the application of reciprocity theorem :

ol
(i) The circuit must have a single source.

(ii) Initial conditions are assumed to be absent in the circuit.
(iii) Dependent sources are excluded even if they are linear.
us
(iv) When the positions of source and response are interchanged, their directions should be marked
same as in the original circuit.
EXAMPLE 3.48
Find the current in 2 Ω resistor and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
vt
Figure 3.122
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn with markings as shown in Fig 3.123 (a).
in
n.
Then; R1
R2
= (8
Figure 3.123 (a)
1
+2
= 1:6 + 4 = 5:6Ω
1
io
) 1
= (5:6 1 + 4 1 ) 1 = 2:3333Ω
= 1:6Ω
ut
R3
20
Current supplied by the source = = 3:16 A
4 + 2:3333
Current in branch ab = Iab = 3:16 4
4 + 4 + 1:6
= 1:32 A
8
ol
Current in 2Ω; I1 = 1:32 = 1:05 A
10
Verification using reciprocity theorem
The circuit is redrawn by interchanging the position of excitation and response as shown in
Fig 3.123 (b).
us
vt
Figure 3.123 (b)

Solving the equivalent resistances,
R4 = 2Ω; R5 = 6Ω; R6 = 3:4286Ω
Now the current supplied by the source
20
= = 3:6842A
3:4286 + 2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Therefore,
Icd = 3:6842 8 +8 6 = 2 1053A
:
in
2:1053
I2 = = 1:05A
2
As I1 = I2 = 1:05 A, reciprocity theorem is verified.
n.
EXAMPLE 3.49
In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.124, find the current through 1:375 Ω resistor and hence verify
reciprocity theorem.
io
ut
ol
Figure 3.124
SOLUTION
us
vt
Figure 3.125
KVL clockwise for mesh 1 :
6:375I1 2I2 3I3 = 0
2I1 + 14I2 10I3 = 0
3I1 10I2 + 14I3 = 10
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting the above three mesh equations in matrix form, we get

2 32 3 2 3
6:375 2 3 I1 0
4 54 5=4 5
in
2 14 10 I2 0
3 10 14 I3 10
I1 = 2A
n.
Negative sign indicates that the assumed direction of current flow should have been the other way.
Verification using reciprocity theorem :
The circuit is redrawn by interchanging the positions of excitation and response. The new circuit
is shown in Fig. 3.126.
io
ut
Figure 3.126
ol
The mesh equations in matrix form for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.126 is
2 32 0
3 2 3
6:375 2 3 I1 10
4 2 14 10 54 0
I2 5=4 0 5
0
3 10 14 I3 0
us

0
I3 = 2A
Since I1 = I30 = 2 A, the reciprocity theorem is verified.
EXAMPLE 3.50
Find the current Ix in the j 2 Ω impedance and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
vt
Figure 3.127
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
With reference to the Fig. 3.127, the current through j 2 Ω impepance is found using series parallel
in
reduction techniques.
Total impedance of the circuit is
jj
ZT = (2 + j 3) + ( j 5) (3 + j 2)
( j 5)(3 + j 2)
= 2 + j3 +
n.
j5 + 3 + j2
= 6:537 /19:36 Ω
The total current in the network is
36 /0
IT =
6:537 /19:36
Ix = io
= 5:507 / 19:36 A
Using the principle of current division, we find that
IT ( j 5)
j5 + 3 + j2
ut
= 6:49 / 64:36 A
Verification of reciprocity theorem :
The circuit is redrawn by changing the positions of excitation and response. This circuit is shown
in Fig. 3.128.
ol
Total impedance of the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.128 is
jj
Z0T = (3 + j 2) + (2 + j 3) ( j 5)
(2 + j 3) ( j 5)
us
= (3 + j 2) +
2 + j3 j5
= 9:804 /19:36 Ω
The total current in the circuit is

36 /0 Figure 3.128
I0T = = 3:672 / 19:36 A
vt
0
ZT

I0T ( j 5)
Iy = = 6:49 / 64:36 A
j5 + 2 + j3
It is found that Ix = Iy , thus verifying the reciprocity theorem.
EXAMPLE 3.51
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.129. Find current through the ammeter, and hence verify reci-
procity theorem.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.129
SOLUTION
To find the current through the ammeter :

io
By inspection the loop equations for the circuit in Fig. 3.130 can
ut
be written in the matrix form as
2 32 3 2 3
16 1 10 I1 0
4 1 26 20 54 I2 5=4 0 5
10 20 30 I3 50
ol
I1 = 4:6 A
I2 = 5:4 A
us
Hence current through the ammeter = I2 I1 = 5:4 4:6 = 0:8A. Figure 3.130
Verification of reciprocity theorem:

The circuit is redrawn by interchanging the positions of
excitation and response as shown in Fig. 3.131.
By inspection the loop equations for the circuit can be
vt
written in matrix form as

2 32 0
3 2 3
15 0 10 I1 50
4 0 25 20 54 0
I2 5=4 50 5
0
10 20 31 I3 0
Using Cramer’s rule we get

0
I3 = 0:8 A
Figure 3.131
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Hence, current through the Ammeter = 0.8 A.

It is found from both the cases that the response is same. Hence the reciprocity theorem is
in
verified.
EXAMPLE 3.52
Find current through 5 ohm resistor shown in Fig. 3.132 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
n.
io
ut
Figure 3.132
SOLUTION
By inspection, we can write
2 32 3 2 3
I1
ol
12 0 2 20
4 0 2 + j 10 2 54 I2 5=4 20 5
2 2 9 I3 0
I3 = 0:5376 / 126:25 A
us
Hence, current through 5 ohm resistor = 0:5376 / 126:25 A

Verification of reciprocity theorem:
The original circuit is redrawn by interchanging the excitation and response as shown in Fig.
3.133.
vt
Figure 3.133
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting the three equations in matrix form, we get

2 32 I01
3 2 3
12 0 2 0
5 64 75 = 4
in
4 0 2 + j 10 2 I02 0 5
2 2 9 I03 20
n.
I01 = 0:3876 / 2:35 A
I02 = 0:456 / 78:9 A
Hence; I02 I01 = 0:3179 j 0:4335
= 0:5376 / 126:25 A
3.8 Millman’s theorem

io
The response in both cases remains the same. Thus verifying reciprocity theorem.
ut
It is possible to combine number of voltage sources or current sources into a single equiva-
lent voltage or current source using Millman’s theorem. Hence, this theorem is quite useful in
calculating the total current supplied to the load in a generating station by a number of generators
connected in parallel across a busbar.
Millman’s theorem states that if n number of generators having generated emfs E1 , E2 ; En

ol
and internal impedances Z1 ; Z2 ; Zn are connected in parallel, then the emfs and impedances
can be combined to give a single equivalent emf of E with an internal impedance of equivalent
value Z.
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + : : : + En Yn
where E=
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
us
1
and Z=
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
where Y1 ; Y2
Yn are the admittances corresponding to the internal impedances Z1 ; Z2 Z n
and are given by
1
Y1 =
vt
Z1
1
Y2 =
Z2
..
.
1
Yn =
Zn
Fig. 3.134 shows a number of generators having emfs E1 ; E2
En connected in parallel
across the terminals x and y . Also, Z1 ; Z2
Zn are the respective internal impedances of the
generators.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.134
The Thevenin equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.134 using Millman’s theorem is shown in Fig. 3.135.
The nodal equation at x gives
)
E E
Z1
1
E1 E E2 E
+
Z1
Z2
2
+
+
+
Z2
En
Zn
+
1 1
=E
+
io
En E
+
Zn
Z1 1 Z2
+
=0
+
1
Zn

ut
) E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + + En Yn = E
Z
Figure 3.135
where Z = Equivalent internal impedance.
+ E Y ] = EY
ol
or [E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + n n
E Y + E Y + + E Y
) E=
1 1
Y
2 2 n n
where Y = Y + Y + + Y
1 2 n
us
1 1
Y + Y + + Y
and Z= =
Y 1 2 n
EXAMPLE 3.53
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136. Find the current through 10 Ω resistor using Millman’s
theorem.
vt
Figure 3.136
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Using Millman’s theorem, the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
in
circuit across the terminals P Q as shown in Fig. 3.137.
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1 1 1
n.
22 + 48 12
5 12 4
=
1 1 1
+ +
5 12 4
= 10:13 Volts
R=
=
1
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1
0:2 + 0:083 + 0:25 io Figure 3.137
ut
= 1:88 Ω
E
Hence; IL = = 0:853 A
R + 10
EXAMPLE 3.54
ol
Find the current through (10 j 3)Ω using Millman’s theorem. Refer Fig. 3.138.
us
vt
Figure 3.138
SOLUTION
The circuit shown in Fig. 3.138 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the
terminals, A and B using Millman’s theorem. Fig. 3.139 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit
along with ZL = 10 j 3 Ω:
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.139
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
100 /0
1
5
io
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
+ 90 /45
1
10
+ 80 /30
1
20
ut
=
1 1 1
+ +
5 10 20
= 88:49 /15:66 V
1 1
Z=R= = = 2:86 Ω
ol
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 1 1 1
5 + 10 + 20
E 88:49 /15:66
I= = = 6:7 /28:79 A
Z + ZL 2:86 + 10 j 3
us
Alternately,
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 + E4 Y4
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4

=
100 5 1
+ 90 45 10 1 + 80 30 20 1
5 1 + 10 1 + 20 1 + (10 j 3) 1
= 70 /12 V
vt
70 /12
Therefore; I =
10 j 3
= 6:7 /28:8 A
EXAMPLE 3.55
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.140. Use Millman’s theorem to find the current through (5+j 5) Ω
impedance.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 3.140
SOLUTION
The original circuit is redrawn after performing source transformation of 5 A in parallel with 4 Ω
io
resistor into an equivalent voltage source and is shown in Fig. 3.141.
ut
ol
Figure 3.141
Treating the branch 5 + j 5Ω as a branch with Es = 0V ,

E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 + E4 Y4
us
EP Q =
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
= 1

4 2 1 + 8 3 1 + 20 4 1
2 + 3 1 + 4 1 + (5 j 5) 1
= 8:14 /4:83 V
Therefore current in (5 + j 5)Ω is
vt
8:14 /4:83
I= = 1:15 / 40:2 A
5 + j5
Alternately
EP Q with (5 + j 5) open
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3
EP Q =
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
=

4 2 1 + 8 3 1 + 20 4 1
2 1+3 1+4 1
= 8:9231V
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Equivalent resistance R = (2 1 + 3 1 +4 1) 1 = 0:9231Ω

Therefore current in (5 + j 5)Ω is
in
8:9231
I = = 1:15 / 40:2 A
0:9231 + 5 + j 5
EXAMPLE 3.56
Find the current through 2 Ω resistor using Millman’s theorem. Refer the circuit shown
n.
in Fig. 3.142.
io
ut
Figure 3.142
ol
SOLUTION
The Thevenin equivalent circuit using Millman’s theorem for the given problem is as shown in
Fig. 3.142(a).
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2
where E=
us
Y1 + Y2
1
1
10 /10 + 25 /90
3 + j4 5
=
1 1
+
3 + j4 5
vt
= 10:06 /97:12 V
1 1
Z= =
Y1 + Y2 1 1
+
3 + j4 5
= 2:8 /26:56 Ω
E 10:06 /97:12
Hence; IL = =
Z + 2 2:8 /26:56 + 2
= 2:15 /81:63 A
Figure 3.142(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Reinforcement problems
in
R.P 3.1
Find the current in 2 Ω resistor connected between A and B by using superposition theorem.
n.
io
Figure R.P. 3.1
ut
SOLUTION
Fig. R.P. 3.1(a), shows the circuit with 2V-source acting alone (4V-source is shorted).
Resistance as viewed from 2V-source is 2 + R1 Ω,
3 2
+1
ol
where R1 =
5 12
=
(1:2 + 1) 12 = 1:8592 Ω
14:2
2
Hence; Ia = = 0:5182 A
us
2 + 1:8592
Then; Ib = Ia 12
12 + 1 + 1:2
= 0:438 A
∴ I1 = 0:438
3
5
= 0:2628 A Figure R.P. 3.1(a)
With 4V-source acting alone, the circuit is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.1(b).
vt
Figure R.P.3.1(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The resistance as seen by 4V-source is 3 + R2 where

2 12
+1
in
R2 =
14 2
=

2:7143 2
= 1:1551 Ω
4:7143
4
Hence; Ib = = 0:9635 A
n.

3 + 1:1551
Ib 2:7143
Thus; I2 = = 0:555 A
4:7143
Finally, applying the principle of superposition,
IAB = I1 + I2
we get,
R.P 3.2 io
= 0:2628 + 0:555
= 0:818 A
ut
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.2, apply superposition theorem and find the current I.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 3.2
SOLUTION
Open the 5A-current source and retain the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in
vt
Fig. R.P. 3.2(a).
Figure R.P. 3.2(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The impedance as seen from the voltage source is

(8 + j 10) ( j 2)
Z = (4 j 2) + = 6:01 / 45 Ω
in
8 + j8
j 20
Hence; Ia =
= 3:328 /135 A
Z
Next, short the voltage source and retain the current source. The resulting network is as shown
n.
in Fig. R.P. 3.2 (b).
Here, I3 = 5A. Applying KVL for mesh 1 and mesh 2, we
get
8I1 + (I1 5) j 10 + (I1 I2 ) ( j 2) =0
and (I2 I1 ) ( j 2) + (I2 5) ( j 2) + 4I2 = 0
Simplifying, we get
and
(8 + j 8)I1 + j 2I2 = j 50
j 2I1 + (4 j 4)I2 = j 10
io
ut
Solving, we get

8 + j 8 j 50

j2 j 10
I b = I2 =
8 + j 8
ol

j2

j2
4 j4
= 2:897 / 23:96 A
Figure R.P. 3.2(b)
Since, Ia and Ib are flowing in opposite directions, we
us
have
I = Ia Ib = 6:1121 /144:78 A
R.P 3.3
Apply superposition theorem and find the voltage across 1 Ω resistor. Refer the circuit shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.3. Take v1 (t) = 5 cos (t + 10 ) and i2 (t) = 3 sin 2t A.
vt
Figure R.P. 3.3
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SOLUTION
To begin with let us assume v1 (t) alone is acting. Accordingly, short 10V - source and open i2 (t).
in
The resulting phasor network is shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(a).
! = 1rad=sec

5 cos (t + 10 ) ! 5 /10
V
L1 = 1H ! j !L1 = j1 Ω
n.
= 1F !
1
C1 = j1 Ω
j !C1
= H!
1 1
L2 j !L2 =j Ω
2 2
= F!
1 1 Figure R.P. 3.3(a)
C2 = j2 Ω
∴
)
2 j !C2
io
Va = 5 /10 V
va (t) = 5 cos [t + 10 ]
ut
Let us next assume that i2 (t) alone is acting. The resulting network is shown
in Fig. R.P. 3.3(b).
! = 2 rad=sec
3 sin 2t! 3 /0
A
= 1F !
1 1
ol
C1 Ω= j
j !C1 2
L1 = 1H ! j !L1 = j 2 Ω
= F!
1 1
C2 = j1 Ω
2 j !C2
= H!
us
1 Figure R.P. 3.3(b)

L2 j !L2 = j1 Ω
2
Vb = 3 /0 1 +1 51 5 = 2 5 /33 7
j :
j :
: :

A
) vb (t) = 2:5 sin [2t + 33:7 ] A
vt
Finally with 10V-source acting alone, the network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(c). Since
! = 0, inductors are shorted and capacitors are opened.
Hence, Vc = 10 V
Applying principle of superposition, we
get.
v2 (t) = va (t) = vb (t) + Vc

= 5 cos (t + 10 ) + 2:5 sin (2t + 33:7 ) + 10Volts
Figure R.P. 3.3(c)
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R.P 3.4
Calculate the current through the galvanometer for the Kelvin double bridge shown in Fig. R.P.
in
3.4. Use Thevenin’s theorem. Take the resistance of the galvanometer as 30 Ω.
n.
io
Figure R.P. 3.4
ut
SOLUTION
With G being open, the resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(a).
ol
us
Figure 3.4(a)
100 = 450
10
100 = 209 V
vt
VA = I1
10 5 =01
45 5
I2
I2 = = 1 66 := ; IB : I2
45 + 5
15+
:
= 05+ 10
50
Hence; VB I2 : IB
= 2:5 V
20 5
Thus; VAB = Vt = VA VB = 2:5 = Volts
9 18
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To find Rt , short circuit the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(b).
in
n.
Figure R.P. 3.4 (b)
Transforming the Δ between B , E and F into an equivalent Y , we get
10 = 7 Ω 10 = 1 Ω
RB =
35
50
; RE =
io
35 5
50
= 3:5 Ω; RF =
The reduced network after transformation is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(c).

5
50
ut
ol
Figure R.P. 3.4(c)

350 100 4:5 1:5
us
Hence; RAB = Rt = + +7
450 6
= 85:903 Ω
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as seen from A

and B with 30 Ω connected between A and B is
as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(d).
vt
5
IG =
18 = 2:4mA
85:903 + 30
Negative sign implies that the current flows from
B to A.
Figure R.P. 3.4(d)
R.P 3.5
Find Is and R so that the networks N1 and N2 shown in Fig. R.P. 3.5 are equivalent.
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in
n.
Figure R.P. 3.5
SOLUTION
Transforming the current source in N1 into an equivalent voltage source, we get N3 as shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.5(a).
From N3 , we can write, V I R = IS R (3.28)
From N2 we can write,
Also from N2 ,
)
V
V
I
3=
3= io
= 10Ia
2Ia
2
I
10

ut
) V 3=
I
5
) V
I
5
=3 (3.29)
ol
For equivalence of N1 and N2 , it is requirred that equations
(3.28) and (3.29) must be same. Comparing these equations, we
get
I
IR = and IS R =3
us
5
3
R = 0:2 Ω and IS = = 15A
0:2 Figure R.P. 3.5(a)
R.P 3.6
Obtain the Norton’s equivalent of the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6.
vt
Figure R.P. 3.6
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SOLUTION
Terminals a and b are shorted. This results in a network as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6(a)
in
n.
The mesh equations are
(i) io
Figure R.P. 3.6(a)
9I1 + 0I2 6I3 = 30 (3.30)

ut
(ii) 0I1 + 25I2 + 15I3 = 30 (3.31)
(iii) 6I1 + 15I2 + 23I3 = 4VX = 4 (10I2 )
) 6I1 25I2 + 23I3 = 0 (3.32)
Solving equations (3.30), (3.31) and (3.32), we get

ol
IN = Isc = I3 = 1:4706A
With terminals ab open, I3 = 0. The corresponding equations are
9I1 = 30 and
25I2 = 50
us
30 30
Hence; I1 = A and I2 = A
9 25
Then; VX = 10I2 = 10
30
25

= 12 V
Hence; Vt = Voc = 15I2 6I1 4VX
= 50 V
vt
Voc 50
Thus; Rt = = = 34 Ω
Isc 1:4706
Hence, Norton’s equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6(b).
Figure R.P. 3.6(b)
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R.P 3.7
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.7, find the Thevenin’s equivalent to show that
in
V1
Vt = (1 + a + b ab)
2
3 b
and Zt =
2
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P. 3.7
SOLUTION
V1 aV1
With xy open, I1 =
2
ol
Hence,
Voc = Vt = aV1 + I1 + bI1

V1 aV1
V aV1

1
= aV1 + +b
2 2
us
V1
= [1 + a + b ab]
2
With xy shorted, the resulting network is
as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.7(a). Figure R.P. 3.7(a)
Applying KVL equations, we get

vt
(i) I1 + (I1 I2 ) = V1 aV1
) 2I1 I2 = V1 aV1 (3.33)

(ii) (I2 I1 ) + I2 = aV1 + bI1
) (1 + b) I1 + 2I2 = aV1 (3.34)
V1 (1 + a + b ab)
Isc = I2 =
3 b
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Voc V1 (1 + a + b ab)
Hence; Zt = = (3 b)
Isc 2 V1 (1 + a + b ab)
in
3 b
=
2
R.P 3.8
Use Norton’s theorem to determine I in the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8. Resistance Values
n.
are in ohms.
io
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P. 3.8
SOLUTION
Let IAE = x and IEF = y . Then by applying KCL at various junctions, the branch currents are
marked as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(a). Isc = 125 x = IAB on shorting A and B .
vt
Applying KVL to the loop ABC F EA, we get
0:04x + 0:01y + 0:02 (y 20) + 0:03 (x 105) = 0

) 0:07x + 0:03y = 3:55 (3.35)
Applying KVL to the loop EDC EF , we get
(x y 30) 0:03 + (x y 55) 0:02 (y 20) 0:02 0:01y = 0

) 0:05x 0:08y = 1:6 (3.36)
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in
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P. 3.8(a)

x = 46:76 A
ol
Hence; Isc = IN = 120 x
= 78:24 A
The circuit to calculate Rt is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(b). All injected currents have been
opened.
us
Rt = 0:03 + 0:04 +

0:03 0:05
0:08
= 0:08875 Ω
vt
Figure R.P. 3.8(b) Figure R.P. 3.8(c)
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The Norton’s equivalent network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(c).
0 08875
0 08875 :
in
I = 78:24
: + 0 04 :
= 53:9A
R.P 3.9
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 3.9, find R such that the maximum power delivered to the load
n.
is 3 mW.
io
ut
Figure R.P. 3.9
ol
SOLUTION
For a resistive network, the maximum power delivered to the load is
2
Vt
Pmax =
4Rt
us
The network with RL removed is as shown in Fig.

R.P. 3.9(a).
Let the opent circuit voltage between the termi-
nals a and b be Vt .
Then, applying KCL at node a, we get
vt
Figure R.P. 3.9(a)

Vt 1 Vt 2 Vt 3
+ + =0
R R R
Simplifying we get Vt = 2 Volts

With all voltage sources shorted, the resistance, Rt as viewed from the terminals, a and b is
found as follows:
1 1 1 1 3
= + + =
Rt R R R R
) Rt =
R
3
Ω
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Circuit Theorems | 265
22 3
Hence, Pmax = = = 3 × 10−3
4× 3 R R
in
⇒ R = 1 kΩ
R.P 3.10
Refer Fig. R.P. 3.10, find X1 and X2 interms of R1 and R2 to give maximum power dissipation
in R2 .
n.
io
Figure R.P. 3.10
ut
SOLUTION
The circuit for finding Zt is as shown in Figure R.P. 3.10(a).
R1 (jX1 )
Zt =
ol
R1 + jX1
R1 X12 + jR12 X1
=
R12 + X12
Figure R.P. 3.10(a)
us
For maximum power transfer,

ZL = Z∗t
R1 X12 R12 X1
⇒ R2 + jX2 = − j
R12 + X12 R12 + X12
R1 X12
vt
Hence, R2 =
R12 + X12

R2
⇒ X1 = ±R1 (3.37)
R1 − R2
R12 X1
X2 = − (3.38)
R12 + X12
Substituting equation (3.37) in equation (3.38) and simplifying, we get

X2 = R2 (R1 − R2 )
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Exercise Problems
E.P 3.1
in
Find ix for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.1 by using principle of superposition.
n.
Ans : ix =
E.P 3.2
1
4
A
io
Figure E.P. 3.1
ut
Find the current through branch P Q using superposition theorem.
ol
us
Figure E.P. 3.2

Ans : 1.0625 A
E.P 3.3
Find the current through 15 ohm resistor using superposition theorem.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.3

Ans : 0.3826 A
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E.P 3.4
Find the current through 3 + j 4 Ω using superposition theorem.
in
n.
Ans :
E.P
8.3 /85.3 A
3.5 io
Figure E.P. 3.4
Find the current through Ix using superposition theorem.

ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.5

us
Ans : 3.07 / 163.12 A
E.P 3.6
Determine the current through 1 Ω resistor using superposition theorem.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.6
Ans : 0.406 A
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E.P 3.7
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminals a b of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.7.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.7
Ans :
E.P
Vt = 6.29 V, Rt = 9.43 Ω
3.8
io
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminals x y of the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.8.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.8

us
Ans : Vt = 0.192 / 43.4 V, Zt = 88.7 /11.55 Ω
E.P 3.9
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.9.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.9

Ans : Vt = 17.14 volts, Rt = 4 Ω
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E.P 3.10
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit across a b. Refer Fig. E.P. 3.10.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.10
Ans :
E.P
Vt =
3.11
30 V, Rt = 10 kΩ
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit across a b

io
for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.11.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.11

us
Ans : Verify your result with other methods.
E.P 3.12
Find the current through 20 ohm resistor using Norton equivalent.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.12
Ans : IN = 4.36 A, RN = Rt = 8.8 Ω, IL = 1.33 A
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E.P 3.13
Find the current in 10 ohm resistor using Norton’s theorem.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.13
Ans :
E.P
IN =
3.14
4 A, Rt = RN =
100
7
io
Ω, IL =
Find the Norton equivalent circuit between the terminals a

0.5 A
b for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.14.

ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.14

= 4.98310 / 5.71 A, Zt = ZN = 3.6 /23.1 Ω
us
Ans : IN
E.P 3.15
Determine the Norton equivalent circuit across the terminals P Q for the network shown in
Fig. E.P. 3.15.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.15

Ans : IN = 5 A, RN = Rt = 6 Ω
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E.P 3.16
Find the Norton equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.16.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.16
IN = 8.87 A, RN = Rt = 43.89 Ω
Ans :
E.P 3.17
io
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also find the maximum power trans-
ferred.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.17

us
Ans : RL = 1.92 Ω, Pmax = 4.67 W
E.P 3.18
Calculate the value of ZL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the maximum power.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.18
Ans : ZL = (7.97 + j2.16)Ω, Pmax = 0.36 W
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E.P 3.19
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the value of maximum
in
power.
n.
Ans :
E.P
RL = 5.44 Ω, Pmax = 2.94 W
3.20
io
Figure E.P. 3.19
Determine the value of ZL for maximum power transfer. What is the value of maximum power?
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.20
ZL = 4.23 + j1.15 Ω, Pmax = 5.68 Watts

us
Ans :
E.P 3.21
Obtain the Norton equivalent across x y.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.21
Ans : IN = ISC = 7.35A, Rt = RN = 1.52 Ω
E.P 3.22
Find the Norton equivalent circuit at terminals a b of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.22.
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in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.22
Ans : IN = 1.05 /251.6 A, Zt = ZN = 10.6 /45 Ω
E.P 3.23
Find the Norton equivalent across the terminals X
io
Y of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.23.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.23
Ans : IN = 7A, Zt = 8.19 / 55 Ω

us
E.P 3.24
Determine the current through 10 ohm resistor using Norton’s theorem.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.24
Ans : 0.15A
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E.P 3.25
Determine the current I using Norton’s theorem.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.25
Ans :
E.P 3.26
io
Verify your result with other methods.
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.26 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 3.26

us
Ans : Vx = 9.28 /21.81 V
E.P 3.27
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.27 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.27
Ans : Vx = 10.23 Volts
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E.P 3.28
Find the current ix in the bridge circuit and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
in
n.
Ans :
E.P
ix = 0.031 A
3.29 io
Figure E.P. 3.28
ut
Find the current through 4 ohm resistor using Millman’s theorem.
ol
Figure E.P. 3.29

us
Ans : I = 2.05 A
E.P 3.30
Find the current through the impedance of (10 + j 10) Ω using Millman’s theorem.
vt
Figure E.P. 3.30
Ans : 3.384 /12.6 A
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E.P 3.31
Using Millman’s theorem, find the current flowing through the impedance of (4 + j 3) Ω.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 3.31
Ans : 3.64 / 15.23 A
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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n.
4.1 Introduction
io
There are many reasons for studying initial and final conditions. The most important reason is that
ut
the initial and final conditions evaluate the arbitrary constants that appear in the general solution
of a differential equation.
In this chapter, we concentrate on finding the change in selected variables in a circuit when
a switch is thrown open from closed position or vice versa. The time of throwing the switch is
considered to be t = 0, and we want to determine the value of the variable at t = 0 and at
+
ol
t = 0 , immediately before and after throwing the switch. Thus a switched circuit is an electrical
circuit with one or more switches that open or close at time t = 0. We are very much interested
in the change in currents and voltages of energy storing elements after the switch is thrown since
these variables along with the sources will dictate the circuit behaviour for t > 0.
Initial conditions in a network depend on the past history of the circuit (before t = 0 ) and
us
structure of the network at t = 0+ , (after switching). Past history will show up in the form of
capacitor voltages and inductor currents. The computation of all voltages and currents and their
derivatives at t = 0+ is the main aim of this chapter.
4.2 Initial and final conditions in elements
4.2.1 The inductor

vt
The switch is closed at t = 0. Hence t = 0 corresponds

to the instant when the switch is just open and t = 0+
corresponds to the instant when the switch is just closed.
The expression for current through the
inductor is given by
Zt Figure 4.1 Circuit for explaining
1
i = vd switching action of an inductor
L

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Z0 Zt
i =
1
L
vd +
1
L
vd
in
0
Zt
i(t) = i(0 ) +
1
L
vd
n.
Putting t = 0+ on both sides, we get
Z0+
+ 1
i(0 ) = i(0 ) + vd
L
0
i(0
+
) = i(0 )
io
The above equation means that the current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
Consequently, if i(0 ) = 0, we get i(0+ ) = 0. This means that at t = 0+ , inductor will act
as an open circuit, irrespective of the voltage across the terminals. If i(0 ) = Io , then i(0+ ) = Io .
In this case at t = 0+ , the inductor can be thought of as a current source of Io A. The equivalent
ut
circuits of an inductor at t = 0+ is shown in Fig. 4.2.
t = 0+
ol
us
Figure 4.2 The initial-condition equivalent circuits of an inductor

The final-condition equivalent circuit of an inductor is derived from the basic relationship
di
v =L
dt
Under steady condition,

dt
di
= 0. This means, v = 0 and hence L acts as short at t = (final
or steady state). The final-condition equivalent circuits of an inductor is shown in Fig.4.3.
vt
t=¥
Io
Io
Figure 4.3 The final-condition equivalent circuit of an inductor
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Initial Conditions in Network j 279
4.2.2 The capacitor
The switch is closed at t = 0. Hence, t = 0
in
corresponds to the instant when the switch is
just open and t = 0+ corresponds to the instant
when the switch is just closed. The expression
for voltage across the capacitor is given by
Zt
n.
1 Figure 4.4 Circuit for explaining
v = id
C switching action of a Capacitor

Z0 Zt
v (t) =
1
id +
1
id
v (t)
C
= v (0 ) +

1
C
Z
0
C
id
0
io
ut
Evaluating the expression at t = 0+ , we get
Z0+
v (0
+
) = v (0 ) +
1
C
id +
v (0 ) = v (0 )
0
ol
Thus the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
If v (0 ) = 0, then v (0+ ) = 0. This means that at t = 0+ , capacitor C acts as short circuit.
q0 q0
Conversely, if v (0 ) = then v (0+ ) = . These conclusions are summarized in Fig. 4.5.
C C
us
vt
Figure 4.5 Initial-condition equivalent circuits of a capacitor
The final–condition equivalent network is derived from the basic relationship

dv
i =C
dt
Under steady state condition,

dt
dv

= 0. This is, at t = , i = 0. This means that t =
or in steady state, capacitor C acts as an open circuit. The final condition equivalent circuits of a
capacitor is shown in Fig. 4.6.
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in
n.
Figure 4.6 Final-condition equivalent circuits of a capacitor
4.2.3 The resistor

The cause–effect relation for an ideal resistor is given by v = Ri. From this equation, we find that
io
the current through a resistor will change instantaneously if the voltage changes instantaneously.
Similarly, voltage will change instantaneously if current changes instantaneously.
4.3 Procedure for evaluating initial conditions

There is no unique procedure that must be followed in solving for initial conditions. We usually
ut
solve for initial values of currents and voltages and then solve for the derivatives. For finding
initial values of currents and voltages, an equivalent network of the original network at t = 0+ is
constructed according to the following rules:
(1) Replace all inductors with open circuit or with current sources having the value of current
ol
flowing at t = 0+ .
q0
(2) Replace all capacitors with short circuits or with a voltage source of value vo = if there
C
is an initial charge.
(3) Resistors are left in the network without any changes.
us
EXAMPLE 4.1
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 4.7(a). Find i1 (0
+) and iL (0
+ ). The circuit is in steady state
for t < 0.
=
vt
= t=0 1W 1W
Figure 4.7(a)
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SOLUTION
in
The symbol for the switch implies

that it is open at t = 0 and then
closed at t = 0+ . The circuit is
in steady state with the switch open. 1W 1W
This means that at t = 0 , induc-
n.
tor L is short. Fig.4.7(b) shows the
original circuit at t = 0 .
Using the current division principle,
Figure 4.7(b)

2 1
iL (0 ) =
1+1
= 1A
io
Since the current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously, we have
iL (0
+
) = iL (0 ) = 1A
ut
At t = 0 , i1 (0 ) = 2 1 = 1A. Please note that the current in a resistor can change
instantaneously. Since at t = 0+ , the switch is just closed, the voltage across R1 will be equal to
zero because of the switch being short circuited and hence,
+
i1 (0 ) = 0A
ol
Thus, the current in the resistor changes abruptly form 1A to 0A.
EXAMPLE 4.2
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 4.8. Find vC (0+ ). Assume that the switch was in closed state for
us
a long time.
vt
Figure 4.8
SOLUTION
The symbol for the switch implies that it is closed at t = 0 and then opens at t = 0+ . Since the
circuit is in steady state with the switch closed, the capacitor is represented as an open circuit at
t = 0 . The equivalent circuit at t = 0 is as shown in Fig. 4.9.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
vC (0 ) = i(0 )R2
Using the principle of voltage divider,
in
vC (0 )=
VS
R2 =

5 1
= 2:5 V
R1 + R2 1+1
Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot
n.
change instaneously, we have Figure 4.9
+
vC (0
) = vC (0 ) = 2:5V
That is, when the switch is opened at t = 0, and if the source is removed from the circuit, still
+
vC (0 ) remains at 2.5 V.
EXAMPLE 4.3
io
Refer the circuit shown in Fig 4.10. Find iL (0+ ) and vC (0+ ). The circuit is in steady state with
the switch in closed condition.
ut
ol
Figure 4.10
SOLUTION
The symbol for the switch implies, it is closed

us
at t = 0 and then opens at t = 0+ . In order

to find vC (0 ) and iL (0 ) we replace the ca-
pacitor by an open circuit and the inductor by
a short circuit, as shown in Fig.4.11, because
in the steady state L acts as a short circuit and Figure 4.11
C as an open circuit.
vt
5
iL (0 )= =1A
2+3
Using the voltage divider principle, we note that
vC (0 )=

5 3
=3V
3+2
Then we note that:
+
vC (0 ) = vC (0 ) = 3 V
+
iL (0 ) = iL (0 ) = 2 A
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 4.4
In the given network, K is closed at t = 0 with
in
zero current in the inductor. Find the values
di
2
d i
of i; , at t = 0+ if R = 8Ω and L = 0:2H.
dt dt2
Refer the Fig. 4.12(a).
n.
SOLUTION
The symbol for the switch implies that it is open Figure 4.12(a)
at t = 0 and then closes at t = 0+ . Since the R = 8W
current i through the inductor at t = 0 is zero, it
implies that i(0+ ) = i(0 ) = 0.
To find
+
di(0 )
dt
and
2 +
d i(0 )
dt2
:
io +
L = 0.2H
ut
Applying KVL clockwise to the circuit shown in
Figure 4.12(b)
Fig. 4.12(b), we get
di
Ri +L = 12
dt
di
ol
8i + 0:2 = 12 (4.1)
dt
At t = 0+ , the equation (4.1) becomes
di(0
+)
8i(0+ ) + 0:2 = 12
dt
us
0+02 di(0
+ )
8 : = 12
dt
di(0
+ ) 12
=
dt 0:2
= 60 A=sec
Differentiating equation (4.1) with respect to t, we get
vt
di
2
d i
8 + 0:2 =0
dt dt2
At t = 0+ , the above equation becomes
di(0
+) 2 +
d i(0 )
8 + 0:2 =0
dt dt2
60 + 0 2
2 +
d i(0 )
8 : =0
dt2
2 +
d i(0 )
Hence = – 2400 A=sec2
dt2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 4.5
di
2
d i
at t = 0+ .
in
In the network shown in Fig. 4.13, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine i; ,
dt dt2
n.
Figure 4.13
SOLUTION
io
The symbol for the switch implies that it is open at t = 0 and then closes at t = 0+ . Since there
is no current through the inductor at t = 0 , it implies that i(0+ ) = i(0 ) = 0.
R = 10W L = 1H
ut
C = 1mF
ol
Figure 4.14
Writing KVL clockwise for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.14, we get
Zt
us
di 1
Ri +L + i( )d = 10 (4.2)
dt C
0
Ri +L
di
dt
+ vC (t) = 10 (4.2a)
Putting t = 0+ in equation (4.2a), we get

+
di 0+
+ vC 0+ = 10
vt
Ri 0 +L
dt

R 0+ L
di
dt
0+
+ 0 = 10

di 0+
10
= = 10 A/sec
dt L

di
2
d i i(t)
R +L + =0
dt dt2 C
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

di 0+ 2
d i 0+ i 0+
in
R +L + =0
dt dt2
C
10 +
2
d i 0
+
0
R L
2
+ =0
dt C

2
d i 0+
100 + =0
n.
dt2
2 +

d i 0
Hence at t = 0+ ; = 100 A/sec2
dt2
EXAMPLE 4.6
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 4.15. The switch
K is changed from position 1 to position 2 at
t = 0. Steady-state condition having been
reached at position 1. Find the values of i,

di
dt
, io
ut
2
d i
and at t = 0+ .
dt2

The symbol for switch K implies that it is in position 1 at t = 0 and in position 2 at t = 0+ .
ol
Under steady-state condition, inductor acts as a short circuit. Hence at t = 0 , the circuit diagram
is as shown in Fig. 4.16.
20
i 0 = 2A =
10
us
an inductor cannot change

Since the current through
instantaneously, i 0+ = i (0 ) = 2A. Since there is
no initial charge on the capacitor, vC (0 ) = 0. Since
the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instanta-
neously, vC 0 = vC (0 ) = 0. Hence at t = 0+
+
the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 4.17(a).

For t 0+ , the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 4.17(b). Figure 4.16
vt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying KVL clockwise to the circuit shown in Fig. 4.17(b), we get

Zt
di(t) 1
in
Ri(t) +L + i( )d =0 (4.3)
dt C
0+
Ri(t) +L
di(t)
dt
+ vC (t) = 0 (4.3a)
n.
At t = 0+ equation (4.3a) becomes

+
di 0+
Ri 0 +L + vC 0+ = 0
dt

R 2+ L
di 0+
+0=0

20 +
dt
di
di
io dt
dt
0+
0 +

=0
= 20 A/sec
ut
di
2
d i i
R +L + =0
dt dt2 C
At t = 0+ , we get

ol
di 0+ 2
d i 0+ i 0+
R +L + =0
dt dt2
C
(
2
d i 0
+
2
R 20) + L
2
+ =0
dt C

2 +
us
2 106 A=sec2
d i 0
Hence;
dt2
EXAMPLE 4.7
In the network shown in Fig. 4.18, the switch is moved from position 1 to position 2 at t = 0. The
di
2
d i
steady-state has been reached before switching. Calculate i, , and at t = 0+ .
dt dt2
vt
Figure 4.18
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The symbol for switch K implies that it is in posi-
in
tion 1 at t = 0 and in position 2 at t = 0+ . Under
steady-state condition, a capacitor acts as an open cir-
cuit. Hence at t = 0 , the circuit diagram is as shown
in Fig. 4.18(a).
We know that the voltage across a capacitor
n.
cannot change instantaneously. This means that Figure 4.18(a)
vC 0
+ = v (0 ) = 40 V.
C
At t = 0 , inductor is not energized.

This means that i (0 ) = 0. Since current in an inductor
cannot change instantaneously, i 0+ = i (0 ) = 0. Hence, the circuit diagram at t = 0+ is as

The circuit diagram for t 0+ is as shown in Fig.4.18(c).
io
ut
ol

Zt
us
di 1
Ri +L + i( )d =0 (4.4)
dt C
0+
Ri +L
di
dt
+ vC (t) = 0
At t = 0+ , we get
vt
+
di(0 )
+
Ri(0 ) +L + vC (0+ ) = 0
dt
0+1 di(0
+)
20 + 40 = 0
dt
di(0
+)
= 40A/ sec
dt
Diferentiating equation (4.4) with respect to t, we get

di
2
d i i
R +L + =0
dt dt2 C
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting t = 0+ in the above equation, we get

di(0
+) 2 +
d i(0 )
+
i(0 )
in
R +L + =0
dt dt2 C
(
2 +
d i(0 ) 0
R 40) + L + =0
dt2 C
2
d i(0
+ )
Hence = 800A/ sec2
dt2
n.
EXAMPLE 4.8
In the network shown in Fig. 4.19, v1 (t) = e t
for t 0 and is zero for all t< 0. If the capacitor
2
d v
3
d v
2 2
is initially uncharged, determine the value of and at t = 0+ .
dt2 dt3
io
ut
Figure 4.19
ol
SOLUTION
Since the capacitor is initially uncharged,

v2 (0
+) = 0
Referring to Fig. 4.19(a) and applying KCL

us
at node v2 (t):
v2 (t) v1 (t) dv2 (t) v2 (t)

+C + =0
R1 dt R2

R1
1
+
R2
1
v2 (t) +C
dv2 (t)
dt
=
v1 (t)
R1
Figure 4.19(a)
vt
0:15v2 + 0:05
dv2
dt
= 0:1e t
(4.5)
Putting t = 0+ , we get
dv2 (0
+)
0:15v2 (0+ ) + 0:05 = 0:1
dt
0 + 0 05 dv2 (0
+)
0:15 : = 0:1
dt
dv2 (0
+) 0:1
= = 2 Volts= sec
dt 0:05
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Vtusolution.in

dv2
2
d v2 t
in
0:15 + 0:05 = 0:1e (4.6)
dt dt2
Putting t = 0+ in equation (4.6), we find that
2 +
d v2 (0 ) 0:1 0:3
= = 8 Volts/ sec2
dt2 0:05
n.
Again differentiating equation (4.6) with respect to t, we get
2
d v2
3
d v2 t
0:15 + 0:05 = 0:1e (4.7)
dt2 dt3
3
d v2 +
Putting t = 0+ in equation (4.7) and solving for (0 ), we find that
dt3
EXAMPLE 4.9
3
dt3
+
d v2 (0 )
=
0:1 + 1:2
0:05
io
= 26 Volts/ sec3
ut
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 4.20. The circuit is in steady state with switch K closed. At t = 0,
dvK
the switch is opened. Determine the voltage across the switch, vK and at t = 0+ .
dt
ol
us
Figure 4.20
SOLUTION
The switch remains closed at t = 0 and open at t = 0+ . Under steady condition, inductor acts
as a short circuit and hence the circuit diagram at t = 0 is as shown in Fig. 4.21(a).
+
Therefore; vK (0 ) = vK (0 )
=0V
0
vt
For t + the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 4.21(b).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
dvK
i(t) =C
dt
At (t) = 0+ , we get
in
dvK (0
+)
+
i(0 ) =C
dt
Since the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously, we get
n.
+
i(0 ) = i(0 ) = 2A
+
dvK (0 )
Hence; 2=C
dt
dvK (0
+) 2 2
= = 1 = 4V/ sec
dt C
2
EXAMPLE 4.10
io
In the given network, the switch K is opened at t = 0. At t = 0+ , solve for the values of v;
2
dv
dt
ut
d v
and if I = 2 A; R = 200 Ω and L = 1 H
dt2
ol
Figure 4.22
us
SOLUTION
The switch is opened at t = 0. This means that at t = 0 , it is closed and at t = 0+ , it is open.

Since iL (0 ) = 0, we get iL (0+ ) = 0. The circuit at t = 0+ is as shown in Fig. 4.23(a).
vt
+
v (0 ) = IR
=2 200
= 400 Volts
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Vtusolution.in
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 4.23(b).

For t 0+ , the KCL at node v (t) gives
in
Zt
v (t) 1
I = + v ( )d (4.8)
R L
0+
Differentiating both sides of equation (4.8) with respect to t, we get
n.
1 dv (t) 1
0= + v (t) (4.8a)
R dt L
At t = 0+ , we get
1 dv (0
+) 1 +
+ v (0 ) =0
R dt L
400 = 0

200 dt
+
1 dv (0 ) 1
+
1
Again differentiating equation (4.8a), we get

dv (0
dt
+)
=
io
8 104 V/ sec
ut
1 2
d v (t) 1 dv (t)
+ =0
R dt2 L dt
At t = 0+ , we get
1 d2 v (0+ ) 1 dv (0+ )
+ =0
ol
200 dt2 1 dt
8 10
2 +
d v (0 ) 4
2
= 200
dt
= 16 106 V/ sec2
us
EXAMPLE 4.11
In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.24, a steady state is reached with switch K open. At t = 0, the
switch is closed. For element values given, determine the values of va (0 ) and va (0+ ).
vt
Figure 4.24
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , the switch is open and at t = 0+ , the switch is closed. Under steady conditions,
in
inductor L acts as a short circuit. Also the steady state is reached with switch K open. Hence, the
circuit diagram at t = 0 is as shown in Fig.4.25(a).
5 5 2
iL (0 )= + = A
30 10 3
n.
Using the voltage divider principle:
va (0 )=
5 20 =
10
V
10 + 20 3
Since the current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL (0
+
) = iL (0 ) =
2
3
A:
At t = 0+ , the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 4.25(b). io

ut
ol
us
Refer the circuit in Fig. 4.25(b).

KCL at node a:
vt
va (0
+) 5 va (0
+) va (0
+) vb (0
+)
+ + =0
10 10 20
+
va (0 )
1
+
1
+
10 10 20
1 +
vb (0 )
1
20
=
5
10
KCL at node b:
vb (0
+) va (0
+) 5 2vb (0
+)
+ + =0
20
10
3
+
va (0 )
1
20
+ vb (0+ )
1
+
1
20 10
=
5
10
2
3
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Solving the above two nodal equations, we get,

+ 40
va (0 )= V
in
21
EXAMPLE 4.12
dvC (0
+) diL (0
+)
Find iL (0+ ); vC (0+ ); and for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.26.
dt dt
n.
Assume that switch 1 has been opened and switch 2 has been closed for a long time and
steady–state conditions prevail at t = 0 .
io
ut
ol
At t = 0 , switch 1 is open and
switch 2 is closed, whereas at t = 0+ ,
switch 1 is closed and switch 2 is
open.
us
First, let us redraw the circuit at

t = 0 by replacing the inductor
with a short circuit and the capacitor
with an open circuit as shown in Fig.
4.27(a).
From Fig. 4.27(b), we find that Figure 4.27(a)
iL (0 ) = 0
vt
Figure 4.27(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying KVL clockwise to the loop on the

right, we get

in
vC (0 ) 2+1 0=0
vC (0 )= 2V
+ +
Hence, at t =0 : iL (0 ) = iL (0 ) = 0A
+
vC (0 ) = vC (0 ) = 2V
n.
The circuit diagram for t 0 + is shown in
Figure 4.27(c)
Fig. 4.27(c).
Applying KVL for right–hand mesh, we get
vL vC + iL = 0
At t = 0+ , we get
vL (0
+
=
io
) = vC (0+ )
2 0=
iL (0
2V
+
)
ut
diL
We know that vL =L
dt
At t = 0+ , we get
diL (0
+) vL (0
+) 2
= = = 2A/ sec
ol
dt L 1
Applying KCL at node X ,
vC 10
+ iC + iL = 0
2
Consequently, at t = 0+
us
10 vC (0
+)
+ +
iC (0 )= iL (0 )=6 0=6A
2
dvC
Since iC =C
dt
dvC (0
+) iC (0
+ ) 6
We get, = = 1 = 12V/ sec
vt
dt C
2
EXAMPLE 4.13
For the circuit shown in Fig. 4.28, find:
(a) i(0+ ) and v (0+ )
di(0
+) dv (0
+)
(b) and
dt dt
(c) i( ) and () v
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 4.28
SOLUTION
Fig.4.29(a).
i(0 ) =
12
= 2A
io
(a) From the symbol of switch, we find that at t = 0 , the switch is closed and t = 0+ , it is
open. At t = 0 , the circuit has reached steady state so that the equivalent circuit is as shown in
ut
6
v (0 ) = 12 V
+
Therefore, we have i(0 ) = i(0 )
= 2A
+
) = v (0 ) = 12V
ol
v (0
(b) For t 0 +, we have the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.4.29(b).

us
vt
Applying KVL anticlockwise to the mesh on the right, we get

vL (t) v (t) + 10i(t) = 0
+ +
vL (0 ) v (0 ) + 10i(0+ ) = 0
vL (0
+
) 12 + 10 2=0
vL (0
+
)= 8V
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The voltage across the inductor is given by

di
in
vL =L
dt
di(0
+)
+
vL (0 )=L
dt

+
di(0 ) 1 +
= vL (0 )
n.
dt L
1
( 8) = = 0.8A/ sec
10
Similarly, the current through the capacitor is
or
+
dv (0 )
dt
=
iC (0

C
2
iC
+)
=C
=
dv
dt
+
i(0 )
C io
0.2 106 V/ sec
ut
= 6
=
10 10
(c) As t approaches infinity, the switch is open and the circuit
has attained steady state. The equivalent circuit at t = is
shown in Fig.4.29(c).
) = 0
ol
Figure 4.29(c)
i(
v () = 0
EXAMPLE 4.14
us
Refer the circuit shown in Fig.4.30. Find the following:
(a) +
v (0 ) and i(0+ )
dv (0
+) di(0
+)
(b) and
dt dt
(c) v( ) and () i

vt
Figure 4.30
SOLUTION
From the definition of step function,

1; t>0
u(t) =
0; t<0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
From Fig.4.31(a), u(t) = 0 at t = 0 .

in
1; t>0
Similarly; u( t) =
0; t<0

1; t<0
or u( t) =
0; t>0
n.
From Fig.4.31(b), we find that u( t) = 1, at t = 0 .
t = 0+
t = 0
Figure 4.31(a)
io Figure 4.31(b)
ut
Due to the presence of u( t) and u(t) in the circuit of Fig.4.30, the circuit is an implicit
switching circuit. We use the word implicit since there are no conventional switches in the circuit
of Fig.4.30.
The equivalent circuit at t = 0 is shown in Fig.4.31(c). Please note that at t = 0 , the
ol
independent current source is open because u(t) = 0 at t = 0 and the circuit is in steady state.
us
Figure 4.31(c)
vt
40
i(0 )= = 5A
3+5
v (0 ) = 5i(0 ) = 25V
+
Therefore i(0 ) = i(0 ) = 5A
+
v (0 ) = v (0 ) = 25V

(b) For t 0+ ; u( t) = 0. This implies that the independent voltage source is zero and hence
is represented by a short circuit in the circuit shown in Fig.4.31(d).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 4.31(d)
Applying KVL at node a, we get
dv v
At t = 0+ , We get

4+i=C
4 + i(0+ ) = C
io dv (0
dt
dt
dv (0
+
+)
+)
5
+
+
v (0 )
5
25
ut
4 + 5 = 0:1 +
dt 5
dv (0
+)
= 40V/ sec
dt
Applying KVL to the left–mesh, we get
ol
di
3i + 0:25 +v =0
dt
Evaluating at t = 0+ , we get
di(0
+)
3i(0+ ) + 0:25 + v (0+ ) = 0
us
dt
5 + 0 25 di(0
+)
3 : + 25 = 0
dt
di(0
+) 40
= 1 = 160A/ sec
dt
4
(c) As t approaches infinity, again the circuit is in steady state. The equivalent circuit at t =
vt
is shown in Fig.4.31(e).
Figure 4.31(e)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Using the principle of current divider, we get
4 5

2.5A
in
i( ) = =
3+5

v ( ) = (i( ) + 4) 5
= ( 2:5 + 4)5
= 7.5V
n.
EXAMPLE 4.15
Refer the circuit shown in Fig.4.32. Find the following:
(a) i(0+ ) and v (0+ )
(b)
(c) i(
di(0
dt
+)
) and ()
and
v
dv (0
dt
+)
io
ut
Figure 4.32
SOLUTION
Here the function u(t) behaves like a switch. Mathematically,

ol

1; t> 0
u(t) =
0; t< 0
The above expression means that the switch represented by u(t) is open for t < 0 and remains
closed for t > 0. Hence, the circuit diagram of Fig.4.32 may be redrawn as shown in Fig.4.33(a).
us
vt
Figure 4.33(a)
For t < 0, the circuit is not active because switch is in open state, This implies that all the
initial conditions are zero.
That is, iL (0 ) = 0 and vC (0 ) = 0
for t 0 +, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.4.33(b).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 4.33(b)
From the circuit diagram of Fig.4.33(b), we find that
+
At t = 0 , we get
+
i(0 ) =
5
+
vC (0 )
i=
=
vC
5
io
vC (0 )
5
0
= = 0A
5
ut
Also v = 15iL
+ +
v (0 ) = 15iL (0 )
= 15iL (0 ) = 15 0 = 0V
ol
(b) The equivalent circuit at t = 0+ is shown in Fig.4.33(c).
We find from Fig.4.33(c) that
+
iC (0 ) = 5A
us
vt
Figure 4.33(c)
From Fig.4.33(b), we can write
vC = 5i
dvC
dt
=5
di
dt
Multiplying both sides by C , we get
dvC di
C = 5C
dt dt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
iC = 5C
di
dt
in
di(0
+) 1 +
= iC (0 )
dt 5C
=
1
5 14
5
n.
= 4A/ sec
Also v = 15iL
dv
dt
= 15
diL
dt

At t = 0+ , we find that
dv
dt
dv
dt
= 15 1
= 15vL
io
diL
dt
ut
dv (0
+)
= 15vL (0+ )
dt
From Fig.4.33(b), we find that vL (0+ ) = 0

+
dv (0 )
Hence; = 15 0
ol
dt
= 0V/ sec
EXAMPLE 4.16
In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.34, steady state is reached with switch K open. The switch is closed
us
at t = 0.
di1 di2
Determine: i1 ; i2 ; and at t = 0+
dt dt
vt
Figure 4.34
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch K is open and at t = 0+ , it is closed. At t = 0 , the circuit is in steady state
in
and appears as shown in Fig.4.35(a).
20
i2 (0 )= = 1:33A
10 + 5
Hence; vC (0 ) = 10i2 (0 ) = 10
1:33 = 13:3V
n.
Since current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously, i2 (0+ ) = i2 (0 ) = 1.33 A.
Also, vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 13:3V.
The equivalent circuit at t = 0+ is as shown in Fig.4.35(b).
20 13:3 6:7
i1 (0
+
)=
io
10
=
10
= 0.67A
ut
ol
0 +,
us
For t the circuit is as shown in Fig.4.35(c).

Writing KVL clockwise for the left–mesh,
we get
Zt
1
10i1 + i1 ( )d = 20
C
0+
vt
Differentiating with respect to t, we get

di1 1
10 + i1 =0
dt C
+) Figure 4.35(c)
di1 (0 1 +
10 + i1 (0 )=0
dt C

+)
0.67 105 A/ sec
di1 (0 1
1 10
+
= i (0
6 1
)=
dt 10
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Vtusolution.in
Writing KVL equation to the path made of 20V K 10Ω 2H, we get
2di2
10i2 + = 20
in
dt
2di2 (0+ )
10i2 (0+ ) + = 20
dt
1 33 + 2
+)
n.
di2 (0
10 : = 20
dt
di2 (0
+)
= 3.35A/ sec
dt
EXAMPLE 4.17
(a)
(b)
v1
v1
and v2 at t = 0+
and v2 at t = io
Refer the citcuit shown in Fig.4.36. The switch K is closed at t = 0. Find:
ut
dv1 dv2
(c) and at t = 0+
dt dt
2
d v1
(d) at t = 0+
dt2
ol
Figure 4.36
SOLUTION
us
(a) The circuit symbol for switch conveys that at t = 0 , the switch is open and t = 0+ , it is
closed. At t = 0 , since the switch is open, the circuit is not activated. This implies that
all initial conditions are zero. Hence, at t = 0+ , inductor is open and capactor is short.
Fig 4.37(a) shows the equivalent circuit at t = 0+ .
vt
Figure 4.37(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
+ 10
i1 (0 = 1A
)=
10
+ +
v1 (0 ) = 0; i2 (0 ) = 0
in
Applying KVL to the path, 10V source 10Ω 10Ω 2mH, we get
K
10 + 10i1 (0+ ) + v1 (0+ ) + v2 (0+ ) = 0

10 + 10 + 0 + v2 (0+ ) = 0

n.
+
v2 (0 )=0
(b) At = , switch
t K remains closed and circuit is in steady state. Under steady state
conditions, capacitor C is open and inductor L is short. Fig. 4.37(b) shows the equivalent
circuit at = .
t
) = 10 10+ 10 = 0.5A
i2 (
i1
v1
() = 0
io
() = 0 5 10 = 5V
() = 0
:
ut
v2
ol
us
Figure 4.37(b)
(c) For t 0 +, the circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.37(c).

vt
Figure 4.37(c)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Zt
1 v1 (t)
i2 = v2 ( )d =
L R2
0+
in
v2 1 dv1
=
L R2 dt
n.
Evaluating at t = 0+ we get
dv1 (0
+) R2 +
= v2 (0 )
dt L2
dv1 (0
+)
dt
= 0V/ sec
Applying KVL clockwise to the path 10 V source
1
io
Zt
10Ω 4
K F, we get
ut
10 + 10i + [i( ) i2 ( )]d =0
C
0+

ol
di 1
10 + [i i2 ] =0
dt C
+
di(0 ) i2 (0
+) i(0
+)
us
dt
=
C 10 2 3
∵ i(0+ ) = i1 (0+ ) + i2 (0+ )
0 1 4 5
=

10 4 10 6
=1+0
= 1A
= 25000A/ sec
10Ω 10Ω 2 mH,

vt
Applying KVL clockwise to the path 10 V source K

we get
10 + 10i + 10i2 + v2 = 0
10i + v1 + v2 = 10
di dv1 dv2
10 + + =0
dt dt dt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
At t = 0+ , we get
di(0
+) dv1 (0
+) dv2 (0
+)
in
10 + + =0
dt dt dt
dv2 (0
+)
10( 25000) + 0 + =0
dt

+)
= 25 104 V/ sec
dv2 (0
n.
dt
(d) From part (c), we have

Zt
1 v1
v2 ( )d =
L 10
io1
0+
Differentiating with respect to t twice, we get
L dt
dv2
=
1 d2 v1
10 dt2
ut
At t = 0+ , we get
1 dv2 (0
+) 1 d2 v1 (0+ )
=
L dt 10 dt2
ol
2 +)
= 125 107 V/ sec2
d v 1 (0
Hence;
dt2
EXAMPLE 4.18
Refer the network shown in Fig. 4.38. Switch K is changed from a to b at t = 0 (a steady state
us
having been established at position a).

vt
Figure 4.38
Show that at t = 0+ .
V
i1 = i2 = ; i3 =0
R1 + R2 + R3
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Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The symbol for switch indicates that at t = 0 , it is in position a and at t = 0+ , it is in position
in
b. The circuit is in steady state at t = 0 . Fig 4.39(a) refers to the equivalent circuit at t = 0 .
Please remember that at steady state C is open and L is short.
iL1 (0 ) = 0; iL2 (0 ) = 0; vC2 (0 ) = 0; vC1 (0 )=0
Applying KVL clockwise to the left-mesh, we get
n.
V + vC3 (0 ) + 0 R2 +0=0
vC3 (0 ) = V volts:
io
ut
Figure 4.39(a)
ol
Since current in an inductor and voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the
equivalent circuit at t = 0+ is as shown in Fig. 4.39(b).
us
vt
Figure 4.39(b)
+
i1 (0 ) = i2 (0+ ) since iL1 (0
+
)=0
+ +
i3 (0 ) = 0 since iL2 (0 )=0
Applying KVL to the path v C3 (0+ )
R2 R3 R1 K we get,
V + R2 i1 (0+ ) + R3 i2 (0+ ) + R1 i1 (0+ ) = 0
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Vtusolution.in
Since i1 (0+ ) = i2 (0+ ), the above equation becomes
V = [R1 + R2 + R3 ] i1 (0+ )
in
+ + V
Hence; i1 (0 ) = i2 (0 ) = A
R1 + R 2 + R 3
EXAMPLE 4.19
n.
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 4.40. The switch K is closed at t = 0.
di1 (0
+) di2 (0
+)
Find (a) and (b)
dt dt
io
ut
Figure 4.40
ol
SOLUTION
The circuit symbol for the switch shows that at

+
t = 0 , it is open and at t = 0 , it is closed.
Hence, at t = 0 , the circuit is not activated.
us
This implies that all initial conditions are zero.

That is, vC (0 ) = 0 and iL (0 ) = i2 (0 ) = 0.
The equivalent circuit at t = 0+ keeping in mind
that vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) and iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) is
as shown in Fig. 4.41 (a). Figure 4.41(a)
vt
+
i1 (0 ) = 0 and i2 (0+ ) = 0:
Figure. 4.41(b) shows the circuit diagram for t 0 +.
Zt
1
Vo sin !t = i1 R + i1 ( )d
C
0+
di1 i1
Vo ! cos !t =R +
dt C
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Vtusolution.in
At t = 0+ , we get
di1 (0
+) i1 (0
+)
in
Vo ! =R +
dt C

+
di1 (0 ) V0 ω
= A/ sec
dt R
di2
Also; Vo sin !t = i2 R + L
n.
dt
di2 (0
+)
0 = i2 (0+ )R + L
dt

EXAMPLE
di2 (0
dt
4.20
+)
= 0A/ sec
In the network of the Fig. 4.42, the switch K is opened at

io t
Figure 4.41(b)
= 0 after the network has attained

ut
steady state with the switch closed.
(a) Find the expression for vK at t = 0+ .
di(0
+)
(b) If the parameters are adjusted such that i(0+ ) = 1, and = 1, what is the value of
dt
dvK +
0+ ,
ol
the derivative of the voltage across the switch at t = (0 ) ?
dt
us
Figure 4.42
vt
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch is in the closed state and at

+
t = 0 , it is open. Also at t = 0 , the circuit
is in steady state. The equivalent circuit at
t = 0 is as shown in Fig. 4.43(a).
V
i(0 )= and vC (0 ) = 0
R2
Figure 4.43(a)
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Vtusolution.in

For t 0+ , the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.43(b).
From Fig. 4.43 (b),
in
Zt
1
vK = R1 i + i( )d
C
0+
vK = R1 i + vC (t)
n.
At t = 0+ , vK (0
+) = R1 i(0+ ) + vC (0+ )
vK (0
+
) = R1
V
R2
+ vC (0 )
V
= R1
R2
io
volts
ut
ol
Figure 4.43(b)
(b)
Zt
1
us
vK = R1 i + i( )d
C
0+
dvK
dt
= R1
di
dt
+
i
C
vt
dvK (0
+) di(0
+) +
i(0 )
= R1 +
dt dt C
= R1 ( 1) +
1
C
1
= R1 volts/ sec
C
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Vtusolution.in
Reinforcement Problems
R.P 4.1
in
Refer the circuit shown in Fig RP.4.1(a). If the switch is closed at t = 0, find the value of
2 +
d iL (0 )
at t = 0+ .
dt2
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P.4.1(a)
SOLUTION
ol
The circuit at t = 0 is as shown in Fig RP 4.1(b).
Since current through an inductor and voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, it implies that iL (0+ ) = 18A and vC (0+ ) = 180 V.

The circuit for t 0+ is as shown in Fig. RP 4.1 (c).
us
vt
Referring Fig RP 4.1 (c), we can write

Zt
2 10 3 diL
dt
+ 60iL + 288 10 3
iL (t)dt =0 (4.9)
0+
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Vtusolution.in
At t = 0+ , we get
diL (0
+)
60 18 + 180

in
=
dt 2 10 3
=
450 103 A= sec
n.
10 10
2
3 d iL diL 3
2 + 60 + 288 iL =0
dt2 dt
At t = 0+ , we get
2 +
d iL (0 ) 60(450)103 288 103 (18)

R.P 4.2
dt 2
=
io
2 10 3

= 1:0908 1010 A= sec2
ut
2 +
d vC (0 )
3 +
d vC (0 )
For the circuit shown in Fig. RP 4.2, determine and :
dt2 dt3
ol
us
Figure R.P.4.2
SOLUTION
Given
0
vt
2; t
+
i(t) = 2u(t) =
0; t 0
Hence, at t = 0 , vC (0 ) = 0 and iL (0 ) = 0.

For t 0+ , the circuit equations are
Zt
1 dvC (t) 1
+ vL (t)dt = 2 (4.10)
64 dt 2
0+
1 dvC (t)
64 dt
+ iL (t) = 2 (4.11)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
[Note : iC + iL = 2 because of the capacitor polarity]

At t = 0+ , equation (4.10) gives
in
1 dvC (0+ )
+ iL (0+ ) = 2
64 dt
Since, iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 0, we get
n.
1 dvC (0+ )
+0= 2
64 dt

+
dvC (0 )
= 128 volts= sec
dt
Differentiating equation (4.10) with respect to t we get
1 d2 vC (t) 1
64 dt
+ vL (t) = 0
2
1
Zt io (4.12)
ut
vC vL
Also; = vL dt = iL (4.13)
24 2
0+
At t = 0+ , we get
vC (0
+) vL (0
+)
= iL (0+ )
ol
24
Since vC (0+ ) = 0 and iL (0+ ) = 0, we get vL (0+ ) = 0.
At t = 0+ , equation (4.12) becomes
1 d2 vC (0+ ) 1
us
+ vL (0+ ) = 0
64 dt2 2
1 d2 vC (0+ ) 1
64 dt2
+
2
0=0

2 +
d vC (0 )
2
=0
dt
vt
Differentiating equation (4.12) with respect to t we get
1 d3 vC
64 dt 3
+
1 dvL
2 dt
=0 (4.14)
dvC dvL
dt dt 1
= vL
24 2
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Vtusolution.in
At t = 0+ , we get
dvC (0
+) dvL (0
+)
in
dt dt 1 +
= vL (0 )
24 2
dvL (0
+)

128
dt
=0
24
n.
dvL (0
+)
= 128 volts= sec
dt

1 d3 vC (0+ ) 1 dvL (0+ )
R.P 4.3

64 dt3
+
2
3
dt
3
+
d vC (0 )
=0
io
= 4096 volts= sec3
dt
ut
In the network of Fig RP 4.3 (a), switch K is closed at t = 0. At t = 0 all the capacitor voltages
and all the inductor currents are zero. Three node-to-datum voltages are identified as v1 , v2 and
+
v3 . Find at t = 0 :
(i) v1 , v2 and v3
ol
dv1 dv2 dv3
(ii) , and
dt dt dt
us
vt
Figure R.P.4.3(a)
SOLUTION
The network at t = 0+ is as shown in Fig RP-4.3 (b).

Since vC and iL cannot change instantaneously, we have from the network shown in
Fig. RP-4.3 (b),
+
v1 (0 ) = 0
+
v2 (0 )=0
+
v3 (0 )=0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure R.P.4.3(b)
For t 0
+, the circuit equations are
9
v C1
v C2
=
=
1
C1
1 io
Zt
0+
Zt
i1 dt
i2 dt
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
(4.15)
ut
C2 >
>
>
>
0+
Zt >
>
>
>
1 >
>
v C3 = i3 dt >
>
C3 >
;
0+
ol
From Fig. RP-4.3 (b), we can write
+
v (0 )
+
i1 (0 )= ;
R1
+) +)
us
+ v1 (0 v2 (0
i2 (0 )=
R2
+
and i3 (0 )=0
dvC1 i1 dvC2 i2 dvC3 i3

vt
= ; = and =
dt C1 dt C2 dt C3
At t = 0+ , the above equations give
dv1 (0
+) i1 (0
+) +
v (0 )
= =
dt C1 R 1 C1
dv2 (0
+) +
i2 (0 ) v1 (0
+ ) v2 (0
+)
= = =0
dt C2 R 2 C2
dv3 (0
+) +
i3 (0 )
and = =0
dt C3
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Vtusolution.in
R.P 4.4
For the network shown in Fig RP 4.4 (a) with switch K open, a steady-state is reached. The circuit
in
paprameters are R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, R3 = 20Ω, L = 1 H and C = 1F. Take V = 100
volts. The switch is closed at t = 0.
(a) Write the integro-differential

equation after the switch is
n.
closed.
(b) Find the voltage Vo across C be-
fore the switch is closed and give
its polarity.
(c) Find i1 and i2 at t = 0+ .
(d) Find
di1
dt
and
(e) What is the value of

di2
dt
at t = 0+ .
di1
at io Figure R.P.4.4(a)
ut
dt
t= ?
SOLUTION
The switch is in open state at t = 0 . The network at t = 0 is as shown in Fig RP 4.4 (b).
ol
us
Figure R.P.4.4(b)
100V 10
i1 (0 )= = A =
vt
R1 + R2 30 3
VC (0 ) = i1 (0 )R2 =
10
3
20 =
200
3
volts
Note that L is short and C is open under steady-state condition.

For t 0+ (switch in closed state),
di1
we have 20i1 + = 100 (4.16)
dt
Zt
6
and 20i2 + 10 i2 dt = 100 (4.17)
0+
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
+ 10
Also i1 (0 A
) = i1 (0 ) =
3
200
in
+
and VC (0 ) = VC (0 ) = Volts
3
From equation (4.16) at t = 0+ ,
103
di1 (0
+)
we have = 100 20
dt
n.
100
= A=sec
3
From equation (4.17), at t = 0+ , we have

+ 1 200 5
i2 (0 ) = 100 = A
Differentiating equation (4.17), we get

20
From equation (4.18) at t = 0+ , we get

20
di2
dt
+ 106 i2 = 0
io3 3
(4.18)
ut
20di2 (0+ )
+ 106 i2 (0+ ) = 0
dt
di2 (0
+)
=
106 53
dt 20
ol
106
= A= sec
12
At t = ,
i1 ( ) = 100 =5A
us
20
() = 0
di1
dt
R.P 4.5
2 +
d i1 (0 )
For the network shown in Fig RP 4.5 (a), find .
dt2
vt
The switch K is closed at t = 0.
Figure R.P.4.5(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , we have vC (0 ) = 0 and i2 (0 ) = iL (0 ) = 0. Because of the switching property
in
of L and C , we have vC (0+ ) = 0 and i2 (0+ ) = 0. The network at t = 0+ is as shown in
Fig RP 4.5 (b).
n.
Referring Fig RP 4.5 (b), we find that
i1 (0 io
Figure R.P.4.5(b)
+
)=
v (0
R1
+)
ut
The circuit equations for t 0 + are
Zt
1
R1 i1 + (i1 i2 )dt = v (t) (4.19)
C
ol
0+
Zt
1 di2
and R2 i2 + (i2 i1 )dt +L =0 (4.20)
C dt
0+
| {z }
us
vC (t)

di2 (0
+)
+
R2 i2 (0 ) + vC (0+ ) + L =0
dt
di2 (0
+)
=0 (4.21)
dt
vt
Differentiating equation (4.19), we get

di1 1 dv (t)
R1 + (i1 i2 ) = (4.22)
dt C dt
Letting t = 0+ in equation (4.22), we get

di1 (0
+) 1 + +
dv (0
+)
R1 + i1 (0 ) i2 (0 ) =
dt C dt

di1 (0
+) 1 dv (0
+) +
v (0 )
= (4.23)
dt R1 dt R1 C
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Differentiating equation (4.22) gives

2
2
d i1 1 di1 di2 d v (t)
in
R1 + =
dt2 C dt dt dt2
Letting t = 0+ , we get
2 +
+) +)
2 +
d i1 (0 ) 1 di1 (0 di2 (0 d v (0 )
R1 + =
dt2 C dt dt dt2
n.

2 +
d i1 (0 ) 1 di1 (0
+) 2 +
d v (0 )
R1 = +
dt2 C dt dt2

2 +
d i1 (0 ) 1 1 dv (0
+) 1 2 +
d v (0 )
+
= 2C v (0 ) +
dt2 R1 C R1 dt R1 dt2
R.P 4.6
io
Determine va (0 ) and va (0+ ) for the network shown in Fig RP 4.6 (a). Assume that the switch
is closed at t = 0.
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P.4.6(a)
SOLUTION
Since L is short for DC at steady state, the net-

work at t = 0 is as shown in Fig. RP 4.6 (b).
Applying KCL at junction a, we get
vt
va (0 ) 5 va (0 ) vb (0 )
+ =0
10 20
Since vb (0 ) = 0, we get
va (0) 5 va (0
) 0
+ =0
10 20
va (0 ) =
0:5
0:1 + 0:05
=
10
3
volts
Figure R.P.4.6(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
va (0 ) 5
) = iL (0+ ) =
in
Also; iL (0 +
20 10
2
= A
3
For t 0 +, we can write
n.
va 5 va va vb
+ + =0
10 10 20
vb va vb 5
and + + iL = 0
20 10
Simplifying at t = 0+ , we get
1
1
4
+
va (0 )
+
io 1
20
3
+
vb (0 ) =
+
1
2
1
ut
and va (0 ) + vb (0 ) =
20 20 6
+) 40
Solving we get, va (0 = = 1:905 volts
21
Exercise problems
ol
E.P 4.1
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 4.1 Switch K is closed at t = 0.
di(0
+) 2 +
d i(0 )
Find i(0+ ),
us
and .
dt dt2
vt
Figure E.P.4.1
di(0+ ) d2 i(0+ )
Ans: i(0+ ) = 0.2A, = 2 103 A/ sec, = 20 106 A/ sec2
dt dt2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 4.2
di
in
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 4.2. Switch K is closed at t = 0. Find the values of i; and
dt
2
d i
at t = 0+ .
dt2
n.
di(0+ )
io
Figure E.P.4.2
d2 i(0+ )
ut
Ans: i(0+ ) = 0, = 10 A/ sec, = 1000 A/ sec2
dt dt2
E.P 4.3
Refering to the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 4.3, switch is changed from position 1 to position 2 at
2
ol
di d i
t = 0. The circuit has attained steady state before switching. Determine i, and at t = 0+ .
dt dt2
us
vt
Figure E.P.4.3
di(0+ ) d2 i(0+ )
Ans: i(0+ ) = 0, = 40 A/ sec, = 800 A/ sec2
dt dt2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 4.4
In the network shown in Fig. E.P.4.4, the initial voltage on C1 is Va and on C2 is Vb such that
in
dv1 dv2
v1 (0 ) = Va and v2 (0 ) = Vb . Find the values of and at t = 0+ .
dt dt
n.
Ans:
dv1 (0+ )
=
Vb Va
V/ sec,
io
Figure E.P.4.4
dv2 (0+ )
=
Va Vb
V/ sec
ut
dt C1 R dt C2 R
E.P 4.5
In the network shown in Fig E.P. 4.5, switch K is closed at t = 0 with zero capacitor voltage and
2
d v2
zero inductor current. Find at t = 0+ .
dt2
ol
us
vt
Figure E.P.4.5
d2 v2 (0+ ) R2 Va
Ans: = V/ sec2
dt2 R1 L1 C1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 4.6
2
d v1
in
In the network shown in Fig. E.P. 4.6, switch K is closed at t = 0. Find at t = 0+ .
dt2
n.
io
Figure E.P.4.6
ut
d2 v1 (0+ )
Ans: = 0 V/ sec2
dt2
E.P 4.7
di(0
+)
ol
The switch in Fig. E.P. 4.7 has been closed for a long time. It is open at t = 0. Find ,
dt
) and ().
+
dv (0 )
, i( v
dt
us
i
vt
Figure E.P.4.7
di(0+ ) dv(0+ )
Ans: = 0A/ sec, = 20A/ sec, i() = 0A, v() = 12V
dt dt
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E.P 4.8
), () and ().

diL (0
+ ) dv (0+ )
In the circuit of Fig E.P. 4.8, calculate iL (0+ ),
C
in
, , vR ( vC iL
dt dt
n.
Ans: iL (0+ ) = 0 A,
diL (0+ )
dt
io
Figure E.P.4.8
= 0 A/ sec
ut
dvC (0+ )
= 2 V/ sec, vR () = 4V, vC () = 20V, iL () = 1A
dt
E.P 4.9
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 4.9. Assume that the switch was closed for a long time for
ol
+
diL (0 )
t < 0. Find and iL (0+ ). Take v (0+ ) = 8 V.
dt
us
vt
Figure E.P.4.9
diL (0+ )
Ans: iL (0+ ) = 4 A, = 0 A/ sec
dt
E.P 4.10
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 4.10. A steady state is reached with the switch K closed and
+
dv2 (0 )
with i = 10A. At t = 0, switch K is opened. Find v2 (0+ ) and .
dt
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in
n.
Figure E.P.4.10
dv2 (0+ ) 10Ra Rc

Ans: v2 (0+ ) = 0,
E.P 4.11
dt
=
io
Ca (Ra + Rb )(Ra + Rc )
V= sec.
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 4.11. The network is in steady state with switch K closed.
ut
+
dvk (0 )
The switch is opened at t = 0. Find vk (0+ ) and .
dt
ol
us
Figure E.P.4.11
Va Rc
Ans: vk (0+ ) = Volts,
Ra + R b + R c
vt
dvk (0+ ) Va (Ca + Cb )

= V/ sec
dt (Ra + Rb + Rc )(Ca Cd + Cb Ca + Cb Cd )
E.P 4.12
2 +
d i1 (0 )
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 4.12. Find .
dt2
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in
n.
Figure E.P.4.12

d2 i1 (0+ ) 1 10
Ans: 2
= 10 + 2 2 A/ sec2
dt Ra Ra Ca
E.P 4.13
io
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 4.13. Find
steady state at t = 0 .
di1 (0
dt
+)
. Assume that the circuit has attained
ut
ol
Figure E.P.4.13
di1 (0+ ) 10
Ans: = A/ sec
us
dt RA
E.P 4.14
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P.4.14. The circuit reaches steady state with switch K closed.
+
dv1 (0 )
2 +
d v2 (0 )
At a new reference time, t = 0, the switch K is opened. Find and 2
.
dt dt
vt
Figure E.P.4.14
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dv1 (0+ ) 10 d2 v2 (0+ ) 10Rb

Ans: = V/ sec, = V/ sec2
dt Ca (Ra + Rb ) dt2 La Ca (Ra + Rb )
in
E.P 4.15
The switch shown in Fig. E.P. 4.15 has been open for a long time before closing at t = 0. Find:
+ +
i0 (0 ), iL (0 ) i0 (0 ), iL (0 ), i0 ( ), iL ( ) and vL ( ).
n.
io
Figure E.P.4.15
ut
Ans: i(0 ) = 0, iL (0 ) = 160mA, i0 (0+ ) = 65mA, iL (0+ ) = 160mA,
i0 () = 225mA, iL () = 0, vL () = 0
E.P 4.16
ol
The switch shown in Fig. E.P. 4.16 has been closed for a long time before opeing at t = 0.
$
Find: i1 (0 ), i2 (0 ), i1 (0+ ), i2 (0+ ). Explain why i2 (0 ) = i2 (0+ ).
us
vt
Figure E.P.4.16
Ans: i1 (0 ) = i2 (0 ) = 0.2mA, i2 (0+ ) = i1 (0+ ) = 0.2mA
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E.P 4.17
The switch in the circuit of Fig E.P.4.17 is closed at t = 0 after being open for a long time. Find:
in
(a) i1 (0 ) and i2 (0 )
(b) i1 (0+ ) and i2 (0+ )
(c) Explain why i1 (0 ) = i1 (0+ )
$
(d) Explain why i2 (0 ) = i2 (0+ )
n.
io
ut
Figure E.P.4.17
Ans: i1 (0 ) = i2 (0 ) = 0.2 mA, i1 (0+ ) = 0.2 mA, i2 (0+ ) = 0.2mA

ol
us
vt
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Chapter
in
Laplace Transform
5
n.
5.1 Introduction
io
In this chapter, we will introduce Laplace transform. This is an extremely important technique.
ut
For a given set of initial conditions, it will give the total response of the circuit comprising of both
natural and forced responses in one operation. The idea of Laplace transform is analogous to any
familiar transform. For example, Logarithms are used to change a multiplication or division prob-
lem into a simpler addition or subtraction problem and Antilogs are used to carry out the inverse
process. This example points out the essential feature of a transform: They are designed to create
ol
a new domain to make mathematical manipulations easier. After evaluating the unknown in the
new domain, we use inverse transform to get the evaluated unknown in the original domain. The
Laplace transform enables the circuit analyst to convert the set of integrodifferential equations
describing a circuit to the complex frequency domain, where thay become a set of linear alge-
braic equations. Then using algebraic manipulations, one may solve for the variables of interest.
us
Finally, one uses the inverse transform to get the variable of interest in time domain. Also, in
this chapter, we express the impedance in s domain or complex frequency domain. Hence, we
may analyze a circuit using one of the reduction techniques such as Thevenin theorem or source
transformation discussed in earlier chapters.
5.2 Definition of Laplace transorm

vt
A transform is a change in the mathematical description of a physical variable to facilitate com-

putation. Keeping this definition in mind, Laplace transform of a function f (t) is defined as
Z1
Lff (t)g = F (s) = f (t)e st
dt (5.1)
0
Here the complex frequency is s = + j! . Since the argument of the exponent e in equation
(5.1) must be dimensionless, it follows that s has the dimensions of frequency and units of inverse
seconds (sec 1 ).
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The notation implies that once the integral has been evaluated, f (t), a time domain function
is transformed to F (s), a frequency domain function.
in
If the lower limit of integration in equation (5.1) is 1, then it is called the bilateral Laplace
transform. However for circuit applications, the lower limit is taken as zero and accordingly the
transform is unilateral in nature.
The lower limit of integration is sometimes chosen to be 0 to permit f (t) to include (t) or
its derivatives. Thus we should note immediately that the integration from 0 to 0+ is zero except
n.
when an impulse function or its derivatives are present at the origin.
Region of convergence
The Laplace transform of a signal f (t) as seen from equation (5.1) is an integral operation. It
Z1
exists if f (t)e t
io
is absolutely integrable. That is
0
f (t)e t
dt < 1. Cleary, only typical
choices of will make the integral converge. The range of that ensures the existence of X (s)
ut
defines the region of convergence (ROC) of the Laplace transform. As an example, let us take
x(t) = e3t , t 0. Then
Z1
( +j! )t
X (s) = x(t)e dt
ol
0
Z1
= e( +3)t
e j!t
dt
0
The above integral converges if and only if + 3 < 0 or > 3. Thus, > 3 defines the
us
ROC of X (s). Since, we shall deal only with causal signals(t 0) we avoid explicit mention of
ROC.
Due to the convergence factor, e t , a number of important functions have Laplace trans-
forms, even though Fourier transforms for these functions do not exist. But this does not mean
that every mathematical function has Laplace transform. The reader should be aware that, for
2
example, a function of the form et does not have Laplace transform.
vt
The inverse Laplace transform is defined by the relationship:

Z
+j 1
1
L 1
fF (s)g = f (t) =
2j
F (s)est ds (5.2)
j 1
where is real. The evaluation of integral in equation (5.2) is based on complex variable theory,
and hence we will avoid its use by developing a set of Laplace transform pairs.
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Laplace Transform j 331
5.3 Three important singularity functions
The three important singularity functions employed in circuit analysis are:
in
(i) unit step function, u(t)
(ii) delta function, (t)
(iii) ramp function, r (t).
n.
They are called singularity functions because they are either not finite or they do not possess
finite derivatives everywhere.
The mathematical definition of unit step function is

0; t<0
u(t) = (5.3)
1; t>0
The step function is not defined at t = 0. Thus,

the unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values
of t, and 1 for positive values of t. Often it is
advantageous to define the unit step function as
io
ut
follows:

1; t 0+
u(t) =
0; t0
Figure 5.1 The unit step function
ol
A discontinuity may occur at time other than
t = 0; for example, in sequential switching, the
unit step function that occurs at t = a is expressed
as u(t a).
us
Figure 5.2 The step function occuring at t = a Figure 5.3 The step function occuring at t = a
vt

0; t a < 0 or t < a
Thus; u(t a) =
1; t a > 0 or t > a
Similarly, the unit step function that occurs at t = a is expressed as u(t + a).

0; t + a < 0 or t < a
Thus; u(t + a) =
1; t + a > 0 or t > a
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We use step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the changes that
occur in the circuits of control engineering and digital systems. For example, the voltage
in

0; t<a
v (t) =
K; t>a
may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as
n.
v (t) = Ku(t a) (5.4)
The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function (t).
8
< 0; t<0
That is; (t) =
d
dt
u(t) =
:
io
undefined; t = 0
0; t>0
The unit impulse function also known as dirac delta fucntion is shown in Fig. 5.4.
(5.5)
ut
The unit impulse may be visualized as very short duration pulse of unit area. This may be
expressed mathematically as:
Z0+
(t)dt = 1 (5.6)
ol
0
where t = 0 denotes the time just before t = 0 and t = 0+ denotes

the time just after t = 0. Since the area under the unit impulse is unity,
it is a practice to write ‘1’ beside the arrow that is used to symbolize
us
the unit impulse function as shown in Fig. 5.4. When the impulse has
a strength other than unity, the area of the impulse function is equal
to its strength. For example, an impulse function 5 (t) has an area Figure 5.4 The circuit
of 5 units. Figure 5.5 shows impulse functions, 2 (t + 2), 5 (t) and impulse function
2 (t 3).
vt
Figure 5.5 Three impulse functions
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An important property of the unit impulse function is what is often called the sifting property;
which is exhibited by the following integral:
in
Zt2
f (t0 ); t1 < t0 < t2
f (t) (t t0 )dt =
0; t 1 > t0 > t2
t1
for a fintie t0 and any f (t) continuous at t0 .
n.
Integrating the unit step function results in the unit ramp function r (t).
Zt
r (t) = u( )d = tu(t) (5.7)

1
or
Figure 5.6 shows the ramp function.

r (t) =
0;
t;
io
t0
t0
ut
ol
Figure 5.6 The unit ramp function

us
In general, a ramp is a function that changes at a constant rate.

vt
Figure 5.7 The unit ramp function delayed by t0 Figure 5.8 The unit ramp function advanced by t0
A delayed ramp function is shown in Fig. 5.7. Mathematically, it is described as follows:

0; t t0
r (t t0 ) =
t t0 ; t t 0
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An advanced ramp function is shown in Fig. 5.8. Mathematically, it is described as follows:

0; t t0
in
r (t + t0 ) =
t + t0 ; t t0
It is very important to note that the three sigularity functions are related by differentiation as
du(t) dr (t)
n.
(t) = ; u(t) =
dt dt
or by integration as
Zt Zt
u (t ) = (t)dt; r (t) = u( )d
1 1
5.4 Functional transforms
io
A functional transform is simply the Laplace transform of a specified function of t. Here we make
ut
an assumption that f (t) is zero for t < 0.
5.4.1 Decaying exponential function

at
f (t) = e u(t), where a > 0 and u(t) is the unit step function.
ol
Z1
L e at
u(t) = F (s) = f (t)dt
0
Z1
us
at st
= e e dt
0
1
e (s+a)t

=
(s + a)
t=0
1
=
vt
s+a
5.4.2 Unit step function
f (t) = u(t)
Z1
1
Lfu(t)g = F (s) = e st
dt =
s
0
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5.4.3 Impulse function
in
f (t) = (t)
Z1
Lf (t)g = F (s) = (t)e st
dt = e st
t=0
=1
0
n.
Please note that we have used the sifting property of an impulse function.
5.4.4 Sinusoidal function
and
Since sin !t =
2j
Lfe at g = s +1 a io
f (t) = sin !t;
1
ej!t
t0
e j!t

ut
Z1
we have Lfsin !tg = F (s) = 21j ej!t e j!t
e st
dt
0
1 1 1
=
ol
2j s j! s + j!
!
=
s2 + !2
Table 5.1 gives a list of important Laplace transform pairs. It includes the functions of most
interest in an introductory course on circuit applications.
us
Table 5.1 Important transform pairs

f (t)(t 0) F (s)
(t) 1
1
vt
u(t)
s
1
t
s2
at 1
e
s+a
!
sin !t
s2 + ! 2
s
cos !t
s + !2
2
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f (t)(t 0) F (s)
n!
tn
in
sn+1
at 1
te
(s + a)2
at !
e sin !t
(s + a)2 + ! 2
n.
at s+a
e cos !t
(s + a)2 + ! 2
All functions in the above table are represented without multiplied by u(t), since we have ex-
plicity declared that t 0.
5.5
io
Operational transforms (properties of Laplace transform)
Operational transforms indicate how mathematical operations performed on either f (t) or F (s)
ut
are converted into the opposite domain. Following operations are of primary interest.
Note: The symbol means “by the definition”.
5.5.1 Linearity
Lff1 (t)g = F1 (s) and Lff2 (t)g = F2 (s)

ol
If
then Lfa1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)g = a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s)
Proof :
Z1
us
Lfa1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)g [a1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)]e st

dt
0
Z1 Z1
st st
= a1 f1 (t)e dt + a2 f2 (t)e dt
0 0
= a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s)
vt
EXAMPLE 5.1
bt
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = (A + Be u(t)).
SOLUTION
We have the transform pair
Lfu(t)g = 1s
1
and Lfe bt
u(t)g =
s+b
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Thus, using linearity property,

Lff (t)g = F (s) = LfAu(t)g + LfBe bt
u(t)g
in
A B
= +
s s+b
(A + B)s + Ab
=
s(s + b)
n.
5.5.2 Time shifting
If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then for any real number t0 ,

Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g = e t0 s
X (s)
Proof :
Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g
Z1
0

io
x(t t0 )u(t t0 )e st
dt
ut
1; t t0 > 0 or t > t0
Since; u(t t0 ) =
0; t t0 < 0 or t < t0
Z1
we get; Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g = x(t t0 )e st
dt
ol
t0
Using the transformation of variable,

t = + t0
Z1
Lfx(t
us
s( +t0 )
we get; t0 )u(t t0 )g = x( )e d
0
Z1
t0 s s
=e x( )e d
0
t0 s
=e X (s)
vt
EXAMPLE 5.2
Find the Laplace transform of x(t), shown in Fig. 5.9.
Figure 5.9
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SOLUTION
in
n.
Figure 5.10(a)
io
Figure 5.10(b)
ut
Using Figs. 5.10(a) and 5.10(b), we can write
x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) = u(t 2) u(t 4)

1
We know that, Lfu(t)g =
ol
and using time shifting property, we have
s
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 1s e 2s 1
s
e 4s
1
X(s) = (e 2s 4s
)
us
e
s
5.5.3 Shifting in s domain (Frequency-domain shifting)
If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then

Lfes t x(t)g = X (s
0
s0 )
Proof :
vt
Z1
Lfe s0 t
x(t)g es0 t x(t)e st
dt
0
Z1
(s s0 )t
= x(t)e dt
0
= X (s s0 )
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EXAMPLE 5.3
at
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = Ae cos(!0 t + )u(t).
in
SOLUTION
at
Given x(t) = Ae cos(!0 t + )u(t)
at
= Ae [cos !0 t cos sin !0 t sin ]u(t)
n.
at at
= A cos e cos !0 tu(t) A sin e sin !0 tu(t)
We know the transform pairs,
s
Lfcos !0 tu(t)g =
and Lfsin !0 tu(t)g =
ios2
s2
+ !02
!0
+ !02
ut
Applying frequency shifting property, we get

s
L e at
cos !0 tu(t) = 2
s + !2 0 s !s +a
s+a
=
ol
(s + a)2 + !02

!0
and L e at
sin !0 tu(t) = 2
s + !2 0 s !s +a
!0
=
(s + a)2 + !02
us
Finally, applying linearity property, we get
LfAe at
cos(!0 t + )u(t)g = A cos Lfe at cos !0 tu(t)g A sin Lfe at
sin !0 tu(t)g
A cos (s + a) !0
= 2 A sin
2
(s + a) + !0 (s + a)2 + !02
vt
A[(s + a) cos θ ω0 sin θ]

=
(s + a)2 + ω02
5.5.4 Time scaling

s
Lfx(at)g = a1 X a
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Proof :
Z1
Lfx(at)g x(at)e st
dt
in
0
put at =
) adt = d
Z1
n.
1
Hence Lfx(at)g = x( )e s τa
a
d
0
Z1 s
1 s
1
= x( )e a d = X
a a a
0
EXAMPLE 5.4
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = sin(2!0 t)u(t).
SOLUTION
io
ut
We know the transform pair,
!0
Lfsin !0 tu(t)g =
s2 + !02
Applying scaling property,
2 3
ol
Lfsin 2!0 tu(t)g = 12 64 s !2 0 7

5
+ !02
2
2ω0
= 2
us
s + 4ω02
5.5.5 Time differentiation

dx(t)
L dt
= sX (s) x(0)
vt
Proof :
dx(t)
Let y (t) =
dt
Z1
Then Lfy(t)g = Y (s) y (t)e st
dt
0
Z1
dx(t) st
= e dt
dt
0
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Integrating by parts yields
Z1
in
1
Y (s) = e st x(t)0 x(t)( se st
)dt
0
Z1
st st
= lim [e x(t)] x(0) + s x(t)e dt
!1
n.
t
0
=0 x(0) + sX (s)

dx(t)
Hence; L dt
= Y (s) = sX (s) x(0)
io
Therefore, differentiation in time domain is equivalent to multiplication by s in the s domain.
Whenever x(t) is discontinuous at t = 0 (like a step function), then x(0) should be read as
ut
x(0 ).
The differentiation property can be extended to yield

dn x(t)
L dtn
= sn X (s) sn 1
x(0) xn 1
(0)
ol
When x(t) is discontinuous at the origin, the argument 0 on the right side of the above equation
should be read as 0 . Accordingly for a discontinuous function x(t) at the origin, we get

us
dn x(t)
L dtn
= sn X (s) sn 1
x(0 ) xn 1
(0 )
EXAMPLE 5.5
vt
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = sin2 !0 tu(t).
SOLUTION
We find that, x(0) = 0
dx(t)
= 2!0 sin !0 t cos !0 tu(t)
dt
= !0 sin 2!0 tu(t) (5.8)
We know that, Lfsin !0 tu(t)g = 2 !0 2
s + !0
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Applying time scaling property,

2 3
in
Lfsin 2!0 tu(t)g = 12 64 s !2 0 7
5
+ !02
2
2!0
=
s2 + 2(!0 )2
n.
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of equation (5.8), we get

dx(t)
L dt
= !0 Lfsin !0 tu(t)g
2!02
)

sX (s)
X(s) =
io
x(0) =
s2 + (2!0 )2
2ω02
s[s2 + (2ω0 )2 ]
ut
EXAMPLE 5.6
Solve the second order linear differential equation
0
y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y (t) = x(t)
with the initial conditions, y (0) = 2, y 0 (0) = 1 and x(t) = e t u(t).

ol
SOLUTION
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of the given differential equation, we get
2 0
s Y (s) sy (0) y (0) + 5 jsY (s) y (0)j + 6Y (s) = X (s)
us
1
where X (s) = Lfe t u(t)g =
s+1
Substituting the initial conditions, we get
1
(s2 + 5s + 6)Y (s) = + 2s + 11
s+1
2s2 + 13s + 12
vt
) Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
Using partial fraction expansion, we get

1 1 1 9 1
Y (s) = +6
2 s+1 s+2 2 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
1 t 9
y(t) = e + 6e 2t
e 3t
, t0
2 2
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5.5.6 Integration in time domain
For a causal signal x(t),
in
Zt
If y (t) = x( )d;
0
Lfy(t)g = Y (s) = Xs(s)
n.
then
Proof :
Z1
LBx(t)C = X(s) x(t)e st dt
Dividing both sides by s yields
X (s)
=
Z1
x(t)
io
0
e st
dt
ut
s s
0
Integrating the right-hand side by parts, we get

1
Z1
X (s) e ts e ts
y (t) y (t) ( s)dt
ol
=
s s t=0 s
0
1 Z1
X (s) e st st
= y (t) + y (t)e dt
s s t=0
0
us
The first term on the right-hand side evaluates to zero at both limits, because
Z0
e 1=0 and y (0) = x( )d = 0
0
X (s)
vt
Hence; Y (s) =
s
Thus, integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in the s domain.
EXAMPLE 5.7
Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 5.11. The input is the rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 5.12.
Find i(t) by assuming circuit is initially relaxed.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
SOLUTION
Applying KVL to the circuit represented by Fig. 5.11, we get
Zt
1
)
Ri(t) +
Ri(t) +
C
1
C
0
Zt
io
i( )d = v (t)
i( )d = Vo [u(t a) u(t b)]

ut
0
Taking Laplace transforms on both the sides, we get

1 Vo
RI(s) + I(s) =(e as e bs )
Cs s
Vo
ol
) I(s) = R (e as e bs
)
1
s+
RC
We know the transform pair,
us
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
and then using the time-shift property, we can find inverse of I(s).

Vo vo
u(t)
t t
That is; i(t) = e e u(t)
!t
RC RC
R !t R
vt
t a t b
Vo h (ta) (t b)
i
) i(t) = e RC u(t a) e RC u(t b)
R
5.5.7 Differentiation in the s domain
For a signal x(t), t 0, we have

dX (s)
Lf tx(t)g =
ds
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Proof :
For a causal signal, x(t), the Laplace transform is given by
Z1
in
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = x(t)e st
dt
0
Differentiating both the sides with respect to s, we get
n.
Z1
dX (s) st
= x(t)( te )dt
ds
0
Z1
dX (s)
Hence;
)
Lf
ds
=
tx(t)g =
0
dX (s)
ds
n
io
[ tx(t)]e st
or Lftx(t)g =
Lftn x(t)g = ( 1)n d ds

X (s)
dt
dX (s)
ds
ut
In general; n
EXAMPLE 5.8
Find the Laplace transform of x1 (t) = te 3t u(t).
ol
SOLUTION
We know that,
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
1
us
Hence Lfe 3t
u(t)g =
s+3
Using the differentiation in s domain property,

Lfx1 (t)g = X1 (s) = dsd s +1 3
1
vt
=
(s + 3)2
5.5.8 Convolution
If Lfx(t)g = X (s)
and Lfh(t)g = H (s)
then Lfx(t) h(t)g = X (s)H (s)
where indicates the convolution operator.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Proof :
Z1
x(t) h(t) = x( )h(t )d
in
1
Since x(t) and h(t) are causal signals, the convolution in this case reduces to
Z1
n.
x(t) h(t) = x( )h(t )d
0
2 3
Z1 Z1
Hence; Lfx(t) h(t)g = 4 x( )h(t )d 5 e st
dt
0 0
Interchanging the order of integrals, we get
Lfx(t) h(t)g =
Z1
io
x( ) 4
2
Z1
h(t )e st
3
dt5 d
ut
0 0
Using the change of variable = t in the inner integral, we get

2 3
Z1 Z1
Lfx(t) h(t)g = x( )e s 4 h()e s
d5 d
ol
0 0
= X (s)H (s)
Please note that this theorem reduces the complexity of evaluating the convolution integral to
us
a simple multiplication.
EXAMPLE 5.9
Find the convolution of h(t) = e t
and f (t) = e 2t .
SOLUTION
h(t) f (t) = L
1
vt
fH (s)F (s)g
1

1 1
=L
1
s+1 s+2

1 1
=L
1
+
s+1 s+2
=e t e 2t , t0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

EXAMPLE 5.10
Find the convolution of two indentical rectangular pulses. Each rectangular pulse has unit ampli-
in
tude and duration equal to 2T seconds. Also, the pulse is centered at t = T .
SOLUTION
Let the pulse be as shown in Fig. 5.13.
From the Fig. 5.13, we can write
n.
x(t) = u(t) u(t 2T )
Taking Laplace transform, we get T

T
1 1 2T s
X (s) = e Figure 5.13
Let
Then;
1
= (1
s
s s
e 2T s )
y (t) = x(t) x(t)
Y (s) = X 2 (s)
io
ut

2T s 2
1 e
=
s
1 2 2T s 1 4T s
) Y (s) = e + e
s2 s2 s2
ol
y (t) = tu(t) 2(t 2T )u(t 2T ) + (t 4T )u(t 4T )

= r (t) 2r (t 2T ) + r (t 4T )
y(t) = x(t) x(t)
us
5.5.9 Initial-value theorem Figure 5.14
The initial-value theorem allows us to find the initial value x(0)

directly from its Laplace transform X (s).
If x(t) is a causal signal,
vt
then; x(0) = lim sX (s)

s !1 (5.9)
Proof :
To prove this theorem, we use the time differentiation property.
Z1
dx(t) dx
L dt
= sX (s) x(0) =
dt
e st
dt (5.10)
0
The problems with are better understood after the inverse Laplace transforms are studied.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
If we let s ! 1, then the integral on the right side of equation (5.10) vanishes due to damping
factor, e st .
in
Thus; lim [sX (s) x(0)] = 0
s !1
) x(0) = lim sX (s)
s !1
EXAMPLE 5.11
n.
Find the initial value of
s+1
F (s) =
(s + 1)2 + 32
SOLUTION
s+1
f (0) = lim sX (s) = lim s
!1 !1
s
= lim
s
io
s2 + s
!1 (s + 1) 2 + 32
s2 1 +
s
1
(s + 1)2 + 32
ut
s
=1
= lim
s !1 s2 1+
2
+
10
s s2
We know the transform pair:
s+b
ol
Lfe bt
cos atg =
(s + b)2 + a2
Hence, inverse Laplace transform of F (s) yields
f (t) = e t cos 3t
us
At t = 0, we get f (0) = 1.
This verifies the theorem.
5.5.10 Final-value theorem
The final-value theorem allows us to find the final value x(1) directly from its Laplace transform
X (s).
vt
If x(t) is a causal signal,

lim x(t) = lim sX (s)
then
t !1 s !0
Proof :
dx(t)
The Laplace transform of is given by
dt
Z1
dx(t) st
sX (s) x(0) = e dt
dt
0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Taking the limit s ! 0 on both the sides, we get

Z1
in
dx(t) st
lim [sX (s) x(0)] = lim e dt
s !0 s!0 dt
0
Z1
dx(t) h st
i
lim e dt
=
dt s 0!
n.
0
Z1
dx(t)
= dt
dt
= x(t)j1
0
Since;
we get;
lim [sX (s)
s !0
x(1) io
= x(1)
x(0)] = lim [sX (s)]
!0
s
x(0) = lim [sX (s)
s !0
x(0)
x(0)
x(0)]
ut
Hence; x(1) = lim [sX (s)]
s !0
This proves the final value theorem.

The final value theorem may be applied if, and only if, all the poles of X (s) have a real part
that is negative.
ol
The final value theorem is very useful since we can find x(1) from X (s). However, one
must be careful in using final value theorem since the function x(t) may not have a final value
a
as t ! 1. For example, consider x(t) = sin at having X (s) = 2 . Now we know
s + a2
lim sin at does not exit. However, if we uncarefully use the final value theorem in this case, we
t!1
us
would obtain:
a
lim sX (s) = lim s 2
s !0 s !0 s + a 2
=0
Note that the actual function x(t) does not have a limiting value as t ! 1. The final value
theorem has failed because the poles of X (s) lie on the j! axis. Therefore, we conclude that for
final value theorem to give a valid result, poles of X (s) should not lie to right side of the s-plane
vt
or on the j! axis.
EXAMPLE 5.12
Find the final value of
10
X (s) =
(s + 1)2 + 102
Consider a function, X(s) =

P (s)
. The roots of the denomoniator polymial, Q(s) are called poles () and the
Q(s)
roots of the numerator polynomial, P (s) are called zeros (O).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
lim x(t) = x(1)

!1
in
t
s10
= lim [sX (s)] = lim
s !0 s !0 (s + 1)2 + 102 = 0
We know the Laplace transform pair
n.
b
L e at
sin bt =
(s + a)2 + b2
x(t) = L
1
Hence; fX (s)g

10
=L
1 t
=e sin 10t
Thus; x (1 ) = 0
io
This verifies the result obtained from final-value theorem.
(s + 1)2 + 102
ut
5.5.11 Time periodicity
Let us consider a function x(t) that is periodic as

shown in Fig. 5.15. The function x(t) can be
represented as the sum of time-shifted functions
ol
us
vt
Figure 5.15 A periodic function Figure 5.16 Decomposition of periodic function
Hence; x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) + x3 (t) +

= x1 (t) + x1 (t T )u(t T ) + x1 (t 2T )u(t 2T ) + (5.11)
where x1 (t) is the waveform described over the first period of x(t). That is, x1 (t) is the same as
the function x(t) gated over the interval 0 < t < T .
gating means the function x(t) is multiplied by 1 over the interval 0 t T and elsewhere by 0.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of equation (5.11) with the time-shift property
applied, we get
in
Ts 2T s
X (s) = X1 (s) + X1 (s)e + X1 (s)e +
Ts 2T s
) X (s) = X1 (s)(1 + e +e + )
1
But 1 + a + a2 + = ; jaj < 1
1 a

n.
1
Hence, we get X (s) = X1 (s) Ts
(5.12)
1 e
In equation (5.12), X1 (s) is the Laplace transform of x(t) defined over first period only.
Hence, we have shown that the Laplace transform of a periodic function is the Laplace transform
evaluated over its first period divided by 1 e T s .
EXAMPLE 5.13
io
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic signal x(t) shown in Fig. 5.17.
ut
ol
Figure 5.17
SOLUTION
us
From Fig. 5.17, we find that T = 2 Seconds.

The signal x(t) considered over one period is donoted as x1 (t) and shown in Fig. 5.18(a).
vt
Figure 5.18(a) Figure 5.18(b) Figure 5.18(c)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The signal x1 (t) may be viewed as the multiplication of xA (t) and g (t).
That is; x1 (t) = xA (t)g (t)
in
= [ t + 1][u(t) u(t 1)]
) x1 (t) = tu(t) + tu(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
= tu(t) + (t 1 + 1)u(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
n.
= tu(t) + (t 1)u(t 1) + u(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
= u(t) tu(t) + (t 1)u(t 1)
= u(t) r (t) + r (t 1)
Taking Laplace Transform, we get
X1 (s) =
=
1
s
s
io
1+e
1
s2
s2
+
1
s2
s
e s
ut
X1 (s) (s 1 + e s )
Hence; X(s) = sT = 2
1 e s (1 e 2s )
5.6 Inverse Laplace transform

ol
The inverse Laplace transform of X (s) is defined by an integral operation with respect to variable
s as follows:
Z
+j 1
1
x(t) = X (s)est ds (5.13)
us
2
j 1
Since s is complex, the solution requries a knowledge of complex variables. In otherwords,
the evaluation of integral in equation (5.13) requires the use of contour integration in the complex
plane, which is very difficult. Hence, we will avoid using equation (5.13) to compute inverse
Laplace transform.
vt
In many situations, the Laplace transform can be expressed in the form
P (s)
X (s) = (5.14)
Q(s)
m 1
where P (s) = bm sm + bm 1s + + b1 s + b0
n n 1
Q(s) = an s + an 1s + + a1 s + a0 ; an 6= 0
The function X (s) as defined by equation (5.14) is said to be rational function of s, since
it is a ratio of two polynomials. The denominator Q(s) can be factored into linear factors.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
P (s)
A partial fraction expansion allows a strictly proper rational function to be expressed as a
Q(s)
factor of terms whose numerators are constants and whose denominator corresponds to linear or
in
a combination of linear and repeated factors. This in turn allows us to relate such terms to their
corresponding inverse transform.
For performing partial fraction technique on X (s), the function X (s) has to meet the follow-
ing conditions:
n.
(i) X (s) must be a proper fraction. That is, m < n. When X (s) is improper, we can use long
division to reduce it to proper fraction.
(ii) Q(s) should be in the factored form.
EXAMPLE 5.14
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
X (s) = io
2s + 4
s2 + 4s + 3
ut
SOLUTION
2s + 4
X (s) =
s2
+ 4s + 3
2(s + 2) K1 K2
= = +
ol
(s + 1)(s + 3) s+1 s+3
where; K1 = (s + 1)X (s)js= 1

2(s + 2)
= =1
(s + 3) s= 1
us
K2 = (s + 3)X (s)js= 3

2(s + 2)
= =1
(s + 1) s= 3
1 1
Hence; X (s) = +
s+1 s+3
1
We know that: Lfe u(t)g = s +
t
vt
Therefore; x(t) = [e t + e 3t ]u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.15
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s2 + 2s + 5
X (s) =
(s + 3)(s + 5)2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
in
K1 K2 K3
Let X (s) = + +
s+3 s+5 (s + 5)2
where K1 = (s + 3)X (s)js= 3

s2 + 2s + 5
= =2
(s + 5)2 s=
n.
3

1 d
K2 = [(s + 5)2 X (s)]
1! ds s=
5

d s2
+ 2s + 5
=
ds s+3
=
2
io
s + 6s + 1

(s + 3)2 s= 5

s2 + 2s + 5

K3 = (s + 5 )2 X (s)s= 5
s= 5
= 1
ut
= = 10
(s + 3) s= 5
2 1 10
Then X (s) =
s+3 s+5 (s + 5)2
ol
3t 5t 5t
x(t) = 2e e 10te ; t0
or x(t) = (2e 3t e 5t 10te 5t )u(t)
us
R.P 5.1
Find the Laplace transform of: (a) cosh(at) (b) sinh(at)
vt
SOLUTION
1
(a) cosh(at) = [eat + e at ]
2
We know the Laplace transform pair:
1
Lfe at
g=
s+a
1
and Lfeat g = s a
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying linearity property, we get,
Lfcosh(at)g = 21 Lfeat g + 12 Lfe at

g
in

1 1 1
= +
2 s a s+a
s
=
s2 a2
n.
1
(b) sinh at = [eat e at ]
2
Applying linearity property,

Lfsinh(at)g = 21 s 1 a 1
R.P 5.2
= 2
s
a
a2
io s+a
ut
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = cos(!t + ).
SOLUTION
Given f (t) = cos(!t + )

ol
= cos cos !t sin sin !t
Applying linearity property, we get,
Lff (t)g = F (s)
= cos Lfcos !tg sin Lfsin !tg
us
s !
= cos sin
s2 + !2 s2 + !2
s cos θ ω sin θ
=
s2 + ω 2
R.P 5.3
vt
Find the Laplace transform of each of the following functions:
(a) x(t) = t2 cos(2t + 30 )u(t)

d
(b) x(t) = 2tu(t) 4 (t)
dt

t
(c) x(t) = 5u
3
t
(d) x(t) = 5e 2 u(t)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
(a) Let us first find the Laplace transform of cos(2t + 30 )u(t)
in
L fcos(2t + 30 )u(t)g = L fcos 30 cos 2tu(t) sin 30 sin 2tu(t)g
= cos 30 Lfcos 2tu(t)g sin 30 Lfsin 2tu(t)g

= cos 30
s
sin 30 2
s2 s2 + 4
n.
+4
s cos 30 2 sin 30
=
s2 + 4
The Laplace transform of x(t) is now found by using differentiation in s domain property.
L

t2 cos(2t + 30 ) =
d2
2
ds
L
d2 s cos 30
= 2
ds
2p
io
fcos(2t + 30 )u(t)g

2 sin 30
s2 + 4
3

ut
3
d2 6 s 17
= 26 2 7
ds 4 s2 + 4 5
2p 3
3
ol
d d 6 s 17
= 6 2 7
ds ds 4 s2 + 4 5
" p ! #
d d 3 1
s2 + 4
us
= s 1
ds ds 2
" p ! p ! #
d 3 2 1 3 2
= s +4 2s s 1 s2 + 4
ds 2 2
p !
p p p 3
3 3 3 8s2 s 1
( 2s) s 1 2s 2
vt
= 2 2 2 2 +
(s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)3
F F
8 12 3s 6s2 + 3s2
=
(s2 + 4)3
d
(b) x(t) = 2tu(t) 4 (t)
dt

d
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 2Lftu(t)g 4L
dt
(t)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

d
We know that whenever a function f (t) is discontinuous at the origin, we have L f (t)
dt
= sF (s) f (0 ). Applying this relation to the second term on the right side of the above
in
equation, we get
1
X (s) = 2 4[s 1 (0 )]
s2
2
n.
= 4[s 0]
s2
2
= 4s
s2

t
(c) x(t) = 5u
we get;
3
Using scaling property,
Lff (at)g = a1 F
s
io
a
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 5 11=3 Lfu(t)g
ut
s ! s
1
3
1 1
=5
1=3 s s ! s
1
3
5
ol
=
s
t
(d) x(t) = 5e 2 u(t)
We know the Laplace transform pair:
us
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
n o
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 5L
1
t
Hence; e 2 u(t)
1 10
=5 =
1 2s + 1
s+
2
vt
R.P 5.4
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:
(a) x(t) = t cos at

1
(b) x(t) = sin at sinh(at)
2a2
sin2 !t
(c) x(t) =
t
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
(a) x(t) = t cos at
in
d
We know that Lftf (t)g = ds
F (s)
Let f (t) = cos at
s
) F (s) = 2
s + a2
n.

d s
Hence Lft cos atg = Lftf (t)g = ds s2 + a2
s2 a2
=
(s2 + a2 )2
(b) x(t) =
=
1
2a2
1
2a2

1 at io
sin at sinh at
e sin at
1
e at
sin at

ut
2 2
1
= 2 eat sin at e at
sin at
4a
We know the shifting in s domain property:
ol
Lfes t f (t)g = F (s)js!(s
0
s0 )
Applying this property along with linearity property, we get
Lfx(t)g = X (s)
us
1
=
4a2
Lfeat sin atg Lfe at
sin atg

1 a
a
= 2
4a s2 + a2 s!s a s +a
2 2
s !s+a

1 a a
= 2
4a (s a)2 + a2 (s + a)2 + a2
vt
s
=
[(s a)2 + a2 ] [(s + a)2 + a2 ]
1
(c) x(t) = sin2 !t
t
Z1
We know that Lff (t)g = F (s) = f (t)e st
dt
0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Z1 Z1 Z1
st
Hence; F (s)ds = f (t) e dsdt
in
s 0 s
Z1 st
1
e
= f (t) dt
t s
0
Z1
n.
f (t) st
= e dt
t
0

f (t)
=L
t
f (t) = sin2 !t
In the present case;
=
=
j2

e
1 j!t 2
1 j!t
j2
e
ej 2!t 2 + e j 2!t io
ut
4
1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence; F (s) = +
4 s j 2! 2 s 4 s + j 2!
Hence,

ol
1
X (s) = L 2
sin !t
t

1
=L f (t)
t
Z1 Zx
us
F (s)ds = lim f (x)dx

=
x !1
s s

ln(x j 2! ) ln(s j 2! ) 2 ln x + 2 ln s + ln(x + j 2! ) ln(s + j 2! )
= lim
x !1 4
2
1 x2 + 4! 2 1 s + 4! 2
= ln + ln
vt
4

x2
x !1 4 s2
1 s2 + 4ω 2
= ln
4 s2
R.P 5.5
Consider the pulse shown in Fig. R.P. 5.5, where f (t) = e2t for 0 < t < T . Find F (s) for the
pulse.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure R.P. 5.5
SOLUTION
The discrete pulse f (t) could be imagined as the prod-
uct of signal x(t) and g (t) as shown in Fig. R.P. 5.5(a)
and (b) respectively.
That is; f (t) = x(t)g (t)

= e2t [u(t) u(t T )]
io
ut
2t 2t
= e u(t) e u(t T)
2t 2(t T +T )
= e u(t) e u(t T)
2t 2T 2(t T )
= e u(t) e e u(t T)
e2T e T s
Hence; Lff (t)g = F (s) = s 1 2
ol
s 2
T (s 2)
1 e
=
s 2 s 2
1 e T (s 2)
=
us
(s 2) Figure R.P. 5.5(a)
Alternate method:
Z1
Lff (t)g = F (s) f (t)e st
dt
0
vt
ZT
= e2t e st
dt
0
1 e T (s 2)
=
(s 2)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 5.6
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.6.
in
n.
Figure R.P. 5.6
SOLUTION
io
f (t) is a discrete pulse and can be expressed mathematically as:
ut
f (t) = x(t)g (t)
= sin t[u(t) u(t 1)]
= sin tu(t) sin tu(t 1)
= sin tu(t) sin[ (t 1 + 1)]u(t 1)
ol
) f (t) = sin tu(t) sin[ (t 1)] cos (t 1)
cos[ (t 1)] sin u(t 1)
= sin tu(t) + sin[ (t 1)]u(t 1)
e 1s
Hence; F (s) = Lff (t)g =
us
+ 2
s2 + 2 s + 2
π
= [1 + e s ]
s2 + π 2 Figure R.P. 5.6(a)
R.P 5.7
Determine the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.7.
vt
Figure R.P. 5.7
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
in
We can write,
f (t) = x(t)g (t)

5
=t [u(t) u(t 2)]
2
n.
5 5
= tu(t) tu(t 2)
2 2
5 5
= tu(t) (t 2 + 2)u(t 2)
2 2
5 5
= tu(t) (t 2)u(t 2) 5u(t 2)
2
Hence; Lff (t)g = F (s) =
5
2

5 1
2 s 2
= 2 [1 e 2s 2se 2s ]
2s

5 1
2 s 2
io
e 2s
5 2s
s
e
Figure R.P. 5.7(a)
ut
R.P 5.8
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.8.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 5.8
SOLUTION
vt
The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c, where m = slope of the line and c = intercept on
y -axis.
5
Hence, f (t) = t+5
3
When f (t) = 2, let us find t.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
5
That is; 2= t+5
3
) t = 4:2 Seconds
in
Mathematically,
f (t) = x(t)g (t)

5
= t + 5 [u(t) u(t 4:2)]
n.
3
5 5
= tu(t) + tu(t 4:2) + 5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
3 3
5 5
= tu(t) + (t 4:2 + 4:2)u(t 4:2)
3 3
+5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
=
=
3
5
5
5
tu(t) + (t 4:2)u(t 4:2) + 7u(t 4:2)
3
+5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
5
tu(t) + (t 4:2)u(t 4:2) + 2u(t 4:2) + 5u(t)
io Figure R.P. 5.8(a)
ut
3 3
Hence; F (s) = Lff (t)g
5 5 2 5
= 2 + 2 e 4:2s + e 4:2s
+
3s 3s s s
5 + 5e 4:2s + 6se 4:2s + 15s
ol
=
3s2
R.P 5.9
If f (0 ) = 3 and 15u(t) 4 (t) = 8f (t) + 6f 0 (t), find f (t) (hint: by taking the Laplace
transform of the differential equation, solving for F (s) and by inverting, find f (t)).
us
SOLUTION
Given, 15u(t) 4 (t) = 8f (t) + 6f 0 (t)
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides, we get
15
4 = 8F (s) + 6[sF (s) f (0 )]
s
vt
15
) 4 = 8F (s) + 6sF (s) + 18
s
15 4s
Therefore; F (s)(6s + 8) = 18 +
s
18 15 4s
) F (s) = +
(6s + 8) s(6s + 8)
22s + 15 K K2
= = 1+
4 s 4
6s s + s+
3 3
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The constants K1 and K2 are found using the theory of partial fractions.

22s + 15
in
K1 = = 1:875
4
6 s+
3 s=0

22s + 15
K2 =
6s 4 = 5:542
n.
s= 3
1:875 5:542
Hence; F (s) =
s 4
s+
h 3 i
4
t
Taking the inverse, we get f (t) = 1.875 5.542e 3 u(t)
R.P 5.10
io
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
(a) F (s) = 2
s+1
ut
s + 4s + 13
3e s
(b) F (s) =
s2 + 2s + 17
SOLUTION
ol
s+1
(a) F (s) =
(s + 2)2 + 9
(s + 2) 1
=
(s + 2)2 + 9
us
s+2 1
=
(s + 2)2 + 32 (s + 2)2 + 32
s+2 1 3
=
(s + 2)2 + 32 3 (s + 2)2 + 32
The determination of the Laplace inverse makes use of the following two Laplace transform
pairs:
vt
a
Lfe bt
sin atg =
(s + b)2 + a2
Lfe bt cos atg = (s +sb+)2 b+ a2
f (t) = L
1
Hence; fF (s)g
2t 1 2t
=e cos 3t e sin 3t
3
3e s
(b) F (s) =
s2 + 2s + 17
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
s
Let F (s) = e X (s)
3 3
where X (s) = =
in
s2
+ 2s + 17 (s + 1)2 + 42

3 4
=
4 (s + 1)2 + 42
3
) x(t) = e t sin 4t
n.
4
Since F (s) = e s X (s)
we get; f (t) = x(t
1)
3 (t 1)
Therefore; f (t) = e sin[4(t 1)]; t>1
4
3
4
io
f (t) = e (t 1) sin[4(t 1)]u(t 1)
Laplace transform method for solving a set of differential equations:
1. Identify the circuit variables such as inductor currents and capacitor voltages.
ut
2. Obtain the differential equations describing the circuit and keep a watch on the initial con-
ditions of the circuit variables.
3. Obtain the Laplace transform of the various differential equations.

ol
4. Using Cramer’s rule or a similar technique, solve for one or more of the unknown variables,
obtaining the solution in s domain.
5. Find the inverse transform of the unknown variables and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.
us
R.P 5.11
Referring to the RL circuit of Fig. R.P. 5.11, (a) write a differential equation for the inductor
current iL (t). (b) Find IL (s), the Laplace transform of iL (t). (c) Solve for iL (t).
vt
Figure R.P. 5.11
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
(a) Applying KVL clockwise, we get
in
diL
10iL (t) + 5 5u(t 2) = 0
dt
(b) Taking Laplace transform of the above equation, we get
5
10IL (s) + 5[sIL (s) iL (0 )] = e 2s
n.
s
5 2s
e + 5iL (0 )
) IL (s) = s
5s + 10
e 2s + 5 10 3s
=
where K1 =
=e
1

io
2s
s + 2 s=0
=
s(s + 2)

1
K1
s
+
K2
s+2
+

5 10 3 s
s(s + 2)
ut
2

1 1
K2 = =
s s= 2 2

1 2s 1 1 5 10 3
Hence; IL (s) = e +
2 s s+2 (s + 2)
ol
(c) Taking Inverse Laplace transform, we get
1
iL (t) = u(t) e 2t u(t) t!t 2 + 5 10 3 e 2t u(t)
2
1
u(t 2) e 2t u(t 2) + 5 10 3 e 2t u(t)
us
=
2
R.P 5.12
Obtain a single integrodifferential equation in terms of iC for the circuit of Fig. R.P. 5.12. Take
the Laplace transform, solve for IC (s), and then find iC (t) by making use of inverse transform.
vt
Figure R.P. 5.12
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Applying KVL clockwise to the right-mesh, we get
Z1
in
4u(t) + iC + 10 iC dt + 4[iC 0:5 (t)] = 0
0
Taking Laplace transform, we get
n.
1 10IC (s)
4 + IC (s) + + 4IC (s) 2=0
s s
2s 4
) IC (s) =
5s + 10

io2t u(t)
= 0.4
1.6
s+2
ut
iC (t) = 0.4δ(t) 1.6e Amps.
R.P 5.13
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.13. Find i(0) and i(1) using initial and final value theorems.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 5.13
SOLUTION
Applying KVL we get
di
vt
i+2 = 10
dt
Taking Laplace transform, on both the sides, we get
10
I (s) + 2[sI (s) i(0 )] =
s
10
) I (s) + 2[sI (s) 1] =
s
10
) I (s)[1 + 2s] = +2
s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
10 2
) I (s) = +
s(1 + 2s) 1 + 2s
10 + 2s
in
=
s(1 + 2s)
5+s
=
1
s s+
2
n.
According to initial value theorem,
i(0) = lim sI (s)
s !1
(s + 5)
= lim s
s!1
s!1
= lim
1+
1+
io
s s+
1
1
2
s =1
ut
2s
We know from fundamentals for an inductor, i(0+ ) = i(0 ) = i(0). Hence, i(0) found using
initial value theorem verifies the initial value of i(t) given in the problem.
From final value theorem,
ol
i(1) = lim sI (s)
s !0
s(s + 5) 5
= lim = = 10 A
s !0 1 1=2
s s+
2
us
R.P 5.14
Find i(t) and vC (t) for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.14 when vC (0) = 10 V and i(0) = 0 A. The
input source is vi = 15u(t) V. Choose R so that the roots of the characteristic equation are real.
vt
Figure R.P. 5.14
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
in
di
L + vC + Ri = vi (t) (5.15)
dt
The differential equation describing the variable vC is
n.
dvC
C =i (5.16)
dt
The Laplace transform of equation (5.15) is
L[sI (s) i(0) + VC (s) + RI (s) = Vi (s)] (5.17)
The Laplace transform of equation (5.16) is
C [sVC (s)
io
vC (0) = I (s)] (5.18)
ut
Noting that i(0) = 0, substituting for C and L and rearranging equation (5.17) and (5.18), we
get,
15
[R + s]I (s) + VC (s) = Vi (s) = (5.19)
s
1
ol
I (s) + sVC (s) = 5 (5.20)
2
2 3" # 2 15 3
R+s 1 I (s)
us
4 1 5 =4 s 5 (5.21)
1 s VC (s) 5
2
Solving for I (s) using Cramer’s rule, we get
5
I (s) =
s2 + Rs + 2
vt
The inverse Laplace transform of I (s) will depend on the value of R. The equation
s2 + Rs + 2 = 0 is defined as the characteristic equation. For the roots of this equation to
be real, it is essential that b2 4ac 0 .
This means that; R2 4120
p
) R2 2
The condition b2 4ac 0 is with respect to algebraic equaion ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Let us choose the value of R as 3

5 5
Then I (s) = =
in
s2 + 3s + 2 (s + 1)(s + 2)
K1 K2
) I (s) = +
s+1 s+2
5
where K1 = =5
s + 2 s =
n.
1

5
K2 = = 5
s + 1 s = 2
5 5
Hence; I (s) =
s+1 s+2
io
i(t) = 5e t u(t) 5e
Please note that t = 0 gives i(0) = 0 and t = 1 gives i(1) = 0.

2t u(t)
ut
Solving the matrix equation (5.21) for VC (s), using Cramer’s rule, we get
10s2 + 10Rs + 30
VC (s) =
s(s2 + Rs + 2)
Substituting the value of R, we get
ol
10(s2 + 3s + 3)
VC (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Using partial fraction expansion, we can write,
us
K1 K2 K3
VC (s) = + +
s s+1 s+2
where, K1 = 15, K2 = 10, K3 = 5
15 10 5
Hence; VC (s) = +
s s+1 s+2
vt
vC (t) = 15u(t) 10e t u(t) + 5e 2t u(t)
Verification:
Putting t = 0, we get
vC (0) = 15 10 + 5 = 10 V
vC (1) = 15 0 + 0 = 15 V
This checks the validity of results obtained.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 5.15
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.15, the steady state is reached with the 100 V source. At t = 0,
in
1
switch K is opened. What is the current through the inductor at t = seconds ?
2
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P. 5.15
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , the circuit is as shown in Fig. 5.15(a).
ol
i2 (0+ ) = i2 (0 ) = 2:5 A
us
vt
Figure R.P. 5.15(a) Figure R.P. 5.15(b)
For t 0+ , the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 5.15(b). Applying KVL clockwise to the
circuit, we get
di
80i(t) + 4 =0
dt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

80I (s) + 4[sI (s) i(0 )] = 0
in
) 80I (s) + 4sI (s) = 4 2:5
) [20 + s]I (s) = 2:5
2:5
I (s) =
s + 20
n.
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,
20t
i(t) = 2:5e
At t = 0:5 sec, we get
i(0.5) = 2.5e 10 = 1.135 10 4 A
R.P 5.16
io
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.16. Find:
(a) vo (t) for t 0
ut
(b) io (t) for t 0
(c) Does your solution for io (t) make sense when t = 0? Explain.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 5.16
SOLUTION
vt
Figure R.P. 5.16(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
KCL at node A: (for t 0)

Zt
in
1 vo dvo
Idc = vo dt + +C
L R dt
0
Taking Laplace transform,
n.
Idc Vo (s) Vo (s)
= + + sCVo (s)
s sL R
Idc
Hence; Vo (s) = C
1 1
s2 + s+
Vo (s) =
RC
s2 + 10; 000s + 16 106

= io
Substituting the values of Idc , R, L, and C , we find that
120; 000
LC
120; 000
(s + 2000)(s + 8000)
ut
Using partial fractions, we get
K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s + 2000 s + 8000
where K1 = 20, and K2 =
ol
20
20 20
Hence; Vo (s) =
s + 2000 s + 8000
us
vo (t) = 20e 2000t u(t) 20e 8000t u(t)
dvo
(b) io (t) = C
dt
Hence Io (s) = C [sVo (s) vo (0)]
vt
For t 0 , since the switch was in closed state, the circuit was not activated by the source.
This means that vo (0) = vo (0 ) = vo (0+ ) = 0 and iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 0:
Then; Io (s) = CsVo (s)

25 10 9 s 120; 000
=
s2 + 10; 000s + 16 106
3 10 3 s
=
(s + 2000)(s + 8000)
K1 K2
= +
s + 2000 s + 8000
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
We find that, K1 = 10 3, and K2 = 4 10 3
10 3 4 10 3
in
Therefore; Io (s) = +
s + 2000 s + 8000
io (t) = 4e 8000t u(t) e 2000t u(t)mA
n.
(c) io (0+ ) = 4 1 = 3mA

Yes. The initial inductor current is zero by hypothesis iL (0+ ) = IL (0 ) = 0 . Also, the initial
resistor current is zero because vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0. Thus at t = 0+ , the source current
appears in the capacitor.
R.P 5.17 io
ut
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.17. The circuit parameters are R = 10kΩ, L = 800 mH
and C = 100nF, if Vdc = 70V, find:
(a) vo (t) for t 0
(b) io (t) for t 0

ol
(c) Use initial and final value theorems to check the inital and final values of current and
voltage.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 5.17
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch is open and at t = 0+ , the switch is closed. Since at t = 0 , the circuit is not
energized by dc source, io (0 ) = 0 and vo (0 ) = 0. Then by the hypothesis, that the current in
an inductor and voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
io (0+ ) = io (0 ) = 0 and vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The KCL equation when the switch is closed (for t 0+ ) is given by

Zt
in
dvo vo 1
C + + (vo Vdc )d = 0
dt R L
0
Zt Zt
dvo vo 1 1
) C + + vo d = Vdc d
dt R L L
n.
0 0
Zt
dvo vo 1 1
) C + + vo d = Vdc t
dt R L L
0
Laplace transform of the above equation gives
C [sVo (s) vo (0)] +
Since vo (0) is same as vo (0 ), we get

Vo (s)
R
+
io
1 Vo (s)
L s
=
1 Vdc
L s2
ut
Vo (s) 1 Vo (s) Vdc
CsVo (s) + + =
R L s Ls2
Vdc
) Vo (s) = LC
1 1
ol
s s2 + s+
RC LC
Substituting the values of Vdc , R, L, and C , we get
875 106
Vo (s) =
us
s [s2 + 1000s + 1250 104 ]

875 106
=
s(s s1 )(s s2 )
p
where s1 ; s 2 = 500 25 104 1250 104
= 500 j 3500
875 106
vt
Hence; Vo (s) =
s(s + 500) j 3500)(s + 500 + j 3500)
K1 K2 K2
Vo (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
875 106
We find that K1 = = 70
125 105
875 106
K2 =
( 500 + j 3500)(j 7000)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
= 5 50 /171:87
p
in
5 50 /171:87 5 50 / 171:87
p p
70
Vo (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
n.
h i
p
vo (t) = 70 + 5 50 /171:87 e (500 j 3500)t
+ 5 50 / 171:87 e
p (500+j 3500)t
u(t)
The inverse of Vo (s) can be expressed in a better form by following the technique described
below:
Let us consider a transformed function
F (s) =
C + jd
s + a j!
m /
+
io C jd
s + a + j!
m/
ut
= +
s + a j! s + a + j!
p
1 d
where m= c2 + d2 and = tan
c
The inverse transform of F (s) is given by

ol
at
f (t) = 2me cos(!t + )u(t)
(For the proof see R.P. 5.19)

us
In the present context,

p
m = 5 50; = 171:87
! = 3500 and a = 500
( p )
5 50 /171:87 5 50 / 171:87
p
This means that, L 1
s + 500 j 3500
+
s + 500 + j 3500
vt
= 2 5 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171:87 )

p
= 10 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171:87 )

p
F
Hence; vo (t) = 70 + 10 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171.87 ) u(t)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
vo dvo
(b) io (t) = +C
R dt
Taking Laplace transforms on both the sides, we get
in
Vo (s)
Io (s) = + C sVo (s) vo (0 )
R
Vo (s)
) Io (s) = + CsVo (s)
R
n.

1
) Io (s) = CVo (s) s +
RC
2 3
1
Vdc 6 s+ 7
= 6 RC 7
4 5
L
Substituting the values of Vdc , R, L, and C , we get

io
s s2 +
87:5(s + 1000)
RC
1
s+
1
LC
ut
Io (s) =
s(s + 500 j 3500)(s + 500 + j 3500)
K1 K2 K2
= + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
We find that,
ol
87:5 1000
K1 = = 7mA
1250 104
87:5(500 + j 3500)
K2 =
( 500 + j 3500)(j 7000)
= 12:5 / 106:26 mA
us
7 12:5 / 106:26 12:5 /106:26

Io (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
The inverse Laplace transform yields,

h i
(500 j 3500)t
+ 12:5 /106:26 e (500+j 3500)t
vt
io (t) = 7 + 12:5 / 106:26 e u(t)

= 7 + 25e 500t cos(3500t 106.26 ) u(t)mA
Vdc
(c) Vo (s) = LC
1 1
s s2 + s+
RC LC
Vdc LC
vo (1) = lim vo (t) = lim sVo (s) =
From Final Value theorem:
t !1 LC s !0
= 70V
The same result may be obtained by putting t = 1 in the expression for vo (t).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
vo (0) = lim sVo (s)

From initial value theorem :
s !1
Vdc
6s
in
LC
= lim
s !1 6 ss2 + 1
s+
1

RC LC
=0
n.
This verifies our beginning analysis that vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0. The same result may be
obtained by putting t = 0 in the expression for vo (t).
1
s+
Vdc RC
We know that, Io (s) =
L 1 1
From final value theorem :

s s +
s
io
2
Io (1) = lim sIo (s)

!0
s+
RC

s+
LC
1

ut
Vdc RC
= lim 6 s
s !0 L
6s s2 +
1
s+
1
RC LC
1
Vdc RC
ol
=
L 1
LC
Vdc 70
= = = 7 mA
R 10 103
us
The same result may be obtained by putting t = 1 in the expression for io (t).
io (0) = lim sIo (s)

From initial value theorem :
s !1 2 3
1
s+
6 Vdc RC 7
= lim s 6 7
s!1 4 L 1 1 5
s s2 +
vt
s+
RC LC
=0
This agrees with our initial analysis that the initial current through the inductor is zero. The
same result can be obtained by putting t = 0 in the expression for io (t).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 5.18
Apply the initial and final value theorems to each of the functions given below:
in
s2 + 5s + 10 s2 + 5s + 10
(a) F (s) = (b) F (s) =
s+6 5(s2 + 6s + 8)
SOLUTION
Since in F (s) referred in (a) and (b) are improper 1 fractions, the corresponding time domain
n.
counterparts, f (t) contain impulses.
Thus, neither the initial value theorem nor the final value theorems may be applied to these
transformed functions.
R.P 5.19
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) =
SOLUTION
Expressing c + jd and c io
c + jd
s + a j!
jd in the exponenetial from, we get,

+
c jd
s + a + j!
ut
mej me j
F (s) = +
s + a j! s + a + j!
p
1 d
where m= c2 + d2 and = tan
c
ol
f (t) = L
1
Hence; fF (s)g
j (a j! )t j (a+j! )t
= me e u(t) + me e u(t)
at j ( +!t) at j ( +!t)
= me e u(t) + me e u(t)
" #
ej (+!t) + e j ( +!t)
us
at
= 2me u(t)
2
= 2me at cos(θ + ωt)u(t)
R.P 5.20
60
Find the initial and final values of f (t) when F (s) =
vt
s2 2s + 1
SOLUTION
Initial value theorem
f (0) = lim sF (s)

s !1
60
= lim s =0
s !1 s2 2s + 1
1
If the degree of the numerator polynomial is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator polynomial,
the fraction is said to be improper.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Final value theorem:

The poles of F (s) are given by finding the roots of the denominator polynomial. That is,
in
s2 2s + 1 = 0 ) (s 1)2 = 0 ) s = 1; 1
Since both the poles of F (s) lie to the right of the s plane, final value theorem cannot be used
to find f (1).
n.
R.P 5.21
Find i(t) for the circuit of Fig.R.P. 5.21, when i1 (t) = 7e 6t A for t 0 and i(0) = 0. Also find
i(1).
io
ut
Figure R.P. 5.21
ol
SOLUTION
Refer Fig. R.P. 5.21(a).

v1 6t
KCL at node v1 : + i = 7e
us
5
di
Also; v1 = 3i + 4
dt
1 di
Hence; 3i + 4 + i = 7e 6t
5 dt
4 di 8
) + i = 7e 6t Figure R.P. 5.21(a)
5 dt 5
vt
di 35
) + 2i = e 6t
dt 4
Taking Laplace transform of the differential equation, we get
35 1
[sI (s) i(0)] + 2I (s) =
4 s+6
35 1
) I (s) =
4 (s + 2)(s + 6)
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Using partial fraction expansion, we get

K1 K2
I (s) =
in
+
s+2 s+6
35 35
and find that K1 = and K2 =
16 16
35 1 35 1
Hence; I (s) =
16 s + 2 16 s + 6
n.
35 2t
i(t) =
16
e e 6t u(t)
5.7 Circuit element models and initial conditions
io
In the analysis of a circuit, the Laplace transform can be carried one step further by transforming
the circuit itself rather than the differential equation. Earlier we have seen how to represent a
circuit in time domain by differential equations and then use Laplace transform to transform the
differential equations into algebraic equations. In this section, we will see how we can represent
ut
a circuit in s domain using the Laplace transform and then analyze it using algebraic equations.
5.7.1 Resistor
The voltage-current relationship for a resistor R is given by Ohm’s law:

ol
v (t) = i(t)R (5.22)
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides, we get
V (s) = I (s)R (5.23)
us
Fig. 5.19 (a) shows the representation of a resistor in time domain and Fig. 5.19(b) in fre-
quency domain using Laplace transform.
vt
Figure 5.19(a) Resistor represented in Figure 5.19(b) Resistor represented in the

time domain frequency domain using Laplace transform
The impedance of an element is defined as

V (s)
Z (s) =
I (s)
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provided all initial conditions are zero. Please note that the impedance is a concept defined only
in frequency domain and not in time domain. In the case of a resistor, there is no initial condition
in
to be set to zero. Comparision of equations (5.22) and (5.23) reveals that, resistor R has same
representation in both time and frequency domains.
5.7.2 Capacitor
n.
For a capacitor with capacitance C , the time-domain voltage-current relationship is
Zt
1
v (t) = i( )d + v (0) (5.24a)
C
0
tion. That is,
1
io
The s domain characterization is obtained by taking the Laplace transform of the above equa-
v (0)
ut
V (s) = I (s) + (5.24b)
Cs s
To find the impedance of a capacitor, set the initial condition v (0) to zero. Then from equation
V (s) 1
(5.24b), we get Z (s) = = as the impedance of the capacitor. With the help of equation
I (s) Cs
ol
(5.24b), we can draw the frequency domain representation of a Capacitor and the same is shown
in Fig. 5.20(b). This equivalent circuit is drawn so that the KVL equation represented by equation
(5.24 b) is satisfied. Performing source transformation on the equivalent s domain circuit for a
capacitor which is shown in Fig. 5.20(b), we get an alternate frequency domain representation as
shown in Fig. 5.20(c).
us
vt
Figure 5.20(a) A capacitor represented in time domain

(b) A capacitor represented in the frequency domain
(c) Alternate frequency domain representation for a capacitor
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5.7.3 Inductor
For an inductor with inductance L, the time domain voltage-current relation is
in
di(t)
v (t) = L (5.25)
dt
The Laplace transform of equation (5.25) yields,
n.
V (s) = LsI (s) Li(0) (5.26)
To find impedance of an inductor, set the initial condition i(0) to zero. Then from equation
(5.26), we get
Z (s) =
V (s)
I (s)
io
= Ls
which represents the impedance of the inductor. Equation (5.26) is used to get the frequency
(5.27)
domain representation of an inductor and the same is shown in Fig. 5.21(b). The series connection
ut
of elements corresponds to sum of the voltages in equation (5.26). Converting the voltage source
in Fig.5.21(b) into an equivalent current source, we get an alternate representation for the inductor
in frequency domain which is as shown in Fig. 5.21(c).
To find the frequency domain representation of a circuit, we replace the time domain repre-
sentation of each element in the circuit by its frequency domain representation.
ol
us
vt
Figure 5.21(a) An inductor represented in time domain

(b) An inductor represented in the frequency domain
(c) An alternate frequency domain representation
To find the complete response of a circuit, we first get its frequency domain representation.
Next, using KV L or KCL, we find the variables of interest in s doamin. Finally, we use the
inverse Laplace transform to represent the variables of interest in time domain.
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EXAMPLE 5.16
Determine the voltage vC (t) and the current iC (t) for t 0 for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.22.
in
C
n.
Figure 5.22
SOLUTION
io
We shall analyze this circuit using nodal technique. Hence we represent the capacitor in frequency
domain by a parallel circuit since it is easier to account for current sources than voltage sources
while handling nodal equations.
ut
The symbol for switch indicates that at t = 0 it is closed and at t = 0+ , it is open. The
circuit at t = 0 is shown in Fig. 5.23(a). Let us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in steady
state. Under steady state condition, capacitor acts as on open circuit as shown in Fig. 5.23(a).
26 12 4
i1 (0 ) =
ol
= =
6+3 9 3
4
vC (0 ) = 3 = 4V
3
Hence; vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 4V
us
Fig. 5.23(b) represents the frequency

domain representation of the circuit
Figure 5.23(a)
shown in Fig. 5.22.
KCL at top node:
VC (s)
s 2
+ VC (s) = 2 +
vt
3 2 s
6 2
) VC (s) =
s 2
s+
3
Figure 5.23(b)
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Inverse Laplace transform yields

h 2
i
vC (t) = 6 2e 3
t u(t)V
in
2
VC (s) 3
Also; IC (s) = 2=
2 2
s+
s 3
n.
2
iC (t) =
3
e
2
3
t
u(t)A
EXAMPLE 5.17
Determine the current iL (t) for t 0 for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.24.
io
ut
ol
Figure 5.24
SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch is closed and at t = 0+ , it is open. Let
us
us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in steady state. In

steady state, capacitor is open and inductor is short. The
equivalent circuit at t = 0 is as shown in Fig. 5.25(a).
12
iL (0 ) = = 1A
8+4
vt
vC (0 ) = 1 8 = 8V
Therefore; iL (0) = iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 1A
vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 8V Figure 5.25(a)
For t 0+ , the circuit in frequency domain is as shown in Fig. 5.25(b). We will use KVL
to find iL (t). Hence, we use series circuits to represent both the capacitor and inductor in the
frequency domain. These series circuits contain voltage sources rather than current sources. It
is easier to account for voltage sources than current sources when writing mesh equations. This
justifies the selection of series representation for both the capacitor and inductor.
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Applying KVL clockwise to the right

mesh, we get
in
8 20
+ IL (s) + 4sIL (s) 4+8IL (s) = 0
s s
8 20
) +4= + 8 + 4s IL (s)
s s
n.
2+s (s + 1) + 1
) IL (s) = =
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 4

s+1 1 2 Figure 5.25(b)
) IL (s) = +
(s + 1)2 + 22 2 (s + 1)2 22
We know the Laplace transform pairs:
and
L

e at
s+a
cos bt =

(s + a)2 + b2
L e at sin bt = (s + ab)2 + b2io
ut

t cos 2t + 1 t
Hence; iL (t) = e e sin 2t u(t)A
2
EXAMPLE 5.18
ol
Find vo (t) of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.26.
us
vt
Figure 5.26
SOLUTION
The unit step function u(t) is defined as

follows:

1; t 0+
u(t) =
0; t 0
Figure 5.27(a)
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Since the circuit has two independent sources with u(t) associated with them, the circuit is not
energized for t 0 . Hence the initial current through the inductor is zero. That is, iL (0 ) = 0.
in
Since current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL (0) = iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 0
Also; vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 0
n.
The equivalent circuit for t 0+ in frequency domain is as shown in Fig. 5.27(b).
io
ut
Figure 5.27(b)
ol
KCL at supernode:
V1 (s) V2 (s) V2 (s) 2

+ + =
1 s 2 s
us
1+
2 s3

6
V1 (s) 4
1 7 1 1 2
15
) + V2 (s) + =
s 2 s
1+
s
s 2+s 2
) V1 (s) + V2 (s) =
s+1 2s s
vt
The constraint equation:

Applying KVL to the path comprising of current source ! voltage source ! inductor,
1
we get, V1 (s) + V2 (s) = 0
s+2
1
V2 (s) V1 (s) =
s+2
1
) V1 (s) V2 (s) =
s+2
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Putting the above two equations in matrix form, we get

2 3 2 3
s 2+s 2 3 2
in
V1 (s) 6 7
6 s+1
4 2s 7
54 5=6 s 7
4 1 5
1 1 V2 (s)
s+2
Solving for V2 (s) and then applying the principle of voltage division, we get
n.
1 2(3s2 + 6s + 4)
Vo (s) = V2 (s) =
2 2(s + 2)(3s2 + 3s + 2)

4
s2 + 2s +
3
) Vo (s) =
Using partial fractions, we can write
Vo (s) =
K1
s+2
+ io
(s + 2)(s + 0:5 j 0:646)(s + 0:5 + j 0:646)
K2
s + 0:5 j 0:646
+
K2
s + 0:5 + j 0:646

ut
We find that K1 = 0:5
K2 = 0:316 / 37:76
0:5 0:316 / 37:76 0:316 /37:76
Hence; Vo (s) = + +
s+2 s + 0:5 j 0:646 s + 0:5 + j 0:646

ol
1
We know that, L 1
s+a
=e at
u(t)

m / m/
L 1
s + a j!
+
s + a + j!
at
= 2me cos(!t + )u(t)
us
Hence, vo (t) = 0.5e 2t u(t) + 0.632e 0:5t cos [0.646t 37.76 ] u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.19
For the network shown in Fig. 5.28, find vo (t), t > 0, using mesh equations.
vt
Figure 5.28
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SOLUTION
The step function u(t) is defined as follows.
in

1; t 0+
u(t) =
0; t 0
Since the circuit is not energized for t 0 , there

are no initial conditions in the circuit. For t 0+ ,
n.
the frequency domain equivalent circuit is shown Figure 5.29(a)
in Fig. 5.29(b).
io
ut
Figure 5.29(b)
2
By inspection, we find that I1 (s) =
ol
s
KVL clockwise for mesh 2:
4
+ 1 [I2 (s) I1 (s)] + 2I2 (s) + 1 [I2 (s) I3 (s)] = 0
s
4
) I1 (s) + I2 (s) [1 + 2 + 1] I3 (s) = 0
us
s
Substituting the value of I1 (s), we get
4 2
+ 4I2 (s) I3 (s) =
s s
6
) 4I2 (s) I3 (s) =
s
vt
KVL clockwise for mesh 3:

1 [I3 (s) I2 (s)] + sI3 (s) + 1I3 (s) = 0
) I2 (s) + I3 (s) [s + 2] = 0
Putting the KVL equations for mesh 2 and mesh 3 in matrix form, we get
2 32 3 2 6 3
4 1 I2 (s)
4 54 5=4 s 5
1 s+2 I3 (s) 0
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Solving for I3 (s), using Cramer’s rule, we get

1:5
I3 (s) =
7
in
s s+
4
1:5
) Vo (s) = I3 (s) 1 =
7
s s+
4
n.
Using partial fractions, we can write
K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s 7
s+
4
6 6
We find that,
Hence; Vo (s) =
72
io
K1 = ; and K2 =
6 61
4
7 s
37
s+
4
1
75
7
ut
6h i
vo (t) =
7
1 e
7
4
t
u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.20
Use mesh analysis to find vo (t), t > 0 in the network shown in Fig. 5.30.
ol
us
Figure 5.30
vt
SOLUTION
The circuit is not energized for t 0 because the independent current source is associated with
u(t). This means that there are no initial conditions in the circuit. The frequency domain circuit
for t 0+ is shown in Fig. 5.31.
By inspection we find that:
4 Ix (s)
I1 (s) = ; I2 (s) =
s 2
4 4 1 4
Ix (s) = I3 (s) ) 2I2 (s) = I3 (s) ) I2 (s) = I3 (s)
s s 2 s
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KVL for mesh 3 gives

4
s [I3 (s) I2 (s)] + 1 I3 (s)
in
s
+1 I3 (s) = 0

1 4
) s I3 (s) I3 (s)
2 s

n.
4
+ I3 (s) + I3 (s) = 0
s
4(s 2)
) I3 (s) =
s(s + 4)
and Vo (s) = 1[I3 (s)]
=
4(s 2)
s(s + 4)
By partial fractions, we can write io Figure 5.31

ut
K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s s+4
We find that K1 = 2; K2 = 6
2 6
Hence; Vo (s) =
s s+4
ol
vo (t) = 2u(t) 6e 4t u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.21
us
Using the principle of superposition, find vo (t) for t > 0. Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 5.32.
vt
Figure 5.32
SOLUTION
Since both the independent sources are associated with u(t), which is zero for
t 0 , the circuit will not have any initial conditions. The frequency domain circuit for t 0+
is shown in Fig. 5.33(a).
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in
n.
Figure 5.33(a)
As a first step, let us find the contribution to Vo (s) due to voltage source alone. This needs the
deactivation of the current source.
Referring to Fig. 5.33(b), we find that
I (s) =
s+1+
4
s
2
+1
io
ut
s
4
) Vo1 (s) = I (s)[1] =
s2 + 2s + 2
Figure 5.33(b)
Next let us find the contribution to the output due to
current source alone.
ol
Refer to Fig. 5.33(c). Using the principle of current
division,
2
s
I1 (s) = s
us
2
s+1+ +1
s
2s
) Vo2 (s) = 1 [I1 (s)] = Figure 5.33(c)
s2 + 2s + 2
Finally adding the two contributions, we get
vt
Vo (s) = Vo1 (s) + Vo2 (s)

4 2s 2s + 4
= + 2 = 2
s2 + 2s + 2 s + 2s + 2 s + 2s + 2
K1
K1
= +
s + 1 j1 s + 1 + j1
We find that,
p
K1 = 2 / 45
2 / 45 2 /+45
p p
Hence; Vo (s) = +
s + 1 j1 s + 1 + j1
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Vtusolution.in

m / m/
We know that: L 1
s + a jb
+
s + a + jb
= 2me at
cos(bt + )u(t)
in
F
Hence; vo (t) = 2 2e t cos(t + 45 )u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.22
(a) Convert the circuit in Fig. 5.34 to an appropriate s domain representation.
n.
(b) Find the Thevein equivalent seen by 1Ω resistor.
(c) Analyze the simplified circuit to find an expression for i(t).
io
ut
Figure 5.34
ol
SOLUTION
(a) Since the independent current source has u(t) in it, the circuit is not activated for t 0 . In
otherwords, all the initial conditions are zero. Fig.5.35 (a) shows the s domain equivalent
us
circuit for t 0+ .
vt
Figure 5.35(a)
(b) Sine we are interested in the current in 1Ω using the Thevenin theorem, remove the 1Ω
resistor from the circuit shown in Fig. 5.35(a). The resulting circuit thus obtained is shown
in Fig. 5.35(b).
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Zt (s) is found by deactivating the independent

current source.
in
500
Zt (s) = (5 + 0:001s)jj
s
2500 + 0:5s
= Ω
0:001s2 + 5s + 500
Referring to Fig. 5.35 (b),
n.
3
Vt (s) = [Zt (s)] Figure 5.35(b)
s
7:5 106
+ 1500s
= Volts
s(s + 5000s + 5 105 )
2
The Thevenin equivalent circuit along with 1Ω

resistor is shown in Fig. 5.35 (c).
I (s) =
Vt (s)
Zt (s) + 1
io
ut
7:5 106 + 1500s
=
s(s2 + 5500s + 3 106 )
7:5 106 + 1500s
= Figure 5.35(c)
s(s + 4886)(s + 614)
ol
2:5 0:008 2:508
I (s) = +
s s + 4886 s + 614
us
Taking inverse Laplace transforms, we get

4886t 614t

i(t) = 2.5 + 0.008e 2.508e u(t)A
Check:
i(0) = 2:5 + 0:008 2:508 = 0

vt
and i(1) = 2:5:
These could be verified by evaluating i(t) at t = 0 and t = 1 using the concepts explained in
Chapter 4.
EXAMPLE 5.23
Refer the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 5.36. Find the complete response for v (t) if t 0+ . Take
v (0) = 2V.
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Figure 5.36
SOLUTION
Since we wish to analyze the circuit given in Fig. 5.36 using KVL, we shall represent L and C in
frequency domain using series circuits to accomodate the initial conditions. Accordingly, we get
the frequency domain circuit shown in Fig. 5.36 (a).
Applying KVL
2
2s
s + 16
+ 6+s+
9
s
2
I (s) + = 0
s io
clockwiseto the circuit shown in Fig. 5.36 (a), we get
ut
32
) I (s) = 2
(s + 6s + 9)(s2 + 16)

9 2
Hence; V (s) = I (s) +
s s
2 288
ol
= +
s s(s + 3)2 (s2 + 16)
Using partial fraction, we get

Figure 5.36(a)
us
2 K1 K2 K3 K4 K4
V (s) = + + + 2
+ +
s s s+3 (s + 3) s j4 s + j4
Solving for K1 , K2 , K3 , and K4 , we get

288
K1 = = 2
(s + 3) (s + 16) s=0
2 2

vt
d 288
K2 = = 2:2
ds s(s2 + 16) s= 3

288
K3 = = 3:84
s(s2 + 16) s= 3

288
K4 = = 0:36 / 106:2
s(s + 3) (s + j 4) s=j 4
2
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Therefore
2 2 2:2 3:84 0:36 / 106:2 0:36 /106:2
in
V (s) = + + 2
+ +
s s s+3 (s + 3) s j4 s + j4
Taking inverse Laplace Transform we get,
v(t) = 2.2e 3t + 3.84te 3t + 0.72 cos(4t 106.2 )
n.
Verification:
Putting t = 0 in the above equation
v (0) = 2:2 + 0 + 0:72 cos( 106:2 )

= 2:2
(The same quantity is given in the problem)
5.8 Waveform synthesis

io
0:2 = 2V
ut
The three important singularity functions explained in section 5.3 are very useful as building
blocks in constructing other waveforms. In this section, we illustrate the concept of waveform
synthesis with a number of exmaples, and also determine expressions for these waveforms.
ol
EXAMPLE 5.24
Express the voltage pulse shown in Fig.5.37 in terms of unit step function and then find V (s).

dv (t)
Also find L .
dt
us
vt
Figure 5.37
SOLUTION
The pulse shown in Fig. 5.37 is the gate function. This function may be regarded as a step function
that switches on at t = 2 secs and switches off at t = 4 secs.
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Figure 5.37(a)
Referring to Figs. 5.37 and 5.37 (a), we can write io

ut
v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)
) v (t) = 5u(t 2) 5u(t 4)
5 2s 5 4s
Hence; V (s) = e e
s s
5
ol
2s 4s
= e e
s
Taking the derivative of v (t), we get Figure 5.37(b)
dv (t)
us
= 5 [ (t 2) (t 4)]
dt
dv (t)
Fig. 5.37(b) shows the graph of .
dt
We can obtain Fig. 5.37(b) directly from Fig. 5.36 by observing that at t = 2 seconds, there is
a sudden rise of 5V leading to 5 (t 2). Similarly, at t = 4 seconds, a sudden fall of 5V leading
vt
to 5 (t 4).
We know the Laplace trasnform pair
Lf (t a)g = e as
Lf (t)g
as
=e
dv(t)
Hence; L dt
=5 e 2s
e 4s
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EXAMPLE 5.25
Express the current pulse in Fig.5.38 in terms of the unit step.
R
in
Find: (i) L fi(t)g (ii) L i(t)dt .
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 5.38
ut
ol
us
Figure 5.39(a)
vt
Figure 5.39(b)
Referring to Figs. 5.39 (a) and (b), using the principle of synthesis, we can write
i(t) = i1 (t) + i2 (t) + i3 (t)
= 5u(t) 10u(t 2) + 5u(t 4)
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The Laplace transform of the above equation yields

5 10 2s 5 4s
in
I (s) = e + e
s s s
5 2s 4s

= 1 2e +e
s
5
2s 2
= 1 e
Zs
n.
Let f (t) = i(t)dt
Z
then; f (t) = [5u(t) 10u(t 2) + 5u(t 4)]dt
= 5r (t) 10r (t 2) + 5r (t
= f1 (t) + f2 (t) + f3 (t)
io 4)
The function f1 (t) is a ramp of slope = 5 as shown in Fig. 5.39 (c). To this, if we add a ramp
of slope = 10, the effect of this addition is, we get a ramp of slope = 5 10 = 5 for t 2 secs
ut
till we encounter the next ramp. At t = 4 seconds, if we add a ramp with a slope of +5, the net
slope beyond t = 4 seconds is 5 + 5 = 0. Thus figure f (t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 5.39 (d).
ol
us
Figure 5.39(c)
vt
L ff (t)g = F (s)
= L f5r (t) 10r (t 2) + 5r (t 4)g
5 10 2s 5 4s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
5 2s 4s

= 1 2e +e
s2
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Vtusolution.in
in
n.
io
Figure 5.39(d)
ut
EXAMPLE 5.26
Express the sawtooth function in terms of singularity functions. Then find Lfv (t)g.
ol
us
Figure 5.40
SOLUTION
There are three methods to solve this problem.
Method 1:
vt
The function v1 (t) is a ramp function of slope = +5. This slope +5 should continue till t = 1
second. Hence at t = 1 second, a ramp of slope t = 5 is added to v1 (t). The graph of
v1 (t) + v2 (t) is shown in Fig. 5.41(a). Next, to v1 (t) + v2 (t), a step of 5V is added at t = 1
second.
Hence; v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) + v3 (t)
= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
5 5 5
V (s) = Lff (t)g = e s
e s
s2 s2 s
5 s s

= 2
1 e se
s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
io
Figure 5.41(a)
ut
ol
us
Figure 5.41(b)
Method 2:
This method involves graphical manipulation.
vt
Figure 5.41(c)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The equation of a straight line passing through the origin is y = mx, where m = slope of the
line. This allows us to write v1 (t) = 5t. From Fig. 5.41(c), we can write
in
v (t) = v1 (t)v2 (t)
= 5t [u(t) u(t 1)]
= 5tu(t) 5tu(t 1)
= 5tu(t) 5(t 1 + 1)u(t
n.
1)
= 5tu(t) 5(t 1)u(t 1) 5u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
5 s
Hence; V (s) = 2 1 e s se
s
Method 3:
io
ut
ol
Figure 5.41(d)
us
This method also involves graphical manipulation. We observe from Fig. 5.41(d) that v (t) is a
multiplication of a ramp function and a unit step function.
Thus; v (t) = v1 (t)v2 (t)

= 5r (t) [u( t + 1)]
vt
Figure 5.41(e)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
From Fig. 5.41(e), we can write

v2 (t) = v3 (t) + v4 (t)
in
) v2 (t) = 1 u(t 1)
) u( t + 1) = 1 u(t 1)
Hence; v (t) = 5r (t) [1 u(t 1)]
= 5r (t) 5r (t)u(t 1)
n.
We know that, r (t) = tu(t)
Hence; v (t) = 5r (t) 5tu(t)u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5(t 1 + 1)u(t)u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5(t 1)u(t)u(t 1) 5u(t)u(t 1)
Please note that, u(t)u(t 1) = u(t
io
1) [Refer Fig. 5.41(f)]
ut
ol
Figure 5.41(f)
Thus; v (t) = 5r (t) 5(t 1)u(t 1) 5u(t 1)

= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
us
5
Hence; V (s) = 2 1 e s se s
s
EXAMPLE 5.27
Given the signal
8
< 3; t<0
vt
x(t) = 2; 0<t<1
:
2t 4; t>1
Express x(t) in terms of singularity functions. Also find Lfx(t)g.
SOLUTION
The signal x(t) may be viewed as follows:
(i) in the interval, t < 0, x(t) may be regarded as 3u( t)
(ii) in the interval, 0 < t < 1, x(t) may be viewed as 2[u(t) u(t 1)] and
(iii) for t > 1, x(t) may be viewed as (2t 4)u(t 1)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Thus; x(t) = 3u( t) 2 [u(t) u(t 1)] + (2t 4)u(t
in
1)
) x(t) = 3 [1 u(t)] 2u(t) + 2u(t 1) + 2tu(t 1) 4u(t 1)
=3 5u(t) 2u(t 1) + 2(t 1 + 1)u(t 1)
=3 5u(t) 2u(t 1) + 2(t 1)u(t 1) + 2u(t 1)
n.
=3 5u(t) + 2r(t 1)
Lfx(t)g cannot be found because x(t) contains a constant 3 for 1 < t < 0 (a noncausal
signal).
EXAMPLE 5.28
io
Express f (t) in terms of singularity functions and then find F (s).
ut
ol
Figure 5.42
us
SOLUTION
To find f (t) for 0 < t < 2 :
Equation of the straight line 1 is
y y1 y2 y1
=
x x1 x2 x1
vt
Here, y is f (t) and x is t.

Hence,
f (t) 3 3 3
=
t 0 2 0
) 2f (t) 6 = 6t
) f (t) = 3 3t
Figure 5.43
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
To find f (t) for 2 < t < 3:

Here,
f (t ) + 3 0+3
in
=
t 2 3 2
) f (t) + 3 = 3t 6
) f (t) = 3t 9
n.
Hence 8
< 33t; 0 < t < 2
f (t ) = 3t 9; 2 < t < 3
:
0; otherwise
The above equation may also be written as :
f (t) = [3
= 3u (t)
3t] [u (t)
3tu (t
3u (t
3)
u (t
2)
9u (t
2)] + [3t
3tu (t) + 3tu (t
2) + 9u (tio 9] [u (t
3)
2)
2) + 3tu (t
u (t
2)
3)]
ut
) f (t) = 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6tu (t 2) 3tu (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
= 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
3 (t 3 + 3) u (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
= 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2) u (t 2)
ol
+12u (t 2) 3 (t 3) u (t 3) 9u (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
f (t) = 3u (t) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2) u (t 2) 3 (t 3) u (t 3)
Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g

3 3 6 3
us
2s 3s
= 2
+ 2e e
s s s s2
EXAMPLE 5.29
Express the function f (t) shown in Fig. 5.44 using singularity functions and then find F (s).
vt
Figure 5.44
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Equation of the straight line shown in Fig. 5.45(a) is
in
f1 (t) + 1 2+1
=
t 1 2 1
) f1 (t) + 1 = t + 1
) f1 (t) = t
n.
The above equation is for the values t lying between 1 and 2.
This could be expressed, by writing
f (t) = f1 (t) g (t)
Figure 5.45(a)
io
ut
ol
us
Figure 5.45(b)
) f (t) = t [u (t 1) u (t 2)]
vt
= (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
= (t 1) u (t 1) u (t 1) + (t 2) u (t 2) + 2u (t 2)
= r (t 1) u (t 1) + r (t 2) + 2u (t 2)

1 1 s 1 2
= e s e + 2e 2s
+ e 2s
s2 s s s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 5.30
Find the Laplace transform of the function f (t) shown in Fig. 5.46.
in
n.
Figure 5.46
SOLUTION
Method 1:
io
ut
ol
us
Figure 5.47(a)
vt
We can write; f (t) = fA (t) + fB (t)

= sin tu (t) + sin (t 1) u (t 1)

Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e s
s2 + 2 s2 + 2
π
= 1+e s
s2 +π 2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Method 2 :
in
n.
Graphically, we can manipulate f (t) as io
Figure 5.47(b)
ut
f (t) = fC (t) g (t)
= sin t [u (t) u (t 1)]
= sin tu (t) sin tu (t 1)
= sin tu (t) sin t (t 1 + 1) [u (t 1)]
ol
= sin tu (t) sin ( (t 1) + ) u (t 1)
= sin tu (t) + sin (t 1) u (t 1)
s
Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e s
s2 2 s2 + 2
us
+
π
= 1+e s
s2 +π 2
EXAMPLE 5.31
Find the Laplace transform of the signal x(t) shown in Fig. 5.48.
vt
Figure 5.48
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
in
n.
io
ut
Figure 5.49
Mathematically, we can write x(t) as

ol
x (t) = xA (t) xB (t)
= sin (t 1) u (t 1) sin (t 3) u (t 3)

Hence; L fx (t)g = X (s) = s2 + 2 e s
s2 + 2
e 3s

us
π
= e s e 3s
s2 + π2
EXAMPLE 5.32
Refer the waveform shown in Fig. 5.50. The equation for the waveform is sin t from 0 to ; sin t
1 s
from to 2 . Show that the Lapalce transform of this waveform is F (s) = 2 coth :
s +1
vt
Figure 5.50
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
f (t) is a periodic waveform with a period T = seconds. Let f1 (t) be the waveform f (t)
in
described over only one period. The Laplace transform of f (t) and f1 (t) are related as
F1 (s)
F (s) =
1 e sT
Let us now proceed to find F1 (s). From Fig. 5.51 (b), we can write
n.
f1 (t) = fA (t) + fB (t)
= sin tu (t) + sin (t ) u (t )
1 1
) F1 (s) = 2 + 2 e s
s +1 s +1
(1 + e s )
) F (s) = 2
=
Hence; F (s) =
1 e
s2 + 1
F1 (s)
sT
=
(1 + e )
F1 (s)
1 e s
s
(s + 1) (1 e s )
io Figure 5.51(a)
ut

, es=2 + e
s=2
s=2
1 e, 2
=
s2 + 1 , es=2 e s=2
s=2
e,
s 2
ol
1 cosh 2
) F (s) =
s2 + 1 sinh s
2
1 πs
= 2 coth
us
s +1 2
Figure 5.51(b)
EXAMPLE 5.33
vt
Find the Laplace transform of the pulse shown in Fig. 5.52.
Figure 5.52
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
We can describe Fig. 5.52 mathematically as
in

Vo ; 0<t<2
f (t) =
Vo t + 3Vo ; 2 < t < 3
The expression for f (t) for 2 < t < 3 is obtianed as follows :
n.
Equation of a straight line between two points is given by
y y1 y2 y1
=
x x1 x2 x1
In the present context, y = f (t); x = t; (x1 ; y1 ) = (2; Vo ) and (x2 ; y2 ) = (3; 0)
Hence;
)
f (t) Vo
t 2
=
0 Vo
3 2
f (t) = Vo t + 3Vo
io
ut
The time domain expression for f (t) between t = 0 and 3 could be written using graphical
manipulation as
f (t) = Vo [u (t) u (t 2)] + [ Vo t + 3Vo ] [u (t 2) u (t 3)]

The first term on the right-side of the above equation defines f (t) for 0 < t < 2 and the
ol
second term on the right-side defines f (t) for 2 < t < 3.
f (t) = Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo tu (t 2) + Vo tu (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)

= Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
us
+Vo (t 3 + 3) u (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)

= Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo (t 2) u (t 2) 2Vo u (t 2) + Vo (t 3) u (t 3)
+3Vo u (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)
= Vo u (t) Vo (t 2) u (t 2) + Vo (t 3) u (t 3)
) f (t) = Vo u (t) Vo r (t 2) + Vo r (t 3)
vt

Vo Vo 2s Vo 3s
= e + e
s s2 s2
EXAMPLE 5.34
Consider a staircase waveform which extends to infinity and at t = nt0 jumps to the value n + 1,
being a superposition of unit step functions. Determine the Laplace transform of this waveform.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
We can write,
in
f (t) = u (t) + u (t 2t0 ) +
t0 ) + u (t
1 1 1
F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e t0 s + e 2t0 s +
s s s
1 t0 s 2t0 s

= 1+e +e +
s
n.
t0 s
Let e =x
1
then F (s) = 1 + x + x2 +
s
From Binomial theorem, we have
Hence;
(1 x) 1
= 1 + x + x2 +
F (s) =
1
s (1 x)
1 io Figure 5.53
ut
=
s (1 e t0 s )
EXAMPLE 5.35
(a) Find the Laplace transform of the staircase waveform shown in Fig. 5.54. (b) If this voltage
were applied to an RL series circuit with R = 1Ω and L = 1H , find the current i(t).
ol
us
vt
Figure 5.54
SOLUTION
(a) We can express mathematically, the voltage waveform shown in Fig. 5.54 as,
8
>
> 1; 1 < t < 2
>
>
< 2; 2 < t < 3
v (t) = 3; 3 < t < 4
>
>
>
> 4; 4 < t < 5
:
0; elsewhere
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
or v (t) = [u (t 1) u (t 2)] + 2 [u (t 2) u (t 3)]
in
+3 [u (t 3) u (t 4)] + 4 [u (t 4) u (t 5)]
= u (t 1) + u (t 2) + u (t 3) + u (t 4) 4u (t 5)
Taking the Laplace transform, we get
n.
1 s 2s 3s 4s 5s

V (s) = e +e +e +e 4e
s
(b) Assuming all initial conditions to be zero, the time domian circuit shown in Fig. 5.55 gets
transformed to a circuit as shown in Fig. 5.56.
io
ut
Figure 5.55 Time Domain Circuit Figure 5.56 Frequency
. Domain Circuit
From Fig. 5.56, we can write
ol
V (s)
I (s) =
s+1
us
1 1 1 1 4
) I (s) = e s+ e 2s + e 3s + e 4s
e 5s
s (s + 1) s (s + 1) s (s + 1) s(s + 1) s (s + 1)

1 1 s 1 1 2s 1 1 3s
) I (s) = e + e + e
s s+1 s s+1 s s+1

1 1 1 1
+ e 4s 4 e 5s
s s+1 s s+1
vt
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get

i (t) = u (t) e t u (t) t
!t 1 + u (t) e u (t) t!t 2 + u (t)
t
e t u (t) t !t 3

+ u (t) e u (t) t!t 4 4 u (t) e t u (t) t!t 5
t

i (t) = 1 e (t 1) u (t 1) + 1 e (t 2) u (t 2) + 1 e (t 3) u (t 3)
(t 4)
(t 5)

+ 1 e u (t 4) 4 1 e u (t 5)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 5.36
A voltage pulse of 10 V magnitude and 5 sec duration is applied to the RC network shown in
in
Fig. 5.57. Find the current i(t) if R = 10Ω and C = 0:05F .
n.
SOLUTION io
Figure 5.57
ut
ol
Figure 5.58(a)
Mathematically, we can express v (t) as follows :

v (t) = v1 (t) v2 (t)
us
= 10u(t) 10u(t t0 )
Hence; V (s) = L fv (t)g
10 t0 s

= 1 e
s
Assuming all initial conditions to be zero, the Laplace
vt
transformed network is as shown in Fig. 5.58(b). Figure 5.58(b)
V (s)
I (s) =
1
R+
Cs
t0 s
10 1 e
=
1
s R+
Cs
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
10Cs
I (s) = 1 e t0 s
in
s (RCs + 1)
10 1
= 1 e t0 s
R 1
s+
2 RC 3
n.
10 6 1 1 t0 s 7
= 4 e 5
R 1 1
s+ s+
RC RC
Taking inverse Laplace transform yields

10 10
u (t)
t t
i (t) =
=
R
10
R
e
i (t) = e 0:510
RC
t
RC
t
u (t)
u (t)
6
u (t)
R
10
R
e
e
RC
(t t0 )
RC
(t 510
10
t
u (t
io
!t
6
6
t0
t0 )
)
5 10 6

ut
e 0:5 u t
EXAMPLE 5.37
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 5.59.
ol
us
Figure 5.59
vt
SOLUTION

3t; 0 < t < 1
v (t) =
2; 1 < t < 2
or v (t) = 3t [u (t) u (t 1)] + 2 [u (t 1) u (t 2)]

= 3tu (t) 3tu (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
= 3tu (t) 3 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
= 3tu (t) 3 (t 1) u (t 1) 3u (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
v (t) = 3tu (t) 3 (t 1) u (t u (t 2u (t
in
1) 1) 2)
= 3r (t) 3r (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
Hence; V (s) = L fv (t)g
3 3 1 s 2
= e s e e 2s
s2 s2 s s
n.
5.9 The System function
The system function or transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the ratio
initial conditions are zero.
io
of Laplace transform of the output to Laplace transform of the input under the assumption that all
Hence, for relaxed LTI system, the response Y (s) to an input X (s) is H (s) X (s), where H (s)
is the system function. The system function H (s) may be found in several ways:
ut
1. For a system defined by a linear differential equation, by taking Laplace transform of the
Y (s)
differential equation and then finding the ratio .
X (s)
2. From the Laplace transform of impulse response h(t).
3. From the s domain model of a physical system like an electrical system.
ol
EXAMPLE 5.38
The output y (t) of an LTI system is found to be e 3t u(t) when the input x(t) is 0:5u(t).
(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.

us
(b) Find the output when the input is x(t) = e t u(t).
SOLUTION
(a) Taking Laplace transforms of x(t) and y (t), we get
vt
1 0:5
Y (s) = ; X (s) =
s+3 s
Y (s) 2s
Hence H (s) = =
X (s) s+3
2 (s + 3) 6 6
) H (s) = =2
(s + 3) s+3
h (t) = 2δ (t) 6e 3t u (t)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
(b) x (t) = e t u (t)
in
1
) X (s) =
s+1
Thus; Y (s) = X (s) H (s)
2s
=
(s + 1) (s + 3)
n.
K1 K2
= +
s+1 s+3

2s
where K1 =
K2 =
s + 3 s =
2s
s + 1 s = 3
=3

io
1
= 1
ut
1 3
Therefore; Y (s) = +
s+1 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform of Y (s), we get
t 3t
; t0
ol
y (t) = e + 3e
t 3t

or y (t) = e + 3e ; u(t)
EXAMPLE 5.39
us
Determine the output v (t) for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.60.
vt
Figure 5.60
SOLUTION
The transformed network of Fig. 5.60 with the assumption that all initial conditions are zero is
shown in Fig. 5.61(a).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
1
V (s) = I (s)
s2 3
in
1 6 Vs (s) 7
= 4 15
s
1+
s
V (s) 1
) H (s) = =
n.
Vs (s) s+1
Figure 5.61(a)
The inverse Laplace transform of H (s) is called the impulse response of the circuit and is
denoted by h(t).
h (t) = e t u (t)
I method :
From Convolution theorem, we have,
io
v (t) = h (t) vs (t)
Z1
ut
= h ( ) vs (t ) d
0
Z1
(t )
= e u ( ) 2e u (t ) d
ol
0
Z1
t
= 2e u ( ) u (t ) d
0
us
Let us compute the product u ( ) u (t ) for different values of

1; < 0
u ( ) =
0; > 0

1; t > 0 or < t
u (t ) =
0; t < 0 or > t
vt

1; 0 < < t; t > 0
Hence; u ( ) u (t ) =
0; otherwise
Figure 5.61(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Zt
t t
Therefore; v (t) = 2e d = 2te ; t0
in
0
= 2te t u (t)
II method :
In the frequency domain, convolution operation is transformed into a multiplicative operation.
n.
That is; V (s) = H (s) Vs (s)
1 2
=
(s + 1) (s + 1)
2
=
(s + 1)2
Inverse Laplace transform yields,
v(t) = 2te t u(t)Volts
io
ut
R.P 5.22
Vo (s)
(a) Find H (s) = for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.22. (b) Determine vo (t) when the
Vi (s)
intital current in the inductor is zero.
ol
us
Figure R.P.5.22
SOLUTION
vt
The Laplace transformed network with all initial conditions set to zero is shown in Fig. R.P.
5.22(a).
3

Vo (s) = I (s) 150 + 2 10 s
3s

Vi (s) 150 + 2 10
= 3s 3s
100 + 3 10 + 150 + 2 10
) H (s) =
Vo (s) 1.5 105 + 2s
Vi (s)
=
2.5 105 + 5s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
(b) Vo (s) = H (s) Vi (s)

1:5 105 + 2s 100
in
=
2:5 105 + 5s s

40 s + 0:75 105
=
s [s + 0:5 105 ]
n.
K1 K2
= +
s s + 0:5 105
Figure R.P. 5.22(a)

where K1 =
K2 =
40 s + 0:75 105
[s + 0:5 105 ]

s
5
40 s + 0:75 10 io

s=0
= 60
= 20

ut
5
s= 0:5 10
60 20
Hence; Vo (s) =
s s + 0:5 105

ol

0:5 105t

vo (t) = 60 20e u (t) Volts
R.P 5.23
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23. The switch closes at t = 0. Determine the voltage v (t)
us
after the switch closes.

vt
Figure R.P. 5.23

SOLUTION
The switch is open at t = 0 and closed at t = 0+ . Let us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in
steady state. The circuit at t = 0 is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23(a).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure R.P. 5.23(a)
Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.23(a), we get

8
i 0 = 2A
=
2+2
v 0 =0
io
From switching principles, we know that the current through an inductor and the voltage
across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore,

ut
i (0) = i 0+ = i 0 = 2A
+

and v (0) = v 0 =v 0 = 0V
We shall solve this probelm using nodal technique. Hence, in the frequency domain, we will
use the parallel models for the capacitor and inductor because the parallel models contain current
ol
sources rather than voltage sources. The frequency domain circuit is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23(b).
us
Figure R.P.5.23(b)
vt
KCL at node V (s) :

8
V (s)
s + V (s) + V (s) + 2 = 0
2 s 1 s
s
1 1 4 2
) V (s) + +s =
2 s s s

s + 2 + 2s2 2
) V (s) =
2s s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
4
) V (s) =
2s2 +s+2
in
2
=
s2 + 0:5s + 1
2
=
s2 + 0:5s + (0:25)2 (0:25)2 + 1
n.
2
=
(s + 0:25) + (0:96824)2
2
2 0:96824
=
0:96824 (s + 0:25)2 + (0:96824)2
We know that,
= 2:066

a
io 0:96824
(s + 0:25)2 + (0:96824)2

ut
L 1
2 =e bt
sin at u (t)
(s + b) + a2
Hence,
v (t) = 2.066e 0:25t sin (0.96824t) u (t) Volts
ol
R.P 5.24
Find the impulse response of the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.24.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 5.24
SOLUTION
The frequency domain representation of the circuit is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.24(a) by assuming that
all initial conditions to be zero.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
KCL at node a:
Va (s)
2
Vb (s)1
+ Vg (s) +
2 io
Figure R.P. 5.24(a)
Va (s)
1
2s
=0
ut
Va (s) Vb (s) Va (s) Vb (s)
) + + 2sVa (s) = 0
2 2
1 1 1 1
) Va (s) + + 2s Vb (s) + =0
2 2 2 2
ol
) Va (s) [1 + 2s] Vb (s) = 0
KCL at node b:
Vb (s) Vi (s) Vb (s) Va (s)
+ =0
s 2
Vi (s)
us
1 1 1
) Va (s) + Vb (s) + =
2 s 2 s
Va (s) (2 + s) Vi (s)
) + Vb (s) =
2 2s s
) sVa (s) + (2 + s) Vb (s) = 2Vi (s)
Putting the above nodal equations in matrix form, we get

vt
1 + 2s 1 Va (s) 0
=
s 2+s Vb (s) 2Vi (s)
Solving, we get
2Vi (s)
Va (s) =
2 + s + 4s + 2s2 s
Va (s) 1
) =
Vi (s) (s + 1)2
Given vi (t) = (t) ) Vi (s) = 1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Va (s) 1
Hence; =
1 (s + 1)2
in
1
) Va (s) =
(s + 1)2
n.
va (t) = h (t) = te t u (t)
R.P 5.25
Find the convolution of h (t) = t and f (t) = e /t for t > 0, using the inverse transform of
H (s) F (s).
SOLUTION
where
h (t) f (t) = L
io
1
fH (s) F (s)g
1
H (s) = L fh (t)g = 2
s
ut
1
F (s) = L ff (t)g =
s+
1
Hence; H (s) F (s) =
s2 (s + )
K1 K2 K3
ol
= + 2 +
s s s+
Solving the partial fractions yields

1 1 1
K1 = ; K2 = ; K3 =
us
2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence; H (s) F (s) = + +
2 s s2 2 s+
h (t) f (t) = L
1
) fH (s) F (s)g
1 1 1 t
= u (t) + tu (t) + e u (t)
vt
2 2

1 t 1
= + + 2 e t u (t)
α2 α α
R.P 5.26
Consider a pulse of amplitude 5V for a duration of 4 seconds with its starting point t = 0. Find
the convolution of this pulse with itself and draw the convolution x (t) x (t) versus time.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure R.P. 5.26(a)
SOLUTION
x (t) = 5u (t) 5u (t 4)
5 5
Let
) X (s) =

s s
e 4s
y (t) = x (t) x (t)
Y (s) = X (s) X (s)

io Figure R.P. 5.26(b)
ut
25 50 4s 25 8s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
y (t) = 25tu (t) 50 (t 4) u (t 4) + 25 (t 8) u (t 8)
ol
Hence; y(t) = 25r(t) 50r(t 4) + 25r(t 8)
R.P 5.27
1 e at

Ktr K
Show that L =
us
(r 1)! (s + a)r
SOLUTION
Let f (t) = 1
1
then F (s) =
s
dn F (s) ( 1)n n!
vt
Thus; =
dsn sn 1
n
We know that; L ftn f (t)g = ( 1)n d ds
F (s)
n
With f (t) = 1, we get

( 1)n n!
L ft n
g = ( 1) n
sn+1
n!
=
sn+1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting n = r 1, we get
(r
in
1)!
L tr 1
=
sr
(r 1)!
and L tr 1
e at
=
(s + a)r
K K
Therefore; L tr 1
e at
n.
=
(r 1)! (s + a)r
R.P 5.28
Tests conducted on a certain network revealed that the current was i(t) = 2e t + 4e 3t when a
unit step voltage was suddenly applied to the input terminals of the network at t = 0. What voltage
SOLUTION
Given, i(t) = 2e t
+ 4e 3t ;
io
must be applied to get an output current of i(t) = 2e t if the network remains unchanged?
t 0 when v (t) = u(t)

ut
2 4
Hence; I (s) = +
s+1 s+3
1
and V (s) =
s
Laplace transform of the output
ol
System function = H (s) =
Laplace transform of the input
I (s)
) H (s) =
V (s)
2s (s 1)
us
=
(s + 1) (s + 3)
We have to find v (t) when i(t) = 2e t .

2 I (s)
First we will find V (s) when I (s) = using the relation H (s) = .
s+1 V (s)
vt
I (s)
Hence; V (s) =
H (s)
2
s+1
=
2s (s 1)
(s + 1) (s + 3)
(s + 3)
=
s (s 1)
K1 K2
= +
s s 1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Using partial fractions, we find that K1 = 3 and K2 = 4

3 4
in
Hence; V (s) = +
s s 1
) v (t) = 3u (t) + 4et u (t) Volts
R.P 5.29
n.
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. R.P. 5.29.
SOLUTION
Figure R.P. 5.29
io
ut
The Laplace transform of a periodic waveform is found
using the relation
F1 (s)
F (s) =
1 e sT
ol
where F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g = Laplace transform of f (t)
over 0 < t < T . Where T = fundamental period of
f (t).
Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.29(a) we can write: Figure R.P. 5.29(a)
us
8 t
>
> ; 0<t<a
>
> a
>
<
f1 (t) = 1; a < t < 3a
>
>
>
> 1
>
: a t + 4; 3a < t < 4a
vt
1
) f1 (t) = t [u (t) u (t a)] + [u (t a) u (t 3a)]
a
1
+ t + 4 [u (t 3a) u (t 4a)]
a
1 1 1
= tu (t) tu (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a) tu (t 3a)
a a a
1
+ tu (t 4a) + 4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
a
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
1 1
) f1 (t) = tu (t) (t a + a) u (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a)
in
a a
1 1
(t 3a + 3a) u (t 3a) + (t 4a + 4a) u (t 4a)
a a
+ 4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) u (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a)
n.
a a
1 1
(t 3a) u (t 3a) 3u (t 3a) + (t 4a) u (t 4a) + 4u (t 4a)
a a
+4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
1 1 1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) (t 3a) u (t 3a) + (t 4a) u (t 4a)
Hence;
1
a
= r (t)
a a
a
1
r (t
a
F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g
a)
1
io
r (t
a
1
3a) + r (t
a
4a)
a
ut
1 1 as 1 3as 1 4as
= e e + e
as2 as2 as2 as2
1 as 3as 4as

= 1 e e +e
as2
ol
Alternate method for finding F1 (s):
From Figs. R.P. 5.29(b), (c), (d), we can write

f1 (t) = fA (t) + fB (t) + fC (t) + fD (t)
us
1 1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) (t 3a) u (t 3a)
a a a
1
+ (t 4a) u (t 4a)
a
vt
Figure R.P. 5.29(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure R.P. 5.29(c)
io
ut
ol
Figure R.P. 5.29(d)

us
Hence; F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g

1 1 as 1 3as 1 4as
= e e + e
as2 as2 as2 as2
Finally; F (s) = L ff (t)g
vt
F1 (s)
=
1 e sT
where T = 4a
1 1 e as e 3as + e 4as
F (s) =
as2 (1 e 4as )
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 5.30
Find the Laplace transform of the function f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.30.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure R.P. 5.30
Let f (t) = x(t) + u(t), where x(t) is a periodic triangular wave and is as shown in Fig. R.P.
5.30(a).
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P.5.30(a) Figure R.P.5.30(b)
Let x1 (t) be x(t) within its first period as shown in Fig. R.P.5.30(b).
Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.30(b), we can write

2t; 0<t<1
x1 (t) =
4 2t; 1 < t < 2
vt
) x1 (t) = 2t [u (t) u (t 1)] + (4 2t) [u (t 1) u (t 2)]

= 2tu (t) 2tu (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2) 2tu (t 1) + 2tu (t 2)
= 2tu (t) 2 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2)
2 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 2 (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
= 2tu (t) 2 (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2)
2 (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 1) + 2 (t 2) u (t 2) + 4u (t 2)
) x1 (t) = 2tu (t) 4 (t 1) u (t 1) + 2 (t 2) u (t 2)
) x1 (t) = 2r (t) 4r (t 1) + 2r (t 2)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Hence; X1 (s) = L fx1 (t)g
in
2 4 s 2 2s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
2 s 2s

= 1 2e +e
s2
2
s 2
= 1 e
n.
s2
Since x(t) is periodic,

X1 (s)
X (s) = L fx (t)g =
1 e sT
where T = 2 seconds
Hence; X (s) =
2 (1 e s )
s2 (1 e 2s ) io 2
ut
We know that; f (t) = x(t) + u(t)
Applying linearity property,
F (s) = X (s) + U (s)

2
ol
2 1 e s 1
= 2 s +
s (1 e ) s
R.P 5.31
us
Find f (t) using convolution integral for the function,
4s
F (s) =
(s + 1) (s2 + 4)
SOLUTION
vt
Let F (s) = F1 (s) F2 (s)
4
where F1 (s) = ) f1 (t) = 4e t u (t)
s+1
s
F2 (s) = 2 ) f2 (t) = cos 2tu (t)
s +4
f (t) = L
1
[F1 (s) F2 (s)]
Z1
= f1 () f2 (t ) d
0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

1; 0 < < t; t > 0
We know that u ( ) u (t ) =
0; otherwise
in
Zt
(t )
Hence; f (t) = cos 24e d
0
Zt
n.
t
= 4e e cos 2 d
0
Using the standard integral formula

Z
eax
eax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx)
we get
io
f (t) = 4e
a2 + b2

t

e
1+4
(cos 2 + 2 sin 2)

t
=0
ut
4
= e t et (cos 2t + 2 sin 2t 1)
5
4 8 4 t
= cos 2t + sin 2t e ; t0
5 5 5

4 8 4 t
ol
f (t) = cos 2t + sin 2t e u (t)
5 5 5
R.P 5.32
If h(t) = 2e 3t u(t) and x(t) = u(t) (t). Find y (t) = h(t) x(t) by (a) using convolution in
the time-domain (b) Finding H (s) and X (s) and then obtaining L
1
us
[H (s)X (s)]
SOLUTION
3t
Given h(t) = 2e u(t)
and x(t) = u(t) (t)
y (t) = x (t) h (t)

vt
(a)
Z1
= x () h (t ) d
0
Z1
3(t )
= ju () ()j 2e u (t ) d
0
Z1 Z1
3(t ) 3(t )
= 2e u (t ) u () d 2 e u (t ) () d
0 0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

1; 0 < < t; t > 0
We know that, u (t ) u () =
0; otherwise
in
The second integral on the right-hand side is evaluated using the sifting property for an im-
pulse function.
Zt
3t 3 3(t )
Hence; y (t) = 2e e d 2e u (t )j=0
n.
0
t
3t e3 3t
) y (t) = 2e 2e u (t)
3 0
2 3t
3t
= 1 e 2e u (t)
3
Then; y (t) =
2
3

1 e 3t u (t) 2e

io
Since t > 0, we associate u(t) in the first component on the right hand side of y (t).
3t
u (t)
ut
2 8 3t
= e u (t)
3 3
(b) Verification :
2 1
H (s) = ; X (s) =
ol
1
s+3 s
) Y (s) = X (s) H (s)
2 (1 s)
=
s (s + 3)
us
K1 K2
= +
s s+3
Using partial fractions, we find that
2 8
K1 = ; K2 =
3 3
vt
2 1 8 1
Hence; Y (s) =
3 s 3 s+3
2 8 3t
) y (t) = u (t) e u (t)
3 3
2 8 3t
= e u (t)
3 3
R.P 5.33
When an impulse (t) V is applied to a certain network, the ouput voltage is vo (t) = 4u(t)
4u(t 2) V. Find and sketch vo (t) if the imput voltage is 2u (t 1) V.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
When vi (t) = (t), it is given that vo (t) = 4u(t) 4u(t 2).
in
From this data, we can find the transfer function H (s) as follows:
H (s) =
L fvo (t)g
L fvi (t)g
L f4u (t) 4u (t 2)g
n.
=
L f (t)g
4 2s

= 1 e
s
The transfer function H (s) can be used to find vo (t) when vi (t) = 2u(t 1) V. This procedure
is as follows:
)
H (s)
Vo (s)
Vi (s)
io
Vo (s) = Vi (s) H (s)

ut
2 s 4 4 2s
= e e
s s s
8 s 8 3s
= e e
s2 s2
ol
vo (t) = 8 (t 1) u (t 1) 8 (t 3) u (t 3)
= 8r (t 1) 8r (t 3)
The corresponding wave form for vo (t) is sketched in Fig. R.P. 5.33
us
vt
Figure R.P. 5.33
R.P 5.34
Refer the two circuits shown in Fig. R.P. 5.34(a) and (b). Given that v1 (t) = sin 103 t and
v2 (t) = e 1000t for t 0 and c = 1 F.
(a) Show that it is possible to have i1 (t) = i2 (t) for all t 0.
(b) Determine the required values of R and L for the condition in part (a) to hold good.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
Figure R.P. 5. 34 (a) Figure R.P.5.34 (b)
n.
SOLUTION
Referring Fig. R.P. 5.34(a) we can write in Laplace domain
V1 (s)
I1 (s) =
R+
io
Cs
1
Similarly, referring Fig. R.P. 5.34(b), we can write in Laplace domain
V2 (s)
ut
I2 (s) =
1
sL +
Cs
i1 (t) = i2 (t) means that I1 (s) = I2 (s)
103
ol
Also; V1 (s) = L sin 103 t = 2
s2 + (103 )
1
V2 (s) = L e 1000t
=
s + 103
us
Hence, the condition I1 (s) = I2 (s) gives,
103 1 1 1
=
s2 + 106 106 s + 103 106
R+ sL +
s s
103 1
) =
106 106
vt
R s+ (s2 + 106 ) L (s + 103 ) s2 +

R L
If the above equation is satisfied, then it is possible to have i1 (t) = i2 (t). For this to happen,
it is required that
R 106 106
= L; = 103 and 106 =
103 R L
The above conditions give L = 1H and R = 103 Ω
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 5.35
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.35 has zero initial conditions. At t = 0, the switch K is
p
in
closed. Find p
the value of R such that the response v (t) = 0:5 sin 2t volts. Take the excitation
as i(t) = te 2t A.
n.
io
ut
Figure R.P.5.35
SOLUTION
p
Given i(t) = te 2t
Taking Laplace transform of i(t) gives
ol
1
I (s) = p
(s + 2)2
p
us
Laplace transform of the response v (t) = 0:5 sin 2t is

" p #
1 2
V (s) = 2
2 s +2
V (s)
Hence; Z (s) =
I (s)
vt
p
1 (s + 2)2
=p (5.29)
2 s2 + 2
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.35 we can write
1
Z (s) = R +
s 1
+
2 s
2s
) Z (s) = R + 2 (5.30)
s +2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Equating equations 5.29 and 5.30, we get

p 2
in
1 s+ 2 2s
p 2
=R+ 2
2 s +2 s +2
1 p 2
) s2 + 2 R 2s = p s + 2
2
s 2 2
n.
= p + 2s + p
2 2
1
Equating the like powers of s, we get R= p Ω
2
Exercise Problems
E.P 5.1
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions : io
ut
(a) f1 (t) = sin(!t + )
(b) f2 (t) = sin2 t

1
(c) f3 (t) = [sinh(at) sin(at)]
ol
2a3
s sin θ + ω cos θ 2 1
Ans: F1 (s) = 2 2
, F2 (s) = 2
, F3 (s) = 2
s +ω s (s + 4) (s a2 ) (s2 + a2 )
us
E.P 5.2
In the network shown in Fig. E.P. 5.2, the switch K is moved from position a to position b at
t = 0, a steady state having previously been established at position a. Solve for i(t), using the
Laplace transformation method.
vt
Figure E.P. 5.2
Va RA +RB
Ans: i (t) = e L u (t)
RA
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 5.3
Find i1 (t) and i2 (t) for t > 0 for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.3 using Laplace transform.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 5.3
h i
Ans : i1 (t) = 2.4e + 0.6e 6510 t + 3 u (t) mA
5 105 t 5
E.P
h
i2 (t) = 1.2e
5.4
6510 t 5
i
1.2e 510 t u (t) mA
io 5
ut
bt
Using Laplace transform technique, find i(t) when i1 = 0:1e A for the circuit shown in E.P.
5.4 when b = 105 . Assume steady state conditions at t = 0 .
ol
us
Figure E.P. 5.4

1 27 17
Ans: i (t) = e bt + e 6bt
e 10bt
u (t) A
30 40 24
E.P 5.5
The current source shown in Fig. E.P. 5.5 is i(t) = tu(t) A. Find vo (t) when the initial value of
vt
vo is zero.
Figure E.P. 5.5

Ans: vo (t) = t 10 3 1 e 103 t mV, t 0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 5.6
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following F (s):
in
8s 3 4s2
(a) F (s) = 2 (b) F (s) =
s + 4s + 13 (s + 3)2
Ans: (a) f (t) = 10.2e 2t
cos (3t + 38.3 ) u (t)
3t 3t 3t

(b) f (t) = 4e 24te + 18t2 e u (t)
n.
E.P 5.7
Using convolution integral, find f (t) if
10
F (s) =
s (s + 5)
Ans:
E.P 5.8

f (t) = 2 1 e 5t

u (t)
io
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 5.8. Assume the network is in steady state for t < 0.
ut
Determine the current i(t) for t > 0.
ol
Figure E.P. 5.8

us
Ans: i (t) = 4.22e t cos (3t 18.4 ) u (t) A
E.P 5.9
Find vo (t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.9.
vt
Figure E.P. 5.9

3:73t 0:27t

Ans: vo (t) = 4 8.93e + 4.93e u (t) V
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 5.10
Find vo (t) for t > 0. Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.10.
in
n.
Ans: vo (t) =
4
3
+ 2.55e

3
1
t
cos
F
io
Figure E.P. 5.10
17t + 10.1

u (t)
ut
E.P 5.11
For the circuit shown in E.P. 5.11.
Vo (s)
Find: (a) H (s) = (b) h (t)
Vi (s)
ol
(c) Step response (d) The response when vi (t) = 8 cos 2t V
us
Figure E.P. 5.11

vt
2
Ans: (a) H (s) =
s+4
(b) h (t) = 2e 4t u (t)
4t

(c) vo (t) = 0.5 1 e u (t) V
4t

(d) vo (t) = 1.5 e + cos 2t + 0.5 sin 2t u (t) V
E.P 5.12
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.12. The switch is closed at t = 0
Find : (a) i1 (t) and (b) i2 (t)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure E.P. 5.12
6:34t 23:66t

Ans: (a) i1 (t) = 3.33 1.67e 1.67e u (t)

E.P
(b) i2 (t) = 3.33 + 1.22e
5.13
6:34t 4.55e
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.13. io 23:66t u (t)
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 5.13

s

A 1 e A 2s
Ans: F (s) = e
s2
us
E.P 5.14
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.14.
vt
Figure E.P. 5.14

1 1 2s 2 2s 1
Ans: F (s) = 2 e e 2s
s s2 s 1 e
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 5.15
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.15
in
n.
Ans: F (s) =
E.P 5.16

2
s 2
2 2
+ + 2e s
s s

1
1 e s
io
Figure E.P. 5.15
ut
Obtain the Laplace transform of the f (t) shown in Fig. E.P. 5.16.
ol
us
Figure E.P. 5.16

1
Ans: F (s) = 5 3e s + 3e 3s
5e 4s
s
E.P 5.17
Obtain the Laplace transform of the unit impulses shown in Fig. E.P. 5.17
vt
Figure E.P. 5.17
1
Ans: X(s) =
1 e s
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E.P 5.18
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.18. Let i(0) = 1A; vo (0) = 2V and vs (t) = 4e 2t u(t)V.
in
Find vo (t) for t > 0.
n.
Figure E.P. 5.18

Ans:
E.P
vo (t) =
5.19
2 + 4.33e 0:5t + 1.33e 2t
io u (t) volts
Find i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.19. Assume that the circuit is initially relaxed.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 5.19

4t 4t

i (t) = 0.5 0.5e u (t)
us
Ans: te
E.P 5.20
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.20. Assume zero initial conditions. Use convolution theorem
to find i(t).
vt
Figure E.P. 5.20
t 5t (t 2) 5(t 2)
Ans: i (t) = e e
2 2
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E.P 5.21
There is no energy stored in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.21 at the time when the switch is
in
opened. Show that
sI (s)
V2 (s) = g
2
R1 1
C1 s + s+
L1 L 1 C1
n.
E.P 5.22
io
Figure E.P. 5.21
ut
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.22. If is (t) = 6u(t)mA, find v2 (t).
ol
Figure E.P. 5.22

us
Ans: v2 (t) = 10e 4000t cos (3000t 90 ) u (t) V
E.P 5.23
Find Vo (s) and vo (t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.23 if the initial energy is zero and the
switch is closed at t = 0
vt
Figure E.P. 5.23

5000t 10000t

Ans: vo (t) = 30 60e + 30e u (t)
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E.P 5.24
The initial energy in the circuit in Fig. E.P. 5.24 is zero.
in
(a) Find Vo (s).
(b) Use the initial and final value theorems to find vo (0+ ) and vo (1).
(c) Do the values obtained in part (b) agree with known circuit behaviour? Explain.
(d) Find vo (t).
n.
io
ut
Figure E.P. 5.24
21 103 s
+ 4200
Ans: (a) Vo (s) = 2
s (s + 8s + 25)

(b) vo 0+ = 0, vo () = 168V
ol
(c) YES
(d) vo (t) = 168 + 7225.95e 4t cos (3t + 91.33 ) u (t) V
E.P 5.25
us
s3 + 25 + 6
Find the initial and final value of H (s) =
s(s + 1)2 (s + 3)
Ans: 1, 2
E.P 5.26
Verify final value theorem and initial value theorem for the function,
f (t) = 2 + e 3t cos 2t
vt
E.P 5.27
Using the convolution theorem, find the Laplace inverse of the following functions:
1 1 s
(i) F (s) = (ii) F (s) = 2
(iii) F (s) =
s(s + 1) (s a) (s + 1)(s + 2)
Ans: (i) f (t) = 1 e t
(ii) f (t) = teat
(iii) f (t) = e t + 2e 2t 2e t
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E.P 5.28
In the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.28, find the voltage across the resistance vR (t) using convolution
in
integral. Given that vg (t) = e 2t and RC = 1 second.
n.
Ans: vR (t) = 2e 2t e t, t0
io
Figure E.P. 5.28
ut
E.P 5.29
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
3s 1 s2 + 3
(i) 2 (ii) (iii)
(s + 1)(s2 + 4) (s + 1)(s + 2)2 (s2 + 2s + 2)(s + 2)
(i) cos t cos 2t
ol
Ans:
(ii) e t e 2t (1 + t)
7 2t
(iii) e 2.5e t cos t + 0.5e t sin t
2
us
E.P 5.30
In the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.30, switch K is open for a long time so that steady state is
reached and at t = 0, switch is closed. Determine the current i(t) in 10 ohm resistor.
vt
Figure E.P.5.30
Ans: Current in each 10 Ω resistor = 2u(t) e 5t
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E.P 5.31
Synthesize the wave form shown in Fig. E.P. 5.31 using ramp function and obtain the Laplace
in
transform of f (t).
n.
Ans:
E.P
F (s) =
5.32
5
s2
[1 2e s + e 2s
]
io
Figure E.P.5.31
ut
Find the Laplace transform of the voltage wave form as shown in Fig. E.P. 5.32.
ol
us
Figure E.P.5.32
2
Ans: V (s) = [1 3e s + 5e 1:5s
6e 2s
+ 6e 3s
]
s2
E.P 5.33
Find the Laplace transform of the perodic wave forms shown in Figs. E.P. 5.33(a) and (b).
vt
Figure E.P.5.33(a)
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in
n.
Figure E.P.5.33(b)

1 1 2 1 1 2 1
Ans: (i) F (s) = 4s s2
e s + 2 e 2s e 2s
+ 2e 3s
e 4s
E.P
(ii) F (s) =
5.34
1
1
e
1
e

2s s
2
s
s
2
4e s
io s
2 2s
+ e
s
s s s2
ut
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.34, find the current transients in both the loops using Laplace
transformation method.
ol
us
Figure E.P.5.34
12 5 2t
Ans: i1 (t) = e e 5t Ampere; t 0
7 7
2 5 7t
i2 (t) = + e e 5t Ampere; t 0
7 7
vt
E.P 5.35
Find the Laplace transform of the saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. E.P. 5.35.
Figure E.P. 5.35
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V (1 e T s T se T s )
Ans: F (s) =
T s2 (1 e T s )
in
E.P 5.36
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.36 switch K is closed at t = 0. Determine the current i(t) for
t 0.
n.
io
ut
Figure E.P. 5.36
2t 5 5
Ans: i(t) = 0.357e e j 25t e j 25t
25 + j2 25 j2
E.P 5.37
ol
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.37, determine the source current when the switch K is closed
at t = 0. Assume zero initial conditions.
us
Figure E.P. 5.37

vt
Ans: i(t) = 2.57e t 0.57e 0:3t Amperes; t 0
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in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Chapter
in
Resonance
6
n.
6.1 Introduction io
ut
A.C Circuits made up of resistors, inductors and capacitors are said to be resonant circuits when
the current drawn from the supply is in phase with the impressed sinusoidal voltage. Then
1. the resultant reactance or susceptance is zero.

2. the circuit behaves as a resistive circuit.
ol
3. the power factor is unity.
A second order series resonant circuit consists of R, L and C in series. At resonance, voltages
across C and L are equal and opposite and these voltages are many times greater than the applied
us
voltage. They may present a dangerous shock hazard.

A second order parallel resonant circuit consists of R; L and C in parallel. At resonance,
currents in L and C are circulating currents and they are considerably larger than the input current.
Unless proper consideration is given to the magnitude of these currents, they may become very
large enough to destroy the circuit elements.
Resonance is the phenomenon which finds its applications in communication circuits: The
ability of a radio or Television receiver (1) to select a particular frequency or a narrow band of
vt
frequencies transmitted by broad casting stations or (2) to suppress a band of frequencies from
other broad casting stations, is based on resonance.
Thus resonance is desired in tuned circuits, design of filters, signal processing and control
engineering. But it is to be avoided in other circuits. It is to be noted that if R = 0 in a series
1
RLC circuit, the circuits acts as a short circuit at resonance and if R = in parallel RLC circuit,
the circuit acts as an open circuit at resonance.
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452 | Network Analysis
6.2 Transfer Functions

As ω is varied to achieve resonance, electrical quantities are expressed as functions of ω, normally
in
denoted by F (jω) and are called transfer functions. Accordingly the following notations are used.
V (jω)
Z(jω) = = Impedance function
I(jω)
I(jω)
n.
Y (jω) = = Admittance function
V (jω)
V2 (jω)
G(jω) = = Voltage ratio transfer function
V1 (jω)
I2 (jω)
α(jω) = = Current ratio transfer function
I1 (jω)
are treated later in this book.
6.3 Series Resonance io

If we put jω = s then the above quantities will be Z(s), Y (s), G(s), α(s) respectively. These
ut
Fig. 6.1 represents a series resonant circuit.
Resonance can be achieved by
1. varying frequency ω
2. varying the inductance L
ol
3. varying the capacitance C Figure 6.1 Series Resonant Circuit
The current in the circuit is

E E
I= =
R + j(XL − XC ) R + jX
us
At resonance, X is zero. If ω0 is the frequency at which resonance occurs, then

1 1
ω0 L = or ω0 = √ = resonant frequency.
ω0 C LC
V
The current at resonance is Im = = maximum current.
R
The phasor diagram for this condition is shown in Fig. 6.2.
The variation of current with frequency is shown in Fig. 6.3.
vt
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Resonance | 453
It is observed that there are two frequencies, one above and the other below the resonant
frequency, ω0 at which current is same.
1
in
Fig. 6.4 represents the variations of XL = ωL; XC = and |Z| with ω.
ωC
1
From the equation ω0 = √ we see that any constant product of L and C give a particular
LC
L
resonant frequency even if the ratio is different. The frequency of a constant frequency source
C
n.
can also be a resonant frequency for a number of L and C combinations. Fig. 6.5 shows how the
L
sharpness of tuning is affected by different ratios, but the product LC remaining constant.
C
io
ut
0
L
For larger ratio, current varies more abruptly in the region of ω0 . Many applications call for
C
ol
narrow band that pass the signal at one frequency and tend to reject signals at other frequencies.
6.4 Bandwidth, Quality Factor and Half Power Frequencies
At resonance I = Im and the power dissipated is

us
2
Pm = Im R watts.
Im
When the current is I = √ power dissipated is
2
Pm I2 R
= m watts.
2 2
vt
From ω − I characteristic shown in Fig. 6.3, it is observed that there are two frequencies
Im
ω1 and ω2 at which the current is I = √ . As at these frequencies the power is only one half of
2
that at ω0 , these are called half power frequencies or cut off frequencies.
current at half power frequencies Im 1
The ratio, =√ =√
Maximum current 2Im 2
1
When expressed in dB it is 20 log √ = −3dB.
2
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454 j Network Analysis
Therefore !1 and !2 are also called 3 dB frequencies.
pIm2 = pE2R , the

p2R = jR + j(XL XC )j
As magnitude of the impedance at half-power frequencies is
in
Therefore, the resultant reactance, X = XL XC = R.
The frequency range between half - power frequencies is !2 !1 , and it is referred to as
n.
passband or band width.
BW = !2 !1 = B:
R
L
The sharpness of tuning depends on the ratio , a small ratio indicating a high degree of
selectivity. The quality factor of a circuit can be expressed in terms of R and L of the inductor.
!0 L
Quality factor = Q =
R
io
Writing !0 = 2f0 and multiplying numerator and denominator by
Q = 2f0 12 ILIm2 R = 2 12ILI2mRT

2 1 2
I , we get,
1 2
2 m
ut
1
2 m 2 m
= 2 Maximum energy stored
total energy lost in a period
Selectivity is the reciprocal of Q.
ol
As Q = !R0 L and !0 L = ! 1C ;
0
Q = ! 1CR
0
us
and since !0 = pLC

1
, we have rL
Q= R C
1
6.5 Expressions for ω1 and ω2 , and Bandwidth

vt
At half power frequencies !1 and !2 ,
I = pE = 2 E
2R fR + (XL XC )2g 1
2
∴ jXL XC j = R i:e:; !L !C1 = R

At ! = !2 , R = !2 L ! 1C
2
Simplifying, !22 LC !2 CR 1=0
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Resonance j 455
Solving, we get
p s
!2 = RC + R C2 2 + 4LC R+ R 2
1
in
2LC 2L 2L LC
= + (6.1)
Note that only + sign is taken before the square root. This is done to ensure that !2 is always
positive.
At ! = !1 ,
R = 1 !1 L
n.
!1 C
) ! LC + !1 CR p1 = 0
2
1
!1 = RC + 2RLCC + 4LC
2 2
Solving;
s 2
=
R
2L
+
2L
io
R + 1
LC
While determining !1 , only positive value is considered.
Subtracting equation(6.1) from equation (6.2), we get
!2 !1 = RL = Band width.
(6.2)
ut
Since Q =
!0 L , Band width is expressed as
R
B = !2 !1 = RL = !Q0 :
ol
and therefore Q = ! !0 ! = !B0
2 1
Multiplying equations (6.1) and (6.2), we get
!1 !2 = 4RL2 + LC
2 1 R2 = 1 = !02
!0 = p !1 !2
4L2 LC
us
or
The resonance frequency is the geometric mean of half power frequencies.
R << 1 ; in which case Q 5
p
2L r
Normally
LC
Then; !1 2RL + LC
' 1
and !2
R+ 1
2L
' p
LC
vt
R + !0 and !2 = 2RL + !0
2L
=
∴ !0 = !1 +2 !2 = Arithmetic mean of !1 and !2

R = !0 , Equations for ! and ! as given by equations (6.1) and (6.2) can be expressed
Since
L Q 1 2
in terms of Q as s 2
!2 = 2Q + 2!Q0 + !02
! 0
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2 s 3
= !0 4 21Q + 1 + 21Q 5 2
in
2 s 3
Similarly !1 = !0 4 21Q + 1 + 21Q 5 2
n.
R << p 1 and then Q > 5.
2L
Normally,
LC
Consequently !1 and !2 can be approximated as
r1 R
!1 ' 2L + LC = 2L + !0 = B2 + !0
R
r1 R
!2 ' 2L + LC = + 2L + !0 = B2 + !0
R
! = !1 + !2 :
io
ut
so that 0
2
6.6 Frequency Response of Voltage across L and C
As frequency is varied, both the voltages across L and C increase with frequency upto !0 and
they are equal at !0 : But their maximum values do not occur at !0 : Vc reaches its maximum at
ol
! < !0 and VL reaches its maximum at ! > !0 . This can be verified by calculating the frequency
at which each occurs.
6.7 Expression for ω at which VL is Maximum

us
Current in the circuit shown in Figure 6.1 is
I=q E
R2 + !L 1
2
!C
Voltage across L is
vt
VL = !LI = q E!L
R2 + !L 1
2
!C
Squaring
E 2 ! 2 L2
VL2 =
R2 + !L !C1 2

dVL 2 = 0
This is maximum when
d!
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Resonance j 457
"( ) #
That is,
2
EL R !C !C 2! ! 2 !L L + !2C
1 1 1
in
2 2 2 2
+
!C
=0
1 2
R + !L !C = !L !C !L + !C
2 1 1
R2 + !2#L#
2 1 L 2 L#2
+ 2 2 2 = !#
1
!C C ! C2
n.
2
R ! C + 1 2! LC = 1
2 2 2 2
or !2 (2LC R2 C 2 ) = 2
!2 = 2LC 2 R2 C 2
Let this frequency be !L .

=
LC

1
io
1
R2 C
2L

ut
Then; !L2 = !02 1 1
1
s 2Q2
!L = !0 1
1
1 :
2Q 2
ol
That is, !L > !0 .
6.8 Expression for ω at which VC is Maximum
us
E q
Now VC =
!C R2 + !2 L 1
2
!C
VC2 = 2 2 2 E
2
! C R + !L !C
1 2
d 2
vt

d! (VC ) = 0:
That is,
" ( ( )#
E 2 !2 !L !C 1
L !2C 1
+ 2! R2 + !L !C 1 2
C2 2 =0
2
R 2
+ !L !C 1
= !L !C 1
!L + !C 1
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R 2 + ! 2 L2 + ! # L
C ! C2 ! L
1# 1# 2 2
2C 2
2 = # 2
L
in
2! 2 L2 + R2 = 2
C
!2 = 2 C2L2R = LC
L 2
1 R2
2L2
R C = !2 1
2
n.
1 1
=
LC 1
2 L 0
2Q2
Let this frequency be !C
r
!C = !0 1 2Q1 2
i:e:; ! C < !0
Variations of VC and VL as functions of !
are shown in Fig. 6.6.
io
ut
Figure 6.6
VC = r E E
We know that n (! 2 LC 1)2
o = p fR ! C 2 2 2 + (! 2 LC 1)2 g (6.3)
!C R
2 2 2 +
!2 C 2
ol
Consider ! 2 C 2 R2 + (! 2 LC 1)2 and at ! = !C . Then equation(6.3) becomes
1 2
!C C R
2 2 2
+ (!C LC 1) = ! 1
2
2Q
CR + ! 1
2 2
0
2 2 2
0
1
2Q2
LC 1
1 11
2
2
us
=
1
Q 1 2Q + ! 1 2Q ! 1 2
1 1 1
2 2 0 2 2
0
1 1 1 1 1
Q2 = 1
2Q2
+
4Q4
=
Q2 2Q4
+
4Q4
=
Q2 1
4Q2
LC = !0 !0 CR = Q1
1 2
since and
vt
Substituting the above expression in the denominator of equation (6.3), we get
Vcm = q EQ 1
1 4Q2
6.9 Selectivity with Variable L
In a series resonant circuit connected to a constant voltage, with a constant frequency, when L is
varied to achieve resonance, the following conditions prevail:
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Resonance j 459
1. XC is constant and I = q E when L = 0.

R2 + XC2
in
2. With increase in L; XL increases and Im =
V at X = X
R L C
3. With further increase in L; I proceeds to fall.
All these conditions are depicted in Fig. 6.7 VC max occurs at
!0 but VL max occurs at a point beyond !0 .
n.
L at which VL becomes a maximum is obtained in terms of
other constants.
VL = EXL
fR2 + (XL XC )2g 1
2
VL2 = R2 + (EX XL X )2
2 2
L
dVL = 0.
dXL
R
2
C

io Figure 6.7
ut
Therefore; 2
+ (XL XC )2 2XL = XL2 f2(XL XC )g
R2 + XL2 + XC2 2XL XC = XL2 XL XC
XL = R X+ XC
ol
2 2
Therefore;
C
Let the corresponding value of L is Lm .
Then; Lm = C (R2 + XC2 )
us
and L0 = value of L at !0 such that
!0 L = ! 1C :
0
6.10 Selectivity with Variable C

vt
In a series resonant circuit connected to a constant voltage, constant frequency supply, if C is

varied to achive resonance, the following conditions prevail:
1. XL is constant.
2. XC varies as inversely as C
when C = 0, I = 0.
when !C =
1
, I = Im = .
V
!L R
3. with further increase in C; I starts decreasing as shown in Fig. 6.8, where Cm is the value of
capacitance at maximum voltage across C and C0 is the value of the capacitance at !0 .
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C at which VC becomes maximum can be determined in

terms of other circuit constants as follows.
in
VC = p EXC
R2 + (XL XC )2
VC2 = R2 + (EX XC X )2
2 2
L C
n.
Figure 6.8
For maximim VC ;
dVC2 = 0
dXC
Then;
R2 + (XL XC )2 2XC X 2 f2(XL XC )( g
C 1) = 0
R2 + XL2 +XC2 2XL XC = XL XC +XC2
XC = R X+ XL
2 2
Let the correrponding value of C be Cm .

io L
ut
Then; Cm = R2 +L X 2 :
L
6.11 Transfer Functions

ol
6.11.1 Voltage ratio transfer function of a series resonant circuit and frequency response
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.9, we can

write
us
j!) =
H (j!) = VV0((j! R
s ) R + j !L 1
!C
=
1 + j !L
1
1
R !CR
n! L 1 ! o
vt
= Figure 6.9
1+j ! R!
0
0
0
!!0 CR
= h 1
i
1 + jQ !!0 !0
!
, !
= h!
1
i 1 tan 1
Q ! !!0
2 0
1+Q !0 2
2
!0 !
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Resonance j 461
Let be a measure of the deviation in ! from !0 . It is defined as
= ! ! !0 = !! 1
in
0 0
! !0 = ( + 1) 1 = ( + 1)2 1 2 + 2
Then
!0 ! +1 +1 =
+1
For small deviations from !0 ; << 1: Then,
n.
! !0
!0 ! ' 2
Then; H (j!) = 1 + j12Q = p 1 tan 1
2Q
1 + 4Q2 2
io
The amplitfude and phase response curves are as shown in Fig. 6.10.
ut
ol
Figure 6.10 (a) and (b): Amplitude and Phase response of a series resonance circuit
6.11.2 Impedance function

us
The Impedance as a function of j! is given by

Z (j!) = R + j !L !C 1
!L 1
=R 1+j
R! !CR
vt
= R 1 + jQ
! 0
s !0 !
! ! 0 2 , ! !0
=R 1+Q 2 tan Q
1
!0 ! !0 !
For small deviations from !0 , we can write
Z (j!) ' R[1 + j 2Q ] = R

p1 + 4Q tan 2 2 1
2Q
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6.12 Parallel Resonance
The dual of a series resonant circuit is often considered as a parallel resonant circuit and it is as
in
shown in Fig. 6.11.
The phasor diagram for resonance is shown in Fig. 6.12.
The admittance as seen by the current source is
Y (j!) = YR + YL + YC
n.
= + j !C
!L = G + jB
1 1
R
io
ut
Figure 6.11 Parallel Resonance Circuit Figure 6.12 Phasor Diagram
If the resonance occurs at !0 ; then the susceptance B is zero. That is,
!0 C = !1L
ol
0
or
!0 = p 1 rad= sec :
LC
us
At resonance,
IC 0 = IL0 = j!0 CRI
and
ILC = IC 0 + IL0 = 0
The quality factor, as in the case of series resonant circuit is defined as
vt
Q = 2 Energy
Maximum energy stored
dissipated in a period
CV 2
1
= 2 2 V 2 m
2 R T
1 m
= 2f0 CR = !0 CR:
Since !0 C = !1L ;
0
R
Q = ! L:
0
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Resonance j 463
On either side of !0 there are two frequencies at which

the voltage is same. At resonance, the voltage is maxi-
mum and is given by Vm = IR and is evident from the
in
response curve as shown in Fig. 6.13. At this frequency,
p pm V2
= m watts. The frequencies at which the
=
R
voltage is
1
p times the maximum voltage are called half
n.
2
power frequencies or cut off frequencies, since at these
frequencies,
Vp
Figure 6.13
2
p = R2
m
V 2
= m = half of the maximum power.
2R

At any ! ,
At !1 and !2 ;
jY j = p
Y = 1 + j !C
1
R
s
1 2
io 1
!L
!C !L 1
2
ut
2R
=
R +

Squaring,
2
2R2
1
=
R2
1
+ !C !L 1

ol
Therefore; !C !L
1 1
=
R
At ! = !2 ,
!2 C !1L = R1
us
!2 LC 1 = !R2 L
2
!22 LCR R !2 L = 0 p
!2 = L + L2LCR
2 + 4LCR2
Hence;
vt
Note that only positive sign is used before the square root to ensure that !2 is positive.
s 2
Thus; !2 = 2RC + 1 1 1
s2RC LC
+
2
Similarly; !1 = 1 1 1
2RC 2RC LC
+ +
So that, bandwidth
B = !2 !1 = RC
1
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2 2
and !1 !2 = 2RC
1
+
1
LC
1
2RC
in
= !02
1
! 0 = p !1 !2
=
LC
Thus;
!0 = p 1 Q = !0 RC = !RL
n.
As and
LC rC 0
R p
Q = LC = R
L L
1 B
s
Since
2RC
=
2
!2 = B2 +
!1 = B2 +
ioB +!
s2
B
2
2
2
0
+ !02
ut
and
2
Using B = !Q0 , 2 s 3
!2 = !0 4 21Q + 1 + 21Q 5 2
ol
2 s 3
and ! 1 = !0 4 21Q + 1 + 21Q 5 2
us
6.13 Transfer Function and Frequency Response
The transfer function for a parallel RLC circuit shown in

Fig. 6.14. is H (j! ), the current ratio transfer function.
H (j!) = II0 ((j! ) 1

vt
j!) RY (j!)
1
=
=
1
R R + j !C
1
1
1
= 1 + jR !C
1
1
Figure 6.14 Parallel RLC Circuit
!L !L
= !! CR
1
= 1! !
1+j 0
!0
0
!0 !L
!R 1 + jQ !0 0
!
As in the case of series resonance, here also let
= ! ! !0 = !! 1
0 0
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Resonance j 465
then,
! !0 = 2 + 2
!0 ! + 1
in
For << 1, for small deviations from !0
! !0 ' 2
!0 !
n.
Therefore,
H (j!) = 1 + j12Q
6.14 Resonance in a Two Branch RL
io
RC Parallel Circuit
Consider the two branch parallel circuit shown in Fig. 6.15. Let E be the voltage across each of
the parallel circuit shown in the figure. The vector diagram at resonance is shown in Figure 6.1.
ut
ol
us
Figure 6.15 Two branch Parallel Circuit Figure 6.16
The admittance of the circuit is Y (j! ) = GL jBL + GC + jBC

For resonance,
BL = BC
vt
If this occurs at ! = !0 ,
!0 L !C
1
0
then
RL2 + !02 L2 RC2 + ! 1C
=
2
0
2
!0 C
RC !0 C + 1
= 2 2 2
L(1 + !02 C 2 RC2 ) = C (RL2 + !02 L2 )

!02 (LC 2 RC2 L2 C ) = RL2 C L
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RL 2 C −1
ω02 = 2 − L2 C
LC 2 RC
in
2 C −L 2 − L
1 RL 1 RL
= 2 C −L
= C
LC (RC 2 − L
LC (RC C

2 − L
RL
1
Therefore, ω0 = √ C
n.
2 − L
LC RC C
This is the expression for resonant frequency. It is to be noted that
1. resonance is not possible for certain combination of circuit elements unlike in a series
circuit where resonance is always possible.
2. resonance is also possible by varying of RL or RC .
or
Consider the case where
2
RC
2
<
io L
L
C
2
< RL
2
ut
RL < < RC
C
In both these cases, the quantity under radical is negative and therefore resonance is not pos-
sible.
The admittance at resonance of the above parallel circuit is
! "
ol
RL RC
Y0 = 2 + X 2 + R2 + X 2
RL
S
L0 C C0
where XL0 and XC0 are the inductive and capacitive reactances respectively at resonance.

L
us
If RL = RC =
C
1
then ω0 = √
LC
as in R, L, C series circuit.

vt
L
If RL = RC =
C
which means
2 2 L
RL = RC = R2 = = XL XC .
C
XL XC
Then, BL − BC = 2 − 2
RL+ XL RC + XC2
2
1 1
= − =0
XL + XC XL + XC
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Resonance j 467
In this case, the circuit acts as a pure resistive circuit irrespective of frequency. That is, the
circuit is resonant for all frequencies.
in
In this case the circuit admittance is
Y RL + R C
=
RL + XL2 RC2 + XC2
2
R2 + X 2 + R2 + X 2
=R L C
n.
R4 + R2 (XL2 + XC2 ) + XL2 XC2
2R2 + XL2 + XC2
=R 4
2R + R2 (XL2 + XC2 )
2R2 + X 2 + X 2
R
= 2
=
1
R= L
io
rC
L
R 2R2 + XL2 + XC2
C
ut
rL
or Z =R= C
6.14.1 Resonance by varying inductance
ol
If resonance is achieved by varying only L in the circuit shown in Figure 6.15 but with constant
current constant frequency source, then the condition for resonance is
BL = BC
us
) R2 X+LX 2 = R2 X+CX 2 = XZ 2C where ZC2 = RC2 + XC2

L L C C C
Then; XL XC XL ZCq+ XC RL = 0
2 2 2
ZC2 ZC4 4XC2 RL2

Solving, forXL we get XL =
2XC
q 4 2 2
vt
Therefore;
C
L = 2 ZC ZC 4XC RL since XL XC = C
2 L
The following conditions arise:
1. If ZC4 > 4XC2 RL2 ; L has two values for the circuit to resonate.
2. For ZC4 = 4XC2 RL2 , L = 21 CZC2 for reasonance.
3. For ZC4 < 4XC2 RL2 , No value of L makes the circuit to resonate.
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6.14.2 Resonance by varying capacitance
As in the previous case, we have at resonance„
in
B L = BC
) XC XL
RC2 + XC2 = ZL2 ; where ZL = RL + XL
2 2 2
n.
Simplifying we get,
XC2 XL XC ZL2q+ RC2 XL = 0
ZL2 ZL4 4XL2 RC2
XC = 2XL
2L
q
Therefore;
The following conditions arise:

1. For ZL4
C=
io
ZL2 ZL4 4XL2 RC2
> 4XL2 RC2 , there are two values for C to resonante.

ut
2 , resonance occurs at C = 2L .
For Z44 = 4XL2 RC
2.
ZL2
3. For ZL4 < 4XL2 RC2 , no value of C makes the circuit to resonate.
ol
6.14.3 Resonance by varying RL or RC
It is often possible to adjust a two branch parallel combination to resonate by varying either RL
or RC . This is because, when the supply is of constant current and, constant frequency, these
resistors control inphase and quadratare components of the currents in the two parallel paths.
us
From the condition BL = BC , we get

XL = XC
RL + XL2 RC2 + XC2
2
RL2 = XXL R 2 + X X X 2
C L C L
rCXL
vt
RL = X RC2 + XL XC XL2 (6.4)

C
This equation gives the value of RL for resonance when all other quantities are constant and
the term under radical is positive.
Similarly if only RC is variable, keeping all other quantities constant, the value of RC for
resonanace is given by
r XC
RC = X RL2 + XL XC XC2
L
provided the term under radical is positive.
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Resonance | 469
6.15 Practical Parallel and Series Resonant Circuits
in
A practical resonant parallel circuit contains an inductive coil of resistance R and inductance L in
parallel with a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 6.17. It is called a tank circuit because it stores energy
in the magnetic field of the coil and in the electric field of the capacitor. Note that resistance RC
of the capacitor is negligibly small.
Condition for parallel resonance is shown by the phasor diagram of Fig. 6.18.
n.
IC = IL sin φ
That is, BC = BL
ωL
⇒
R2 + ω 2 L2
= ωC.
Let the value of ω which satisfy this condition be ω0 .
Then, R2 + ω02 L2 =
L io (6.5)
ut
C

L 1 1 R2 C
ω02 = − R2 = 1−
C L2 LC L

1 R2 C
ω0 = √ 1− (6.6)
ol
LC L
us

vt
Admittance of the circuit shown in figure 6.17 is

1
Y (jω) = + jωC
R + jωL
R jωL
= 2 − + jωC
R + ω 2 L2 R2 + ω 2 L2
At ω = ω0 , Y (jω) is purely real.
R
Hence, Y (jω0 ) = (6.7)
R2 + ω02 L2
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Substituting for ω0 in equation (6.7),

R R RC
in
Y (jω0 ) = 2 = L = (6.8)
R2 + ω0 L2
C
L
L
and the circuit is a pure resistive with R0 = , which is called the dynamic resistance of
CR
R2 C
n.
the circuit. This is greater than R if there is resonance. However, note that if > 1, there is
L
no resonance.
Fig. 6.19 shows a practical series resonant circuit. The input impedance as a function of ω is
G ωC
Z(jω) = jωL + −j 2
G2 2
+ω C 2 G + ω2C 2
Condition for resonance is
ωL = 2
ω2 =

C
ωC
G + ω 2 C2
− G2
1 1 1
− 2 2
io
ut
2
=
L C LC C R

1 L
= 1− Figure 6.19
LC CR2

1 L
ω=√ 1−
CR2
ol
LC
Impedance at resonance is
G G L
Z0 = = C =
G2 + ωC 2
L
CR
us
L
The circuit at resonance is a purely resistive, and Z0 = R0 = . However, note that here
L CR
also resonance is not possible for > 1.
CR2
In both the circuits, shown in Figs 6.18 and 6.19, resonance is achieved by varying either C or
L until the input impedance or admittance is real and this process is called tuning. For this reason
vt
these circuits are called tuned circuits.
Series circuits
EXAMPLE 6.1
Two coils, one of R1 = 0.51 Ω, L1 = 32 mH, the other of R2 = 1.3 Ω and L2 = 15 mH and
two capacitors of 25 μF and 62 μF are all in series with a resistance of 0.24 Ω. Determine the
following for this circuit
(i) Resonance frequency
(ii) Q of each coil
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Resonance | 471
(iii) Q of the circuit

(iv) Cut off frequencies
in
(v) Power dissipated at resonance if E = 10 V.
SOLUTION
From the given values, we find that
n.
Rs = 0.51 + 1.3 + 0.24 = 2.05Ω
Ls = 32 + 15 = 47 mH
25 × 62
Cs = μF = 17.816 μF
87
(i) Resonant frequency:
ω0 = √
=√
47 ×
1
Ls Cs
1
10−3
io
× 17.816 × 10−6
ut
= 1092.8 rad/ sec
(ii) Q of coils:
ω0 L1
For Coil 1, Q1 =
R1
ol
1092.8 × 32 × 10−3
= = 68.57
0.51
ω0 L2
For Coil 2, Q2 =
R2
1092.8 × 15 × 10−3
us
= = 12.6
1.3
(iii) Q of the circuit:

ω0 Ls
Q=
Rs
1092.8 × 47 × 10−3
= = 25
vt
2.05
(iv) Cut off frequencies: Band width is,

ω0 1092.8
B= = = 43.72
Q 25
Considering Q > 5, the cut off frequencies,
B
ω2,1 = ω0 ± = 1092.8 ± 21.856
2
Therefore, ω2 = 1115 rad/ sec and ω1 = 1071 rad/ sec .
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(v) Power dissipated at resonance:

Given E = 10 V
in
We know that at resonance, only the resistance portion will come in to effect. Therefore
P = ER
2 102
= 48:78 W
2:05
=
n.
EXAMPLE 6.2
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.20, find the out put voltages at
(i) ! = !0
(ii) ! = !1
! = !2
(iii)
when vs (t) = 800 cos !t mV.
io Figure 6.20
ut
SOLUTION
For the circuit, using the values given, we can find that resonant frequency
pLC
!0 = 1
ol
=p = 1:6 10 rad= sec
1 6
312 10 1:25 10
3 12
Quality factor:
Q = !R0 L
us
1:6 106 312 10 3
62:5 103
= =8
Band width:
B = !Q0
vt
1:6 106
= = 0:2 106 rad= sec
8
As Q > 5,
!2;1 = !0 B2
= (1:6 0:1)106 rad= sec
Hence; !2 = 1:7 106 rad= sec
and !1 = 1:5 106 rad= sec
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Resonance | 473
(i) Output voltage at ω0 :

Using the relationship of transfer function, we get
in
50Im
H(jω)|ω=ω0 =
62.5Im
= 0.8 0◦
Since the current is maximum at resonance and is same in both resistors,
n.
vo (t) = 0.8 × 800 cos(1.6 × 106 t) mV
= 640 cos(1.6 × 106 t) mV
√
At ω1 and ω2 , Zin = 2Rs ±45◦ . Therefore,
and
H(jω)|ω=ω1 =
Rout
Zin
=√
50
io
2 × 62.5
= 0.5657 45◦
H(jω)|ω=ω2 = 0.5657 45◦
45◦
ut
(ii) Out put voltage at ω = ω1
vo (t) = 0.5657 × 800 cos(1.6 × 106 t + 45◦ ) mv
= 452.55 cos(1.6 × 106 t + 45◦ ) mV
ol
(iii) Out put voltage at ω = ω2
vo (t) = 452.55 cos(1.6 × 106 t − 45◦ ) mV
EXAMPLE 6.3
In a series circuit R = 6 Ω, ω0 = 4.1 × 106 rad/sec, band width = 105 rad/sec. Compute L, C,
us
half power frequencies and Q.

SOLUTION
We know that Quality factor,
ω0 4.1 × 106
Q= = = 41
B 105
vt
ω0 L
Also, Q=
R
QR 41 × 6
Therefore, L= = = 60 μH
ω0 4.1 × 106
1
and Q=
ω0 CR
1
Hence, C=
ω0 QR
1
= 6
= 991.5 pF
4.1 × 10 × 41 × 6
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As Q > 5,
B 105
ω2,1 = ω0 ± = 4.1 × 106 ±
in
2 2
6
That is, ω2 = 4.15 × 10 rad/ sec
and ω1 = 4.05 × 106 rad/ sec
EXAMPLE 6.4
n.
In a series resonant circuit, the current is maximum when C = 500 pF and frequency is 1 MHz. If
C is changed to 600 pF, the current decreases by 50%. Find the resistance, inductance and quality
factor.
SOLUTION
Case 1
Given, io
C = 500 pF
ut
I = Im
f = 1 × 106 Hz
⇒ ω0 = 2π × 106 rad/ sec
We know that
ol
1
ω0 = √
LC
Therefore, Inductance,
1 1012
L= =
ω02 C
us
(2π × 106 )2 × 500

= 0.0507 mH
Case 2
When C = 600 pF,

vt
Im E
I= = ⇒ |Z| = 2R
2 2R
√
R2 + X 2 = 2R ⇒ X = 3R
X = XL − X C
1012
= 2π × 106 × 0.0507 × 10−3 −
2π × 106 × 600
= 318.56 − 265.26
√
= 53.3 Ω = 3R
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Resonance j 475
Therefore resistance,
p:3 = 30:77Ω
R = 53
in
3
Quality factor,
Q = !R0 L = 318 :56 = 10:35
30:77
EXAMPLE 6.5
n.
In a series circuit with R = 50 Ω, L = 0.05 H and C = 20 F, frequency is varied till the
voltage across C is maximum. If the applied voltage is 100 V, find the maximum voltage across
the capacitor and the frequency at which it occurs. Repeat the problem for R = 10 Ω.
SOLUTION
Case 1
Given R = 50 Ω,
We know that
L = 0.05 H, C = 20 F
!0 = p 1 = p0:05
10
io 3
ut
LC 20 = 103 rad/sec
! L 3 0:05
Q = R0 = 20 = 1
10
Using the given value of E = 100 V in the relationship
VCm = q QE 1
ol
1 4Q2
we get VCm = q100 1 = 115:5 V

us
1 4
r
and the corresponding frequency at this voltage is
!C = ! 1 1
2Q2
r1
0
= 103 = 707 rad= sec

vt
2
Case 2
When R = 10 Ω,
Q = 10 0:05 = 5
3
5 100
10
VCm = q = 502:5 V
1
r 1
1 4 25
!C = 103 1
50
= 990 rad= sec
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EXAMPLE 6.6
(i) A series resonant circuit is tuned to 1 MHz. The quality factor of the coil is 100. What is the
in
ratio of current at a frequency 20 kHz below resonance to the maximum current?
(ii) Find the frequency above resonance when the current is reduced to 90% of the maximum
current.
SOLUTION
(i) Let !a be the frequency 20 kHz below the resonance, Ia be the current and Za be the impedance
n.
at this frequency.
Then !a = 106
20 103 = 980 kHz
!a !0 = 980 103
!0 !a 103
Now the ratio of current,

=
Ia = R = 1
io980

40:408 10 3 = 2
ut
Im Za 1 + j (2)Q
1
=
1 j 100(40:408 10 3)
1
1 j 4:0408
=
ol
= 0:2402 /76
(ii) Let !b be the frequency at which Ib = 0:9Im

Ib
I = 1 + j1(2)Q = 0:9
us
Then
m
p1 + x 2
1
0:9
or =
where x = (2)100
Then; 1 + x2 = = 1:2346
1
0:81
vt
or x2 = 0:2346
and x = 0:4843
We know that
0:4843
= !!b 1=
0
200
0:4843

Hence !b = 1 + 200 !0
= 1:00242 MHz
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Resonance | 477
EXAMPLE 6.7
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.21, obtain the values of ω0 and vC at ω0 .
in
n.
Figure 6.21
SOLUTION
For the series circuit,
ω0 = √
=
1
LC
1
io = 103 rad/sec
ut
1
4× 4 × 10−6
At this ω0 , I = Im . Therefore,
V1 = 125Im
and the circuit equation is
ol
1.5 = V1 + (Im − 0 · 105V1 )10 + jVL − jVC
Since VL = VC , the above equation can be modified as
1.5 = 125Im + 10Im − 1.05 × 125Im
us
1.5
Hence, Im = A
3.75
1.5 4 × 106
and Vc = ×
3.75 103
= 1600 V
vt
EXAMPLE 6.8
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.22(a), obtain Zin and then find ω0 and Q.
Figure 6.22(a)
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SOLUTION
Taking I as the input current, we get
in
VR = 10I
and the controlled current source,
0:3VR = 0:3 10I
n.
= 3I
The input impedance can be obtained using the standard formula
Zin (j!) = Applied voltage V

=
I (6.6)
io
Input current
For futher analysis, the circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 6.22(b). It may be noted that the
controlled current source is transformed to its equivalent voltage source.
ut
ol
Figure 6.22(b)
Referring Fig. 6.22(b), the circuit equation may be obtained as

us
! j3010! j3
9
V = 10 + j 10 3
30! 10 9
I (6.7)

10 Ω
9
Zin = 10 + j 10 3
! 4
30!
vt
For resonance, Zin should be purely real. This gives
! = 4 3010
9
3
10
!
Rearranging,
!2 = 304 10103
9
= 0:133 1012
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Resonance j 479
Solving we get
! = !0 =
p0:133 10 12
in
= 365 10 rad= sec
3
Quality factor
Q = !R0 L
n.
=
365 10 10
3 3
10
= 36:5
Parallel circuits
EXAMPLE 6.9
io
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.23(a), find !0 , Q, BW and half power frequencies and the out put
voltage V at !0 .
ut
ol
Figure 6.23(a)
us
SOLUTION
Transforming the voltage source into current source, the circuit in Fig. 6.28(a) can be redrawn as
in Fig. 6.23(b).
Then; !0 = p 1
LC
vt
= p400109 100
= 5 10 rad= sec
6
Q = !0 CR
10 100 10 100 10
=5 6 12 3
= 50
B = = 5 10 = 10 rad= sec
! 6 Figure 6.23(b)
0 5
Q 50
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As Q > 10,
!2;1 = B2 + !0
in
10 102
5
6
=5
Hence; !2 = 5:05 M rad= sec and !1 = 4:95 M rad= sec
n.
Output voltage,
V = I 80 kΩ

10 3 80 103
=

j 5 106 400 10 6
= 0:04 90 V
EXAMPLE 6.10
io
In a parallel RLC circuit, C = 50 F. Determine BW, Q, R and L for the following cases.
(i) !0 = 100; !2 = 120

ut
(ii) !0 = 100; !1 = 80
SOLUTION
(i) !0 = 100; !2 = 120

!0 = p ! 1 ! 2
ol
We know that
Rearraging we get
!1 = !!0
2
us
2
1002
= = 83:33 rad=sec
120
Band width
B = !2 ! 1
= 120 83:33 = 36:67 rad= sec
vt
Quality factor,
Q = !B0
= 2:73
100
36:67
=
We know that
Q = !RL = !0 RC (6.8)
0
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Resonance j 481
Rearraging equation (6.8),

R = !QC
in
0
2:73 106
=
100 50
= 546 Ω
Similarly L = !2C 1
0
n.
106
=

1002 50
=2H
(ii) !0 = 100; !1 = 80: Solving the same way as in case (i), we get
2
!2 = 100 = 125
80
Q = 100
45
= 2:22
io
BW = B = 125 80 = 45 rad= sec
ut
EXAMPLE 6.11
In the circuit shown in Fig. 6.24(a), vs (t) = 100 cos !t volts. Find resonance frequency, quality
factor and obtain i1 ; i2 ; i3 . What is the average power loss in 10 kΩ. What is the maximum stored
energy in the inductors?
10k
ol
40k
us
SOLUTION Figure 6.24(a)

The circuit in Fig. 6.24(a) is redrawn by replacing its voltage source by equivalent current source
as shown in Fig. 6.24(b).
Resonance frequency,
!0 = p 1
vt
LC
= p50 10 1 1:25 10
3 6
Figure 6.24(b)
= 4000 rad= sec
Quality factor,
Q = !0 C Req
= 4000 1:25 10 8 10
6 3
= 40
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At resonance, the current source will branch into resistors only. Hence,
v(t) jj
= (10kΩ 40kΩ)
vs (t)
10000
in
= 80 cos 4000t volts
i1 (t) lags v(t) by 90 . Therefore,
i1 (t) = 50 10803 4000 sin 40000t
n.
= 400 sin 4000t mA
i2 (t) = 40 801000 cos 4000t
= 2 cos 4000t mA
Average power in 10 kΩ:

i3 (t) = i1 (t)
io
= 400 sin 4000t mA
ut
p
802
Pav = 10 103 2
= 0:32 W
Maximum stored energy in the inductance:
ol
E = 12 LIm2
=
1
2
50 10 3
(400 10 3 2
)
= 4 mJ
us
EXAMPLE 6.12
For the network shown in Fig. 6.25(a), obtain Yin and then use it to determine the resonance
frequency and quality factor.
vt
SOLUTION
Considering V as the input voltage and I as the input current, it can be found that
10kΩ IR = V ) 10 4
IR = V
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Resonance j 483
The circuit in Fig. 6.25(a) is redrawn by replacing the controlled voltage source in to its
equivalent current source by taking s = j! and is shown in Fig. 6.25(b). Referring Fig. 6.25(b),
1 1
in
10V
I = V sC + +
sL R1 sL
) I = V sC + R + sL
11
n.
Input admittance, with s is being replaced by j! is
Yin = VI = 1014 + j!1 10 8 j 11 103

! 4:4
= 10 4 + j! 10 8
j 2500
10 8
p !
io
!
At resonance, Yin should be purely real. This enforces that
! = 2500
ut
Therefore; !0 = 108 2500
= 500 K rad= sec
Quality factor:
ol
Q = !0 RC
= 500 10 10 10
3 4 8
= 50
us
EXAMPLE 6.13
In a parallel RLC circuit, cut off frequencies are 103 and 118 rad/sec. jZ j at ! = 105 rad/sec is
10 Ω. Find R, L and C .
SOLUTION
Given
!1 = 103 rad= sec

vt
!2 = 118 rad= sec

Therefore
B = 118 103 = 15 rad= sec
Resonant frequency,
!0 = p
p !1 !2
= 118 103 = 110:245 rad= sec
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Quality factor
ω0
in
Q=
B
110.245
= = 7.35
15
Admittance,
n.

1 1
Y = + j ωC −
R ωL

1 R
= 1 + j ωCR −
R ωL

Since
=
1
R
io
1+j
Q = ω0 RC =

ω0 ωCR
R
ω0 L

ω0
,
−
Rω0
ωω0 L

ut
1 ω ω0
we get Y = 1 + jQ −
R ω0 ω
ω ω0 105 110.245
Note that, − = − = −0.0975
ω0 ω 110.245 105
ol
1
Therefore, Y = (1 + j7.35(−0.0975))
R
1
= (1 − j0.7168) (6.12)
R

us
1 1.23
⇒ |Y | = 1 + (0.7168)2 =
R R
1
It is given that |Z| = 10 and therefore |Y | = . Putting this value of Y in equation (6.9), we
10
get
1 1
vt
= 1.23 ⇒ R = 12.3Ω
10 R
From the relationship Q = ω0 CR, we get
ω0 CR = 7.35
7.35 1
Therefore, C= ×
12.3 110.245
= 5.42 μF
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Resonance j 485
Inductance,
L = !21C
in
0
1
=
110: 2452 5:42 10 3
= 15:18 mH
EXAMPLE 6.14
n.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.26(a), find !0 , V1 at !0 , and V1 at a frequency 15 k rad/sec above
!0 .
Figure 6.26(a)
io
ut
SOLUTION
Changing voltage source of Fig. 6.26(a) into its equivalent current source, the circuit is redrawn
Referring Fig. 6.26(b),
ol
pLC
k
!0 = 1
=p
1
100 10 10 10
6 9 Figure 6.26(b)
us
= 10 rad=sec
6
Voltage across the inductor at !0 is,

V1 = j 106 3 10 5 109 3
= j 15 V
vt
Quality factor,
Q = !0 CR
= 106 10 10 5 109 3
= 50
Given !a = !0 + 15 k rad/sec
= 15 10 + 10
3 6
= 1:015 10 rad=sec
6
Now;
!a !0 = 1:015 1
= 0:03
!0 !a 1:015
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Using this relation in the equation,

1 ωa ω0
−
in
Y = 1 + jQ
R ω0 ωa
1
we get Y = (1 + j50 × 0.03)
5000
= 3.6 × 10−4 56.31◦
n.
The corresponding value of V1 is
V1 = I Y −1
= jωa × 3 × 10−9 × Y −1
io
j 1.015 × 106 × 3 × 10−9
3.6 × 10−4 56.31◦
= 8.444 33.69◦ V
ut
EXAMPLE 6.15
A parallel RLC circuit has a quality factor of 100 at unity power factor and operates at 1 kHz and
dissipates 1 Watt when driven by 1 A at 1 kHz. Find Bandwidth and the numerical values of R, L
and C.
SOLUTION
ol
Given f = 1 kHz, P = 1 W, I = 1 A, Q = 100, cos φ = 1
ω0 103 × 2π
B= = = 20π rad/sec
Q 100
us
P = I 2R
Therefore R=1Ω
R
L=
ω0 Q
1
vt
=
20π × 100
= 159 μH
1
C= 2
ω0 L
10
=
(20π)2 159
= 16.9 μF
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Resonance | 487
EXAMPLE 6.16
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.27, determine resonance frequency and the input impedance.
in
n.
SOLUTION
Equation for resonance frequency is io
Figure 6.27
ut
# ! "
$
$ 1 2 − L
RL
ωL = % C
LC RC2 − L
C

22 − 100
ol
1
=
0.1 × 10−3 1 − 100
= 98.47 rad/sec
We know that
us
XL = ω 0 L
= 98.47 × 0.1
= 9.847 Ω
1
and XC =
vt
ω0 C
1
=
98.47 × 10−3
= 10.16 Ω
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Admittance Y at resonance is purely real and is given by
Y = G1 + G2 + G3
in
2 1 1
= 2 + 5 + 2
2 + (0.1ω0 ) 1 + 10
3
ω0
2 1 1
n.
Y = + +
22+ 9.8472 5 1 + 10.162
= 0.23 S
and the input impedance,

1
EXAMPLE 6.17
Z=
Y
io
= 4.35 Ω
The impedance of a parallel RLC circuit as a function of ω is depicted in the diagram shown in
ut
Fig. 6.28. Determine R, L and C of the circuit. What are the new values of ω0 and bandwidth if
C is increased by 4 times?
ol
0.4
us

It can be seen from the figure that
ω0 = 10 rad/sec
B = 0.4 rad/sec
R = 10 Ω
vt
Then Quality factor

ω0 10
Q= = = 25
BW 0.4
We know that
R 10
L= = = 0.04 H
ω0 Q 10 × 25
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Resonance j 489
As Q = !0 CR,
10 = 0:25 F
C = 10 25
in
If C is increased by 4 times, the new value of C is 1 Farad. Therefore,
!0 = p 1 = p01:04 = 5
LC
n.
and the corresponding bandwith
B = RC
1
= 0: 1
EXAMPLE 6.18
In a two branch RL RC parallel resonant circuit, L = 0:4 H and C = 40 F. Obtain resonant
frequency for the following values of RL and RC .
(i) RL = 120; RC = 80
RL = RC = 80
io
ut
(ii)
(iii) RL = 80; RC = 0
(iv) RL = RC = 100
(v) RL = RC = 120
ol
SOLUTION
As RL and RC are given separately, we can use the following formula to calculate the resonant
frequency.
v
u !
1 u
us
!0 =p t RL2 L
C (6.10)
LC RC2 L
C
Let us compute the following values
LC = 0:4 40 10 6
10
vt
6
= 16
pLC
1
= 250
L = 104
C
(i) RL = 120; RC = 80
Using equation (6.10), r 120 2 104
!0 = 250 502 104
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As the result is an imaginary number resonance is not possible in this case.
(ii) RL = RC = 80
in

802 − 104
ω0 = 250
802 − 104
= 250 rad/sec
n.
(iii) RL = 80; RC = 0

802 − 104
ω0 = 250
−104
= 150 rad/sec
(iv) RL = RC = 100
io
ω0 = 250

1002 − 104
1002 − 104
As the result is indeterminate, the circuit resonates at all frequencies.
ut
(v) RL = RC = 120

1202 − 104
ω0 = 250
1202 − 104
ol
= 250 rad/sec
EXAMPLE 6.19
The following information is given in connection with a two branch parallel circuit:
RL = 10 Ω, RC = 20 Ω, XC = 40 Ω, E = 120 V and frequency = 60 Hz. What are the
us
values of L for resonance and what currents are drawn from the supply under this condition?
SOLUTION
As the frequency is constant, the condition for resonance is
XL XC
2 2 = 2
RL + XL RC + XC2
vt
XL 40 1
⇒ 2 2 = 2 2
=
10 + XL 20 + 40 50
⇒ XL2 − 50XL + 100 = 0
Solving we get
XL = 47.913 Ω or 2.087 Ω
Then the corresponding values of inductances are
XL
L= = 0.127 H or 5.536 mH
ω
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Resonance | 491
The supply current is
I = EG = E (GL + GC )
in

10
Thus, I = 120 + 0.02 = 1.7 A for XL = 47.913 Ω
102 + 47.9132

10
or I = 120 + 0.02 = 12.7 A for XL = 2.087 Ω
102 + 2.0872
n.
Exercise Problems
E.P 6.1
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.1, where Ri is the source resistance
(a) Determine the transfer function of the circuit.
io
(b) Sketch the magnitude plot with Ri = 0 and Ri = 0.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 6.1
R
Vo (s)
L s
Ans: H(s) = =
Vi (s) s2 + R +R i
s+ 1
L LC
us
E.P 6.2
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.2, calculate the following:
(a) f0 , (b) Q, (c) fc1 , (d) fc2 and (e) B
vt
Figure E.P. 6.2
Ans: (a) 254.65 kHz (b) 8 (c) 239.23 kHz (d) 271.06 kHz (e) 31.83 kHz
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E.P 6.3
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.3, find the output voltage, when (a) ! = !0 (b) ! = !1 , and
in
(c) ! = !c2 .
n.
Figure E.P. 6.3
Ans: (a) 640 cos(1.6 106 t)mV

(b) 452.55 cos(1.5 106 t + 45 )mV
(c) 452.55 cos(1.7 106 t 45 )mV
E.P 6.4
io
ut
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.4. Calculate Zi (s) and then find (a) !0 and (b) Q.
ol
Figure E.P. 6.4

us
Ans: (a) 364.69 krad/sec, (b) 36
E.P 6.5
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.5. Show that at resonance, jVoj max = GQjV j
1
s
1
4Q2
.
vt
Figure E.P. 6.5
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Resonance j 493
E.P 6.6
Refer the circuit given in Fig. E.P. 6.6, calculate !0 ; Q and jVoj max
in
n.
Figure E.P. 6.6
Ans: 3513.64 rad/sec, 26.35, 316 volts.
E.P 6.7
io
A parallel network, which is driven by a variable frequency of 4 A current source has the following
values: R = 1 kΩ , L = 10 mH, C = 100 F. Find the band width of the network, the half
ut
power frequenies and the voltage across the network at half-power frequencies.
Ans: 10 rad/sec, 995 rad/sec, 10005 rad/sec
E.P 6.8
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 6.8, determine the expression for the magnitude response, jZinj
versus ! and Zin at !0 = pLC
ol
1
.
us
Figure E.P. 6.8

qR !2 RLC )2 +(!L)2 ,
(a) jZin j = (
(b) jZin j = G 1
vt
1+(!RC )2
Ans: C
L (1+R2 C
L)
E.P 6.9
A coil under test may be represented by the model of L in series with R. The coil is connected in
series with a variable capacitor. A voltage source v (t) = 10 cos 1000 t volts is connected to the
coil. The capacitor is varied and it is found that the current is maximum when C = 10F. Also,
when C = 12:5F, the current is 0.707 of the maximum value. Find Q of the coil at ! = 1000
rad/sec.
Ans: 5
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E.P 6.10
A fresher in the devices lab for sake of curiosity sets up a series RLC network as shown in Fig.
in
E.P.6.10. The capacitor can withstand very high voltages. Is it safe to touch the capacitor at
resonance? Find the voltage across the capacitor.
n.
Figure E.P. 6.10
Ans: Not safe, jVc jmax = 1600 V
io
ut
ol
us
vt
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Chapter
in
Two Port Networks
7
n.
7.1 Introduction
io
ut
A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as a port.
A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair of terminals; the current entering one
terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net current entering the port equals zero.
There are several reasons why we should study two-ports and the parameters that describe them.
For example, most circuits have two ports. We may apply an input signal in one port and obtain
ol
an output signal from the other port. The parameters of a two-port network completely describes
its behaviour in terms of the voltage and current at each port. Thus, knowing the parameters of a
two port network permits us to describe its operation when it is connected into a larger network.
Two-port networks are also important in modeling electronic devices and system components.
us
For example, in electronics, two-port networks are employed to model transistors and Op-amps.
Other examples of electrical components modeled by two-ports are transformers and transmission
lines.
Four popular types of two-ports param-
eters are examined here: impedance, admit-
tance, hybrid, and transmission. We show
the usefulness of each set of parameters,
vt
demonstrate how they are related to each

other.
Fig. 7.1 represents a two-port network.
A four terminal network is called a two-port
network when the current entering one ter-
Figure 7.1 A two-port network
minal of a pair exits the other terminal in
the pair. For example, I1 enters terminal a and exits terminal b of the input terminal pair a-b.
We assume that there are no independent sources or nonzero initial conditions within the linear
two-port network.
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7.2 Admittance parameters
in
The network shown in Fig. 7.2 is assumed to be linear
and contains no independent sources. Hence, princi-
ple of superposition can be applied to determine the
current I1 , which can be written as the sum of two
components, one due to V1 and the other due to V2 .
n.
Using this principle, we can write
I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
Figure 7.2 A linear two-port network
where y11 and y12 are the constants of proportionality
with units of Siemens.
In a similar way, we can write
io
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2
ut
Hence, the two equations that describe the two-port network are
I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2 (7.1)

I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2 (7.2)
ol
Putting the above equations in matrix form, we get

I1 y11 y12 V1
=
I2 y21 y22 V2
us
Here the constants of proportionality y11 ; y12 ; y21

and y22 are called y parameters for a network. If
these parameters y11 , y12 , y21 and y22 are known,
then the input/output operation of the two-port is
completely defined.
From equations (7.1) and (7.2), we can determine
y parameters. We obtain y11 and y21 by connecting
vt
a current source I1 to port 1 and short-circuiting port

Figure 7.3 Determination of y11 and y12
2 as shown in Fig. 7.3, finding V1 and I2 , and then
calculating,

I1 I2
y11 = y21 =
V1 V2 =0 V1 V2 =0
Since y11 is the admittance at the input measured in siemens with the output short-circuited,
it is called short-circuit input admittance. Similarly, y21 is called the short-circuit transfer admit-
tance.
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Two Port Networks j 497
Similarly, we obtain y12 and y22 by connecting a current source I2 to port 2 and short-
circuiting port 1 as in Fig. 7.4, finding I1 and V2 , and then calculating,

in
I1 I2
y12 = y22 =
V2 V1 =0 V2 V1 =0
y12 is called the short-circuit trans-
fer admittance and y22 is called the short-
n.
circuit output admittance. Collectively the
y parameters are referred to as short-circuit
admittance parameters.
Please note that y12 = y21 only when
there are no dependent sources or Op-amps
within the two-port network.
EXAMPLE 7.1
io Figure 7.4 Determination of y12 and y22
Determine the admittance parameters of the T network shown in Fig. 7.5.

ut
ol
Figure 7.5
SOLUTION
To find y11 and y21 , we have to short the output terminals and connect a current source I1 to the
us
input terminals. The circuit so obtained is shown in Fig. 7.6(a).
V1 V1
I1 =
22
=
5
4+
2 + 2
I1 1
Hence; y11 =
vt
= S
V1 V2 =0 5
I1 2 I1
I2 = =
2 + 2 2 Figure 7.6(a)
1 V1
) I2 =
2 5

I2 1
Hence; y21 = = S
V1 V2 =0 10
Vtusolution.in
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To find y12 and y22 , we have to short-circuit the input terminals and connect a current source
I2 to the output terminals. The circuit so obtained is shown in Fig. 7.6(b).
V2
in
I2 =
42
2+
4+2
V2
=
4
n.
2+
3
3V2
=
10

I2 3
Hence; y22 = = S
)
V2 V1 =0 10
I1 =
io
Employing the principle of current division, we have
I2 2
2+4
2I2
Figure 7.6(b)
ut
I1 =
6
) I1 =
1 3V2
3 10

I1 1
Hence; y12 = = S
ol
V2 V1 =0 10
It may be noted that, y12 = y21 . Thus, in matrix form we have
I = YV
2 3 2 1 1 32 3
I1 V1
us
) 4 5=6 4
5 10 7 4
5 5
1 3
I2 V2
10 10
EXAMPLE 7.2
Find the y parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.7. Then determine the current in a
vt
4Ω load, that is connected to the output port when a 2A source is applied at the input port.
Figure 7.7
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SOLUTION
To find y11 and y21 , short-circuit the output terminals and connect a current source I1 to the input
in
terminals. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.8(a).
V1 V1
I1 =
1Ωjj2Ω 12
=
1+2
n.
) 3
I1 = V 1
2
I1 3
Hence; y11 = = S
V1 V2 =0 2
)
I2 =
io
I1 1
1+2
Figure 7.8(a)
ut
1
I2 = I1
3
) I2 =
1 3
3 2
V1
I2 1
Hence; y21 = = S
ol
V1 2
To find y12 and y22 , short the input terminals and connect a current source I2 to the output
terminals. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.8(b).
us
V2
I2 =
2Ωjj3Ω
V2 5V2
23
= =
6
2+3

I2
vt
5
y22 = = S
V2 V1 =0 6
Figure 7.8(b)
Employing the current division principle,
I2 3
I1 =
2+3
) 3
I1 = I2
5
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) I1 =
3 5V2
5 6
in
) I1 =
1
2
V2
I1 1
Hence; y12 = = S
V2 V1 =0 2
n.
Therefore, the equations that describe the two-port network are
3 1
I1 = V 1 V2 (7.3)
2 2
1 5
I2 = V1 + V2 (7.4)
Putting the above equations (7.3) and

(7.4) in matrix form, we get
2 3 1 32
V1
3 2
I1
3 io
2 6
ut
6 2 2 74 5=4 5
4 5
1 5
V2 I2
2 6
Referring to Fig. 7.8(c), we find that
I1 = 2A and V2 = 4I2
ol
Figure 7.8(c)
Substituting I1 = 2A in equation (7.3),
we get
3 1
2 = V1 V2 (7.5)
4 2
us
Multiplying equation (7.4) by 4, we get

20
4I2 = 2V1 V2
6
) V2 = 2V1
20
V2
6
vt
) 0 = 2V1
20
6
+ 1 V2
) 0=
2
1 13
V 1 + V2
12
(7.6)

2 3 1 32 3 2 3
V1 2
6 2 2 74 5=4 5
4 5
1 13
V2 0
2 12
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It may be noted that the above equations are simply the nodal equations for the circuit shown
in Fig. 7.8(c). Solving these equations, we get
in
3
V2 = V
2
1 3
and hence, I2 = V2 = A
4 8
n.
EXAMPLE 7.3
Refer the network shown in the Fig. 7.9 containing a current-controlled current source. For this
network, find the y parameters.
io
ut
Figure 7.9
SOLUTION
To find y11 and y21 short the output terminals and connect a current source I1 to the input
ol
terminals. The resulting circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 7.10(a) and it is further reduced
to Fig. 7.10(b).
us
vt
Figure 7.10(a)
V1
I1 =
22
2+2
) I1 = V1

I1
Hence; y11 = = 1S
V1 V2 =0
Figure 7.10(b)
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Applying KCL at node A gives (Referring to Fig. 7.10(a)).

I3 + I2 = 3I1
in
V1
) 2
+ I2 = 3I1
V1
) 2
+ I2 = 3V1
) 5V1
n.
= I2
2
I2 5
Hence; y21 = = S
V1 2
To find y22 and y12 , short the input terminals and connect a current source I2 at the output
io
terminals. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.10(c) and further reduced to Fig.
7.10(d).
ut
ol
Figure 7.10(c)
V2
I2 = I01 =
2
V2
)
us
I1 =
2
I1 1
Hence; y12 = = S
V2 2
Applying KCL at node B gives
vt
V2 V2
I2 = + + 3I1
2 2
V2
But I1 =
2
V2 V2 V2
Hence; I2 = + 3
2 2 2
I2
) y22 =
V2 V1 =0
= 0:5S
Figure 7.10(d)
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Short-cut method:
Referring to Fig. 7.9, we have KCL at node V1 :
in
V1 V1 V2
I1 = +
2 2
= V1 0:5V2
Comparing with
n.
I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
we get
y11 = 1S and y12 = 0:5S
KCL at node V2 :
I2 = 3I1 +
2
+
io
V2 V2 V1
= 3 [V1 0:5V2 ] +
2
V2 V2 V1
2
+
2
ut
) 5
I2 = V1 0:5V2
2
Comparing with I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2
we get
y21 = 2:5S and y22 = 0:5S
ol
EXAMPLE 7.4
Find the y parameters for the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.11.
us
vt
Figure 7.11
SOLUTION
To find y11 and y21 short-circuit the output terminals as shown in Fig. 7.12(a). Also connect a
current source I1 to the input terminals.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.12(a)
KCL at node V1 :
I1 =
io
V1 V1 Va
1
+
1
2
ut
) 3V1 2Va = I1 (7.7)
KCL at node Va :
Va V1 Va 0
+ + 2V1 = 0
ol
1 1
2
) 2Va 2V1 + Va + 2V1 = 0
) Va = 0 (7.8)
us
Making use of equation (7.8) in (7.7), we get
3V1 = I1

I1
Hence; y11 = = 3S
V1 V2 =0
vt
Since Va = 0, I2 = 0,

I2
) y21 =
V1 V2 =0
= 0S
To find y22 and y12 short-circuit the input terminals and connect a current source I2 to the
output terminals. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.12(b).
Vtusolution.in
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in
n.
Figure 7.12(b)
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V2 Va
1
+
1
= I2
io
ut
2
) 3V2 Va = I2 (7.9)
KCL at node Va :
Va V2 Va 0
ol
+ +0=0
1 1
2
) 3Va V2 = 0
1
or Va = V 2 (7.10)
us
1
3V2 V 2 = I2
3
) 8
V 2 = I2
vt
3
I2 8
Hence; y22 = = S
V2 3
1
We have; Va = V2 (7.11)
3
Also; I1 + I 3 = 0
) I1 = I3
Va
= = 2Va (7.12)
1
2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
I1 1
in
= V2
2 3
I1 2
Hence; y12 = = S
V2 V1 =0 3
n.
EXAMPLE 7.5
Find the y parameters for the resistive network shown in Fig. 7.13.
io
ut
Figure 7.13
SOLUTION
ol
Converting the voltage source into an equivalent current source, we get the circuit diagram shown
in Fig. 7.14(a).
To find y11 and y21 , the output terminals of Fig. 7.14(a) are shorted and connect a current
source I1 to the input terminals. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 7.14(b).
us
vt
KCL at node V1 :
V1 V1 V2
+ = I1 + 3V1
2 1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Since V2 = 0, we get
V1
+ V1 = I1 + 3V1
in
2
) I1 =
3
2
V1
I1 3
Hence; y11 = = S
V1 V2 =0 2
n.
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V2 V1
+ 3V1 + = I2
2 1
Hence
)
0 + 3V1 V1 = I2
I2 = 2V1
y21 =
I1
V2 io
= 2S
ut
To find y21 and y22 , the input terminals of Fig. 7.14(a) are shorted and connect a current
source I2 to the output terminals. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 7.14(c).
ol
us
Figure 7.14(c)
vt
Figure 7.14(d)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V2 0
in
+ = I2
2 1
) 3
2
V 2 = I2
I2 3
Hence; y22 = = S
n.
V2 2
KCL at node V1 :
V1 V1 V2
I1 = + =0
2 1
Hence;
io
I1 = V2
I1
ut
y12 = = 1S
V2
EXAMPLE 7.6
The network of Fig. 7.15 contains both a dependent current source and a dependent voltage
source. Find the y parameters.
ol
us
Figure 7.15
vt
SOLUTION
While finding y parameters, we make use of KCL equations. Hence, it is preferable to have current
sources rather than voltage sources. This prompts us to convert the dependent voltage source into
an equivalent current source and results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 7.16(a).
To find y11 and y21 , refer the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 7.16(b).
KCL at node V1 :
V1 V1 V2
+ + 2V1 = 2V2 + I1
1 1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.16(a)
io
ut
ol
Figure 7.16(b)
us
V1 + V1 + 2V1 = I1
) 4V1 = I1
I1
Hence; y11 = = 4S
V1
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V2 V1
vt
+ = 2V1 + I2
1 1
V1 = 2V1 + I2
) 3V1 = I2

I2
Hence; y21 = = 3S
V1 V2 =0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
To find y22 and y12 , refer the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 7.16(c).
KCL at node V1 :
V1 V1 V2
in
+ + 2V1 = 2V2 + I1
1 1
V2 = 2V2 + I1
) 3V2 = I1
n.

I1
Hence; y12 = = 3S
V2 V1 =0
io
ut
ol
Figure 7.16(c)
KCL at node V2 :
V2 V2 V1
+ = 2V1 + I2
1 1
us
V2 + V2 = 0 + I2
) 2V2 = I2

I2
Hence; y22 = = 2S
V2 V1 =0
vt
7.3 Impedance parameters
Let us assume the two port network shown in Fig. 7.17 is a

linear network that contains no independent sources. Then
using superposition theorem, we can write the input and out-
put voltages as the sum of two components, one due to I1
and other due to I2 :
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
Figure 7.17
Vtusolution.in
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Putting the above equations in matrix from, we get

V1 z11 z12 I1
in
=
V2 z21 z22 I2
The z parameters are defined as follows:

V1 V1 V2 V2
n.
z11 = z12 = z21 = z22 =
I1 I2 =0 I2 I1 =0 I1 I2 =0 I2 I1 =0
In the preceeding equations, letting I1 or I2 = 0 is equivalent to open-circuiting the input or

output port. Hence, the z parameters are called open-circuit impedance parameters. z11 is defined
as the open-circuit input impedance, z22 is called the open-circuit output impedance, and z12 and
z21 are called the open-circuit transfer impedances.
identical, then it is called a symmetrical network.
EXAMPLE 7.7
io
If z12 = z21 , the network is said to be reciprocal network. Also, if all the z-parameter are
ut
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 7.18. Find the z parameters of this circuit. Then compute the

current in a 4Ω load if a 24 0 V source is connected at the input port.
ol
us
Figure 7.18
SOLUTION
To find z11 and z21 , the output terminals are open circuited. Also connect a voltage source V1 to
vt
the input terminals. This gives a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 7.19(a).
Figure 7.19(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying KVL to the left-mesh, we get
12I1 + 6I1 = V1
in
) V1 = 18I1

V1
Hence; z11 = = 18Ω
I1 I2 =0
n.
Applying KVL to the right-mesh, we get
V2 + 3 0 + 6I1 = 0
) V2 = 6I1
V2
Hence; z21 = = 6Ω
io
I1
To find z22 and z12 , the input terminals are open circuited. Also connect a voltage source V2
to the output terminals. This results in a network as shown in Fig. 7.19(b).
ut
ol
Figure 7.19(b)

us
V1 = 12 0 + 6I2
) V1 = 6I2

V1
Hence; z12 = = 6Ω
I2 I1 =0

vt
V2 + 3I2 + 6I2 = 0
) V2 = 9I2

V2
Hence; z22 = = 9Ω
I2 I1 =0
The equations for the two-port network are, therefore
V1 = 18I1 + 6I2 (7.13)

V2 = 6I1 + 9I2 (7.14)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The terminal voltages for the network shown in Fig. 7.19(c) are

V1 = 24 0 (7.15)
in
V2 = 4I2 (7.16)
n.

io
Figure 7.19(c)
Combining equations (7.15) and (7.16) with equations (7.13) and (7.14) yields
24 0 = 18I1 + 6I2
0 = 6I1 + 13I2
ut

Solving, we get I2 = 0:73 0 A
EXAMPLE 7.8
Determine the z parameters for the two port network shown in Fig. 7.20.
ol
us
Figure 7.20
SOLUTION
To find z11 and z21 , the output terminals are open-circuited and a voltage source is connected to
vt
the input terminals. The resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 7.21(a).
Figure 7.21(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
By inspection, we find that I3 = V1

Applying KVL to mesh 1, we get
in
R1 (I1 I3 ) = V1
) R1 I1 R1 I3 = V1
) R1 I1 R1 V1 = V1
)
n.
(1 + R1 ) V1 = R1 I1

V1 R1
Hence; z11 = =
I1 I2 =0 1 + R1
Applying KVL to the path V1 ! R2 ! R3 ! V2, we get

V 1 + R 2 I3
Since I2 = 0 and I3 = V1 , we get io R3 I2 + V2 = 0

ut
V1 + R2 V1 0 + V2 = 0
) V2 = V1 (1 R2 )
R 1 I1
= (1 R2 )
1 + R1

ol
V2 R1 (1 R2 )
Hence; z21 = =
I1 I2 =0 1 + R1
The circuit used for finding z12 and z22 is shown in Fig. 7.21(b).
us
vt
Figure 7.21(b)
By inspection, we find that
I2 I3 = V1 and V1 = I3 R1
) I2 I3 = (I3 R1 )
) I3 (1 + R1 ) = I2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying KVL to the path R3 ! R2 ! R1 ! V2, we get

R3 I2 + (R2 + R1 ) I3 V2 = 0
in
I2
) R3 I2 + (R2 + R1 )
1 + R1
= V2

R2 + R1
) I2 R 3 +
1 + R1
= V2

n.
V2
Hence; z22 =
I2 I1 =0
R2 + R1
= R3 + Ω
1 + R1
) V1 +

R1

io
V1 + I3 = I2
V1
= I2
ut
) V1 +
1
R1
= I2

V1
) z12 =
I2 I1 =0
=
1
1
+
R1
ol
R1
=
1 + R1
EXAMPLE 7.9
Construct a circuit that realizes the following z parameters.
us

12 4
z=
4 8
SOLUTION

z11 z12
vt
Comparing z with = , we get

z21 z22
z11 = 12Ω; z12 = z21 = 4Ω; z22 = 8Ω
Let us consider a T network as shown in Fig. 7.22(a). Our objective is to fit in the values of
R1 ; R2 and R3 for the given z.
Applying KVL to the input loop, we get
V1 = R1 I1 + R3 (I1 + I2 )
= (R 1 + R 3 ) I 1 + R 3 I 2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Comparing the preceeding equation with
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
in
we get
z11 = R1 + R3 = 12Ω
z12 = R3 = 4Ω
n.
) R1 = 12 R3 = 8Ω
Figure 7.22(a)
Applying KVL to the output loop, we get
V2 = R2 I2 + R3 (I1 + I2 )
)
Comparing the immediate preceeding
equation with io
V2 = R3 I1 + (R2 + R3 ) I2
ut
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
we get
z21 = R3 = 4Ω
ol
z22 = R2 + R3 = 8Ω Figure 7.22(b)
) R2 = 8 R3 = 4Ω
Hence, the network to meet the given z parameter set is shown in Fig. 7.22(b).
us
EXAMPLE 7.10

40 10
If z = Ω for the two-port network, calculate the average power delivered to 50Ω
20 30
resistor.
vt
Figure 7.23
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
We are given z11 = 40Ω z12 = 10Ω z21 = 20Ω z22 = 30Ω
Since z12 6= z21 , this is not a reciprocal network. Hence, it cannot be represented only by
in
passive elements. We shall draw a network to satisfy the following two KVL equations:
V1 = 40I1 + 10I2
V2 = 20I1 + 30I2
n.
One possible way of representing a network that is non-reciprocal is as shown in Fig. 7.24(a).
io
ut
Figure 7.24(a)
Now connecting the source and the load to the two-port network, we get the network as shown
in Fig. 7.24(b).
ol
us
Figure 7.24(b)
KVL for mesh 1:

vt
60I1 + 10I2 = 100

) 6I1 + I2 = 10
KVL for mesh 2:
80I2 + 20I1 = 0
) 4I2 + I1 = 0
) I1 = 4I2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Solving the above mesh equations, we get
24I2 + I2 = 10
in
) 23I2 = 10
) I2 =
10
23
= j I2 j 2 R L
n.
Power supplied to the load
=
100
(23)2
50
= 9:45 W
EXAMPLE 7.11
io
Refer the network shown in Fig. 7.25. Find the z parameters for the network. Take =
4
3
ut
ol
Figure 7.25
SOLUTION
To find z11 and z21 , open-circuit the output terminals as shown in Fig. 7.26(a). Also connect a
us
voltage source V1 to the input terminals.

vt
Figure 7.26(a)
Applying KVL around the path V1 ! 4Ω ! 2Ω ! 3Ω, we get

4I1 + 5I3 = V1 (7.17)
V2
Also; V2 = 3I3 ; so I3 = (7.18)
3
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
KCL at node b leads to
I1 V2 I3 = 0
in
(7.19)

V2 1
I 1 = V2 + = + V2
n.
3 3

4 1
= + V2
3 3

V2 3
Hence; z21 = = Ω
I1 I2 =0 5
V1 = 4I1 + 5
V2
3

io
ut
V2
I1
5 3 3
= 4I1 + Since =
3 5 I1 5
V1
Therefore; z11 = = 5Ω
I1
ol
To obtain z22 and z12 , open-circuit the input terminals as shown in Fig. 7.26(b). Also, connect
a voltage source V2 to the output terminals.
us
vt
Figure 7.26(b)
KVL for the mesh on the left:
V1 + 5I4 3I2 = 0 (7.20)
KVL for the mesh on the right:
V2 + 3I4 3I2 = 0 (7.21)

Also; I 4 = V2 (7.22)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

V2 + 3V2 3I2 = 0
in
) V2 (1 + 3) = 3I2

V2 3
Hence; z22 = =
I2 I1 =0 1 + 3
3 3
= = Ω
n.
4 5
1+3
3
V1 + 5V2 = 3I2
3
Substituting V2 = I2 , we get
5
V1 + 5

3
5
I2

io
= 3I2
V1

ut
Hence; z12 =
I2 I1 =0
= 3 3
4
=3 3 = 1Ω
3
ol
Finally, in the matrix form, we can write
2 3 2 3
z11 z12 5 1
z=4 5=4 5 3 5
z21 z22 3 5
6 z21, since a dependent source is present in the circuit.
us
Please note that z12 =
EXAMPLE 7.12
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to port 2 of the circuit in Fig. 7.27 in terms of z
parameters.
vt
Figure 7.27
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The two port network is defined by
in
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2 ;
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2 ;
here, V1 = Vg Zg I1
and V2 = IL ZL = I2 ZL
n.
To find Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen
from the output terminals, we have to remove
the load resistance RL . The resulting circuit
diagram is shown in Fig. 7.28(a).
With I2 = 0, we get
= z21 I1
io
Vt = V2 jI2 =0
Figure 7.28(a)
(7.23)
ut
V1 = z11 I1
V1 Vg I1 Zg
) I1 =
z11
=
z11
Solving for I1 , we get
ol
Vg
I1 = (7.24)
z11 + Zg
z21 Vg
us
Vt =
z11 + Zg
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the indepen-
dent sources and then connect a voltage source
V2 across the output terminals as shown in Fig.
7.28(b).
vt

V2
Zt = ; where V2 = z21 I1 +z22 I2
I2 Vg =0
We know that V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2

Substituting, V1 = I1 Zg in the preceed-
ing equation, we get
I1 Zg = z11 I1 + z12 I2 Figure 7.28(b)

z12 I2
Solving; I1 =
z11 + Zg
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
We know that,
V2 = z21 I1 + Z22 I2

in
z12 I2
= z21 + z22 I2
z11 + Zg
V2 z21 z12
Thus; Zt = = z22
I2 z11 + Zg
n.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the output termi- Figure 7.28(c)
nals along with load impedance ZL is as shown in Fig. 7.28(c).
EXAMPLE 7.13
(a) Find the z parameters for the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.29.
io
(b) Find V2 (t) for t > 0 where vg (t) = 50u(t)V.
ut
ol
Figure 7.29
us
SOLUTION
The Laplace transformed network with all initial conditions set to zero is as shown in Fig. 7.30(a).
vt
Figure 7.30(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
(a) To find z11 and z21 , open-circuit the output terminals and then connect a voltage source
V1 across the input terminals as shown in Fig. 7.30(b).
in
Applying KVL to the left mesh, we get

1
V1 = s + I1
s

V1
n.
Hence; z11 =
I1 I2 =0
1 s2 + 1
=s+ =
s s
1
Also; V2 = I1
s
Hence; z21 =
V2

I1 I2 =0
=
1
s
io
To find z21 and z22 , open-circuit the input terminals and then connect a voltage source V2
across the output terminals as shown in Fig. 7.30(c).
ut
ol

us
Applying KVL to the right mesh, we get

1
V2 = s + I2
s

V2 s2 + 1
) z22 =
I2 I1 =0
=
s
vt
1
Also; V1 = I2
s
V1
) z12 =
I2 I1 =0
=
1
s
Summarizing, 2 3
2 3 s2 + 1 1
z11 z12 6 7
z=4 5=6 s s 7
4 1 s2 + 1 5
z21 z22
s s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
(b)
in
n.
Figure 7.30(d)
Refer the two port network shown in Fig. 7.30(d).

V1 = Vg
) io
I1 Zg = z11 I1 + z12 I2
Vg = (z11 + Zg ) I1 + z12 I2
ut

V2
) Vg = (z11 + Zg ) I1 + z12
ZL
(7.25)
and V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2

V2
) V2 = z21 I1 z22
ZL
ol

z22
) I1 =
1
z21
1+
ZL
V2 (7.26)
Substituting equation (7.26) in equation (7.25) and simplifying, we get

us
V2 z21 zL
= (7.27)
Vg (ZL + z22 ) (z11 + Zg ) z12 z21
Substituting for ZL , Zg and z-parameters, we get
1
V2 (s)
= 2 s2
Vg (s) s +1 s +1 1
vt
+1 +1
s s s2
s
=
(s + s + 1)2 1
2
V2 (s)
) Vg (s)
=
1
s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 2
1
=
(s + 1) (s2 + s + 2)
Vg (s)
Hence; V2 (s) = (7.28)
(s + 1) (s2 + s + 2)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The equation s2 + s + 2 = 0 gives

p
s1;2 =
1
j 7
in
2 2
Vg (s)
This means that, V2 (s) = p! p!
1 7 1 7
(s + 1) s + j s+ +j
2 2 2 2
n.
Given vg (t) = 50u(t)
) Vg (s) =
50
s
50
Hence; V2 (s) = p ! p !
=
s(s + 1) s +
K1
s
+
K2
s+1
+ io
1
2
s+
1
j
K3
2
j
7
p +
7 1
1
s+ +j
2
K3
s+ +j
p
2
7
7
ut
2 2 2 2
By performing partial fraction expansion, we get
K1 = 25; K2 = 25; K3 = 9:45 /90
9:45 /90 9:45 / 90
Hence; V2 (s) =
25
s
25
s+1
+ p + p
ol
1 7 1 7
s+ j s+ +j
2 2 2 2
Taking inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we get

V2 (t) = 25 25e t + 18:9e 0:5t cos(1:32t + 90 ) u(t)V
us
Verification:
V2 (0) = 25 25 + 18:9 cos 90 = 0

V2 (1) = 25 + 0 + 0 = 25V
Please note that at t = 1, the circuit diagram of Fig. (7.29) looks as shown in Fig. 7.30(e).
vt
I(1) =
50
= 25A
2
Hence; V2 (1) = VC (1) = 25V
Figure 7.30(e) }
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.14
The following measurements were made on a resistive two-port network:
in
Measurement 1: With port 2 open and 100V applied to port 1, the port 1 current is 1.125A and
port 2 voltage is 104V.
Measurement 2: With port 1 open and 50V applied to port 2, the port 2 current is 0.3A, and the
port 1 voltage is 30 V.
n.
Find the maximum power that can be delivered by this two-port network to a resistive load at
port 2 when port 1 is driven by an ideal voltage source of 100 Vdc.
SOLUTION

V1
z11 =
z21 =

V2

=
=
100
I1 I2 =0 1:125
104
I1 I2 =0 1:125 io
= 88:89Ω
= 92:44Ω
ut

V1 30
z12 = = = 100Ω
I2 I1 =0 0:3

V2 50
z22 = = = 166:67Ω
I2 I1 =0 0:3
ol
We know from the previous example 7.12 that,

z12 z21
Zt = z22
z11 + Zg
us
92:44 100
= 166:67
88:89 + 0
= 166:67 103:99
= 62:68Ω
For maximum power transfer, ZL = Z t
vt
= 62:68Ω (For resistive load)

z21 Vg
Vt =
z11 + Zg
92:44 100
=
88:89 + 0
= 104 V
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect

to the output terminals with load resistance is as
in
shown in Fig. 7.31.
Pmax = I2t RL
2
=
104
62:68 2
62:68
n.
= 43:14 W
Figure 7.31
EXAMPLE 7.15
io
Refer the network shown in Fig. 7.32(a). Find the impedance parameters of the network.
ut
ol
Figure 7.32(a)
us
SOLUTION
vt
Figure 7.32(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Referring to Fig. 7.32(b), we can write
V3 = 2 (I1 + I2 )
in
KVL for mesh 1:
2I1 + 2I2 + 2 (I1 + I2 ) = V1

) 4I1 + 4I2 = V1
n.
KVL for mesh 2:
2 (I2 2V3 ) + 2 (I1 + I2 ) = V2
) 2I2 4 2 (I1 + I2 ) + 2 (I1 + I2 ) = V2
)
)

V1
io2I2
4I1 + 4I2

6 (I1 + I2 ) = V2
6I1 4I2 = V2
ut
z11 = = = 4Ω
I1 I2 =0 I1 I2 =0

V2 6I1 4I2
z21 = = = 6Ω
I1 I2 =0 I1
I2 =0

V1 4I1 + 4I2
z12 = = = 4Ω
ol
I2 I1 =0 I2 I1 =0

V2 6I1 4I2
z22 = = = 4Ω
I2 I1 =0 I2
I1 =0
us
EXAMPLE 7.16
Is it possible to find z parameters for any two port network ? Explain.

SOLUTION
It should be noted that for some two-port networks, the z parameters do not exist because they
vt
cannot be described by the equations:

V1 = I1 z11 + I2 z12
(7.29)
V2 = I1 z21 + I2 z22
As an example, let us consider an ideal transformer as shown in Fig. 7.33.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.33
V1 =
1
n
V2 I1 =
io
The defining equations for the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.33 are:
n I2
It is not possible to express the voltages in terms of the currents, and viceversa. Thus, the ideal
ut
transformer has no z parameters and no y parameters.
7.4 z and y parameters by matrix partitioning
For z parameters, the mesh equations are

ol
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2 + + z1n In
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2 + + z2n In
0 =
0 = zn1 I1 + zn2 I2 + + znn In
us
By matrix partitioning, the above equations can be written as

z11 z12 z1n
z21 z22 z2n
z31 z32 z3n

vt
zn1 zn2 znn
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
The above equation can be simplified as (exact analysis not required)

V1 1
I1
M N Q P
in
=
V2 I2
M NQ 1 P gives z parameters.
Similarly for y parameters,
n.
io
ut

I1 V1
) = M N Q 1 P
ol
I2 V2
M NQ 1P gives y parameters.
EXAMPLE 7.17
Find y and z parameters for the resistive network shown in Fig. 7.34(a). Verify the result by using
us
Y Δ transformation.
3
1
I1 I3 2 I2
vt
Figure 7.34(a)
SOLUTION
For the loops indicated, the equations in matrix form,
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

V1 3 0 1 2 I1
Then; = 2 0:5
V2 0 0:5 3:5 0:5 I2

in
1:8571 0:2857
) 0:2857 0:4285
= [z]

1 0:6 0:4
y=z =
0:4 2:5
n.
Verification
io
ut
Figure 7.34(b)
Refer Fig 7.34(b), converting T of 1, 1’, 2 into equation,

11+12+12
Z1 = =5
1
ol
Z2 = 5
5
Z3 =
2
5
1
Figure 7.34(c)
Z2 =

2 = 5
us
Therefore, 5:5 11
3 2 13
y11 = ; y12 = y21 = ; y22 =
5 5 5
The values with transformed circuit is shown in Fig 7.34(c).
EXAMPLE 7.18
vt
Find y and z parameters for the network shown in Fig.7.35 which contains a current controlled
source.
Figure 7.35
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
At node 1,
1:5V1 0:5V2 = I1
in
At node 2,
0:5V1 + V2 = I2 3I1
In matrix form,
n.

1:5 0:5 V1 1 0 I1
=
0:5 1 V2 3 1 I2
1
V1 1:5 0:5 I1
) V2
=
0:5 1
1 0
3 1 I2
Therefore; [z] =
=
io

0:4 0:4
3:2 1:2
0:4 0:4
3:2 1:2

I1
I2

ut

1 1:5 0:5
[y] = [z] =
4 0:5
7.5 Hybrid parameters

ol
The z and y parameters of a two-port network do not always exist. Hence, we define a third set
of parameters known as hybrid parameters. In the pair of equations that define these parameters,
V1 and I2 are the dependent variables. Hence, the two-port equations in terms of the hybrid
parameters are
us
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 (7.30)

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 (7.31)
or in matrix form,
V1 h11 h12 I1
vt
I2 h21 h22 V2
These parameters are particularly important in transistor circuit analysis. These parameters
are obtained via the following equations:

V1 V1 I2 I2
h11 = h12 = h21 = h22 =
I1 V2 =0 V2 I1 =0 I1 V2 =0 V2 I1 =0
The parameters h11 ; h12 ; h21 and h22 represent the short-circuit input impedance, the open-
circuit reverse voltage gain, the short-circuit forward current gain, and the open-circuit output
admittance respectively. Because of this mix of parameters, they are called hybrid parameters.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.19
Refer the network shown in Fig. 7.36(a). For this network, determine the h parameters.
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 7.36(a)
ut
To find h11 and h21 short-circuit the output terminals so that V2 = 0. Also connect a current
source I1 to the input port as in Fig. 7.36(b).
ol
us
Figure 7.36(b)
vt
Applying KCL at node x:

Vx Vx 0
I1 + + + I1 = 0
RB RC

) I1 [ 1] = Vx +
RB RC
1 1
(1 )I1 RB RC
) Vx =
RB + RC
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

V1
Hence; h11 =
in
I1 V2 =0

Vx + I1 RA
=
I1 V2 =0
(1 )I1 RB RC
+ R A I1
n.
=
(RB + RC ) I1
(1 )RB RC
= + RA
RB + RC
KCL at node y:
)
) I1 + I 2 +
io

I 1 + I2 + I 3 = 0
I 1 + I2 +
1 (1 )I1 RB RC
Vx 0
RC

=0
=0
ut
RC RB + RC

I2
Hence; h21 =
I1 V2 =0
(1 )RB
=
RB + RC
ol
(RC + RB )
=
RB + RC
To find h22 and h12 open-circuit the input port so that I1 = 0. Also, connect a voltage source
V2 between the output terminals as shown in Fig. 7.36(c).
us
vt
Figure 7.36(c)
KCL at node y:
V1 V1 V2
+ + I1 = 0
RB RC
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Since I1 = 0, we get
V1 V1 V2
in
+ =0
RB RC RC

1 1 V2
V1 + =
RB RC RC

V1 RB
) h12 = =
n.

V2 I1 =0 RB + RC
Applying KVL to the output mesh, we get
V2 + RC (I1 + I2 ) + RB I2 = 0
Since I1 = 0, we get
)
R C I2 + R
h22 =
io
B I2 = V2
I2
=
V2 I1 =0 RC + RB
1
ut
EXAMPLE 7.20
Find the hybrid parameters for the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.37(a).
ol
us
Figure 7.37(a)
SOLUTION
To find h11 and h21 , short-circuit the output port and connect a current source I1 to the input port
vt
Figure 7.37(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Referring to Fig. 7.37(b), we find that
V1 = I1 [2Ω + (8Ωjj4Ω)]
in
= I1 4:67

V1
Hence; h11 = = 4:67Ω
I1 V2 =0
n.
By using the principle of current division, we find that
I1 8 2
I2 = = I1
8+ 4 3
I2 2
Hence; h21 = =
io
I1 V2 =0 3
To obtain h12 and h22 , open-circuit the input port and connect a voltage source V2 to the
output port as in Fig. 7.37(c).
ut
Using the principle of voltage division,
8 2
V1 = V2 = V2
8+4 3
V1 2
Hence; h12 = =
ol
V2 3
Also; V2 = (8 + 4)I2
= 12I2 Figure 7.37(c)

I2
) h22 =
1
= S
V2 I1 =0 12
us
EXAMPLE 7.21
Determine the h parameters of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.38(a).
vt
Figure 7.38(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Performing Δ to Y transformation, the network shown in Fig. 7.38(a) takes the form as shown in
1
in
Fig. 7.38(b). Please note that since all the resistors are of same value, RY = RΔ .
3
n.
io
Figure 7.38(b)
To find h11 and h21 , short-circuit the output port and connect a current source I1 to the input
port as in Fig. 7.38(c).
V1 = I1 [4Ω + (4Ωjj4Ω)]
ut
= 6I1

V1
Hence; h11 = = 6Ω
I1 V2 =0

ol
I1
I2 =
4+4
4
Figure 7.38(c)
I1
) I2 =
2
us
I2 1
Hence; h21 = =
I1 V2 =0 2
To find h12 and h22 , open-circuit the input port

and connect a voltage source V2 to the output port
as shown in Fig. 7.38(d).
vt
Using the principle of voltage division, we get

Figure 7.38(d)
V2
V1 =
4 +4
4
V1
) h12 = =
V2 I1 =0 2
1
Also; V2 = [4 + 4] I2 = 8I2

I2
) h22 = = S
V2 I1 =0 8
1
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.22
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the output of the circuit in Fig. 7.39(a).
in
n.
SOLUTION
io
Figure 7.39(a)
To find Zt , deactivate the voltage source Vg and apply a 1 V voltage source at the output port, as
ut
ol
us
Figure 7.39(b)
The two-port circuit is described using h parameters by the following equations:
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 (7.32)

vt
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 (7.33)
But V2 = 1 V and V1 = I1 Zg
Substituting these in equations (7.32) and (7.33), we get
I1 Zg = h11 I1 + h12
h12
) I1 =
Zg + h11
(7.34)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 (7.35)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

h21 h12
I2 = h22
in
h11 + Zg
h11 h22 h21 h12 + h22 Zg
=
h11 + Zg
V2 1 h11 + Zg
Therefore; Zt = = =
n.
I2 I2 h11 h22 h12 h21 + h22 Zg
To get Vt , we find open circuit voltage V2 with I2 = 0. To find Vt , refer the Fig. 7.39(c).
io
ut
Figure 7.39(c)
At the input port, we can write

Vg + I1 Zg + V1 = 0
)
ol
V1 = Vg I1 Zg (7.36)
Vg I1 Zg = h11 I1 + h12 V2
)
us
Vg = (h11 + Zg ) I1 + h12 V2 (7.37)

and substituting I2 = 0 in equation (7.33), we get
0 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
h22
) I1 =
h21
V2 (7.38)
vt
Finally substituting equation (7.38) in (7.37), we get

h22
Vg = (h11 + Zg ) V2 + h12 V2
h21
Vg h21
) V2 = Vt =
h12 h21 h11 h22 Zg h22
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the

Figure 7.39(d)
output terminals is as shown in Fig. 7.39(d).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.23
Find the input impedance of the network shown in Fig. 7.40.
in
n.
SOLUTION
For the two-port network, we can write io
Figure 7.40
ut
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 (7.39)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 (7.40)
But V2 = IL Z L = I2 Z L (7.41)
where ZL = 75 kΩ
ol
Substituting the value of V2 in equation (7.40), we get
I2 = h21 I1 h22 I2 ZL
h21 I1
) I2 =
1 + ZL h22
(7.42)
us

ZL h21 I1
V2 = (7.43)
1 + ZL h22
vt
h12 ZL h21 I1
V1 = h11 I1
1 + ZL h22
V1
Hence Zin =
I1
ZL h12 h21
= h11
1 + ZL h22
75 103 10 5 200
= 3 103
1 + 75 103 10 6
= 2:86kΩ
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.24
V2
Find the voltage gain, for the network shown in Fig. 7.41.
in
Vg
n.
S
Figure 7.41
io
ut
SOLUTION
For the two-port network we can write,
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 ; here V1 = Vg Zg I1

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 ; here V2 = ZL I2
ol
Hence; Vg Zg I1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
) Vg = (h11 + Zg ) I1 + h12 V2
Vg h12 V2
) I1 =
h11 + Zg
us
V2
Also; I2 = = h21 I1 + h22 V2
ZL

V2 Vg h12 V2
) ZL
= h21
h11 + Zg
+ h22 V2
From the above equation, we find that

vt
V2 h21 ZL
=
Vg (h11 Zg ) (1 + h22 ZL )
h12 h21 ZL
100 50 103
(2 103 + 1 103 ) (1 + 10 5 50 103 ) (10 100 50 103)
= 4
= 1250
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.25
The following dc measurements were done on the resistive network shown in Fig. 7.42(a).
in
Measurement 1 Measurement 2
V1 = 20 V V1 = 35 V
I1 = 0:8 A I1 = 1 A
V2 = 0 V V2 = 15 V
n.
I2 = 0:4 A I2 = 0 A
Find the value of Ro for maximum power transfer.
io
ut
Figure 7.42(a)
SOLUTION
ol
For the two-port network shown in Fig. 7.41, we can write:
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
From measurement 1:
us

V1 20
h11 = = = 25Ω
I1 V2 =0 0:8

I2 0:4
h21 = = = 0:5
I1 V2 =0 0:8
From measurement 2:
vt
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
) 35 = 25 1 + h12 15
) h12 =
10
15
= 0:67
Then; I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
) 0 = h21 1 + h22 15
h21 0:5
h22 = = = 0:033 S
15 15
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Two Port Networks | 543
For example (7.22),

Vg h21
Vt =
in
h12 h21 − h11 h22 − Zg h22
50 × (−0.5)
=
0.67 × (−0.5) − 25 × 0.033 − 20 × 0.033
−25
= = 13.74 Volts
n.
−1.82
h11 + Zg
Zt =
h11 h22 − h12 h21 + h22 Zg
25 + 20
=
25 × 0.033 − 0.67 × (−0.5) + 0.033 × 20
=
45
1.82
= 24.72 Ω
io
For maximum power transfer, ZL = Zt = 24.72 Ω (Please note that, ZL is purely resistive).
The Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the output terminals along with ZL is shown in
ut
Fig. 7.42(b).
Pmax = It2 × 24.72

2
13.74
= × 24.72
ol
24.72 + 24.72
(13.74)2
= = 1.9 Watts
4 × 24.72
Figure 7.42(b)
us
EXAMPLE 7.26
Determine the hybird parameters for the network shown in Fig. 7.43.
vt
Figure 7.43
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
To find h11 and h21 , short-circuit the output terminals so that V2 = 0. Also connect a current
source I1 to the input port as shown in Fig. 7.44(a).
in
n.
io
Figure 7.44(a)
ut
Applying KVL to the mesh on the right side, we get
1
R2 [I1 + I2 ] + [I1 + I2 ] = 0
j!C

) R2 + I1 + R2 +
1
I2 = 0
ol
j!C j!C
) [ + j!R2 C ] I1 = [1 + j!CR2 ] I2
[ + j!R2 C ]
) I2 =
1 + j!R2 C
I1
us

I2
Hence; h21 =
I1 V2 =0

+ j!CR2
=
1 + j!R2 C
Applying KVL to the mesh on the left side, we get

vt
V1 = R1 I1 + R2 [I1 + I2 ]
= [R1 + R2 ] I1 + R2 I2

R2 ( + j!CR2 )
= R1 + R2 I1
1 + j!R2 C

V1
Hence; h11 =
I1 V2 =0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R2 ( + j!R2 C )
= R1 + R2
1 + j!R2 C
in
R1 + R2 (1 ) + j!R1 R2 C
=
1 + j!R2 C
To find h22 and h12 , open-circuit the input terminals so that I1 = 0. Also connect a voltage
n.
source V2 to the output port as shown in Fig. 7.44(b). The dependent current source is open,
because I1 = 0.
V1 = I2 R2
V2
= R2
Hence; h12 =
R2 +

V1
1
j!C
V2 I1 =0
j!CR2
io
ut
=
1 + j!CR2
V2 j!C V2
I2 = =
1 1 + j!CR2
R2 +
j!C Figure 7.44(b)

I2 j!C
ol
) h22 = =
V2 I1 =0 1 + j!CR2
7.6 Transmission parameters

us
The transmission parameters are defined by the equations:
V1 = AV2 BI2
I1 = CV2 DI2

vt
Figure 7.45 Terminal variables used to define the ABCD Parameters
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting the above equations in matrix form we get

V1 A B V2
in
=
I1 C D I2
Please note that in computing the transmission parameters, I2 is used rather than I2 , because
the current is considered to be leaving the network as shown in Fig. 7.45.
n.
These parameters are very useful in the analysis of circuits in cascade like transmission lines
and cables. For this reason they are called Transmission Parameters. They are also known as
ABCD parameters. The parameters are determined via the following equations:

V1 V1 I1 I1
A= B= C= D=
V2 I2 =0 I2 V2 =0 V2 I2 =0 I2 V2 =0
io
A, B, C and D represent the open-circuit voltage ratio, the negative short-circuit transfer
impedance, the open-circuit transfer admittance, and the negative short-circuit current ratio,
respectively. When the two-port network does not contain dependent sources, the following rela-
ut
tion holds good.
AD BC = 1
EXAMPLE 7.27
Determine the transmission parameters in the s domain for the network shown in Fig. 7.46.
ol
us
Figure 7.46
SOLUTION
The s domain equivalent circuit with the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero is
vt
shown in Fig. 7.47(a).
Figure 7.47(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
To find the parameters A and C, open-circuit the output port and connect a voltage source V1
at the input port. The same is shown in Fig. 7.47(b).
in
V1 sV1
I1 = =
1+
1 s+1
s
1
Then V 2 = I1
s
n.
1 sV1 V1
) V2 =
ss+
=
1 s+1
V1
) A=
V2 I2 =0
=s+1 Figure 7.47(b)
Also;
) C=
1
V2 = I1
s
I1
V2 I2 =0
=s
io
ut
To find the parameters B and D, short-circuit
the output port and connect a voltage source V1 to
the input port as shown in Fig. 7.47(c). Figure 7.47(c)
The total impedance as seen by the source V1 is
1
1
ol
Z=1+ s
1
+1
s
1 s+2
=1+ =
s+1 s+1
us
V1 V1 (s + 1)
I1 = = (7.44)
Z (s + 2)
Using the principle of current division, we have

1
I1
s I1
I2 = = (7.45)
vt
1
+1
s+1
s
I1
Hence; D= =s+1
I2 V2 =0
From equation (7.44) and (7.45), we can write
V1 (s + 1)
I2 (s + 1) =
(s + 2)

V1
Hence; B= =s+2
I2 V2 =0
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Verification
We know that for a two port network without any dependent sources,
in
AD BC = 1
(s + 1) (s + 1) s (s + 2) = 1
n.
EXAMPLE 7.28
Determine the ABCD parameters for the two port network shown in Fig. 7.48.
io
ut
Figure 7.48
SOLUTION
To find the parameters A and C, open-circuit the output port as shown in Fig. 7.49(a) and connect
ol
a voltage source V1 to the input port.
Applying KVL to the output mesh, we get
V2 + mI1 + 0 RC + I1 RA = 0
us
)V2 = I1 (m + RA )

I1 1
Hence; C = =
V2 I2 =0 m + RA
Applying KVL to the input mesh, we get

vt
V1 = I1 (RA + RB ) Figure 7.49(a)

V1 RA + RB
Hence; A= =
V2 I2 =0 m + RA
To find the parameters B and D, short-ciruit the output port and connect a voltage source V1
to the input port as shown in Fig. 7.49(b).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.49(b)

mI1 + RC I2 + RB (I1 + I2 ) = 0
)
)
(m + RB ) I1 =
I1 =
(m + RB )

io
(RC + RB ) I2
(RC + RB )
I2
ut
I1 (RC + RB )
Hence; D= =
I2 V2 =0 (m + RB )
V1 + RA I1 + RB (I1 + I2 ) = 0
ol
) V 1 = (R A + R B ) I 1 + R B I 2

(RC + RB )
= (R A + R B ) I 2 + R B I2
(m + RB )

us
RC RA + RC RB + RB RA mRB
= I2
m + RB

V1
Hence; B=
I2 V2 =0
RC RA + RC RB + RB RA mRB
=
m + RB
vt
EXAMPLE 7.29
The following direct-current measurements were done on a two port network:
Port 1 open Port 1 Short-circuited

V1 = 1 mV I1 = 0:5 A
V2 = 10 V I2 = 80 A
I2 = 200 A V2 = 5 V
Calculate the transmission parameters for the two port network.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
For the two port network, we can write
in
V1 = AV2 BI2
I1 = CV2 DI2
From I1 = 0 (port 1 open): 1 10 3
= A 10 B 200 10 6
From V1 = 0 (Port 1 short): 0=A5 B 80 10 6
n.
Solving simultaneously yields,
A= 4 10
; B = 25Ω 4

From I1 = 0: 0 = C 10 D 200 10 6
From V1 = 0:
Solving simultaneously yields,
C= 5 10
io
0:5 10 6 = C 5 D 80 10 6
7
S; D= 0:025
ut
In summary, A= 4 10 4
B= 25Ω
C= 5 10 7
S
ol
D= 0:025
EXAMPLE 7.30
Find the transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 7.50.
us
vt
Figure 7.50
SOLUTION
To find the parameters A and C, open the output port and connect a voltage source V1 to the input
port as shown in Fig. 7.51(a).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.51(a)
Also KCL at node a gives

io
V1 = 1:5 103 I1 + 10
V2
40 103
3
V2
ut
40I1 + =0
V2
) I1 =
160 103
= 6:25 10 6 V2
Substituting the value of I1 in the preceeding loop equation, we get

V1 = 1:5 103 6:25 10 6 3
ol
V2 + 10 V2
) V1 = 9:375 10 3
V2 + 10 3
V2
=8:375 10 V2 3

V1
Hence; A= = 8:375 10 3
V2 I2 =0
us

I1
Also; C= = 6:25 10 6
V2 I2 =0
To find the parameters B and D, refer the circuit shown in Fig. 7.51(b).
vt
Figure 7.51(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Applying KCL at node b, we find
40I1 + 0 = I2
in
) I2 = 40I1

I1 1
Hence; D= =
I2 V2 =0 40
n.
V1 = 1:5 103 I1
I2
) V1 = 1:5 103
40
Hence; B=
= io
V1

I2 V2 =0
1:5
40
103
ut
= 37:5Ω
EXAMPLE 7.31
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the output port using the transmission parame-
ol
ters for the network shown in Fig. 7.52.
us
vt
Figure 7.52
SOLUTION
For the two-port network, we can write
V1 = AV2 BI2 (7.46)

I1 = CV2 DI2 (7.47)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.53(a)
Refer the network shown in Fig. 7.53(a) to find Vt .

At the input port,
Also;
Vg io
I1 Zg = V1
I2 = 0
(7.48)
ut
(7.49)
Making use of equations (7.48) and (7.49) in equations (7.46) and (7.47) we get,
Vg I1 Zg = AV2 (7.50)
ol
and I1 = CV2 (7.51)
Vg CV2 Zg = AV2
us
Vg
) V2 = Vt =
A + CZg
To find Rt , deactivate the voltage source Vg and then connect a voltage source V2 = 1 V at
the output port. The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.53(b).
vt
Figure 7.53(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Referring Fig. 7.53(b), we can write
V1 = I1 Z g
in
Substituting the value of V1 in equation (7.46), we get
I1 Zg = AV2 BI2
A B
)
n.
I1 = V2 + I2 (7.52)
Zg Zg
Equating equations (7.47) and (7.52) results
A B
CV2 DI2 = V2 +
I2

V2 C +
A
Zg

Zg
= D+
B
Zg
D+

Zg
I2
io
B
ut
V2 Zg
Hence Zt = =
I2 A
C+
Zg
Figure 7.54
B + DZg
=
A + CZg
ol
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the output port is as shown in Fig. 7.54.
EXAMPLE 7.32
For the network shown in Fig. 7.55(a), find RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum
us
power transferred.
vt
Figure 7.55(a)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
From the previous example 7.31,
in
B + DZg 20 + 3 20 20 + 60
Zt = = 6.67Ω
4 + 0:4 20
= =
A + CZg 4+8
Vg 100 100
Vt = = 8.33V
4 + 0:4 20
= =
A + CZg 12
n.
For maximum power transfer,
RL = Zt = 6:67Ω (purely resistive)
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from
output terminals along with RL is as shown in
Fig. 7.55(b).
It =
8:33
6:67 + 6:67
(PL )max = It2 6:67
= 0:624A
io
ut
= (0:624)2 6:67
Figure 7.55(b)
= 2.6Watts
EXAMPLE 7.33
ol
Refer the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 7.56. Find the transmission parameters.
us
vt
Figure 7.56
SOLUTION
Performing Δ to Y transformation, as shown in Fig. 7.57(a) the network reduces to the form as
shown in Fig. 7.57(b). Please note that, when all resistors are of equal value,
1
RY = R Δ
3
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
in
n.
Figure 7.57(a)
io
ut
Figure 7.57(b)
ol
To find the parameters A and D, open the output port and connect a voltage source V1 at the
input port as shown is Fig. 7.57(c).
Applying KVL to the input loop we get
us
I1 + 4I1 = V1
) V1 = 5I1

V2 I1
Also; I1 =
4
) C=
1
= S
V2 I2 =0 4
) 5
vt
Also; V1 = 5I1 = V2
4
V1 5
Hence; A= = Figure 7.57(c)
V2 I2 =0 4
To find the parameters B and D, refer the circuit shown in Fig. 7.57(d).
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
I1 4 4
I2 = = I1
in
4 + 1 5
I1 5
Hence D= =
I2 v2 =0 4
n.
Figure 7.57(d)
V1 + 1 I1 + 4 (I1 + I2 ) = 0
5
Substituting I1 = I2 in the preceeding equation, we get
4

)
)
V1
5
4
V1
I2 + 4
5
4
5
4
io
I 2 + I2 = 0
I2 5I2 + 4I2 = 0
4V1 = 9I2
ut
V1 9
Hence; B= = Ω
I2 v2 =0 4
Verification:
For a two port network which does not contain any dependent sources, we have
ol
AD BC = 1
5
4
54 1
4
94 = 25
16
9
16
=1
us
7.7 Relations between two-port parameters
If all the two-port parameters for a network exist, it is possible to relate one set of parameters to
another, since these parameters interrelate the variables V1 ; I1 ; V2 and I2 : To begin with let us
first derive the relation between the z parameters and y parameters.
vt
The matrix equation for the z parameters is

V1 z11 z12 I1
=
V2 z21 z22 I2
) V = zI (7.53)
Similarly, the equation for y parameters is

I1 y11 y12 V1
=
I2 y21 y22 V2
) I = yV (7.54)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in

V = zyV
in
1 adj(y)
Hence; z=y =
Δy
where Δy = y11 y22 y21 y12
This means that we can obtain z matrix by inverting y matrix. It is quite possible that a
n.
two-port network has a y matrix or a z matrix, but not both.
Next let us proceed to find z parameters in terms of ABCD parameters.
The ABCD parameters of a two-port network are defined by
V1 = AV2 BI2
)
)
1
1
io
I1 = CV2 DI2
V2 = (I1+ DI2 )
C
D
V2 = I 1 + I 2
C C
(7.55)
ut
I1 DI2
V1 = A + BI2
C C

AI1 AD
= + B I2 (7.56)
C C
ol
Comparing equations (7.56) and (7.55) with
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
respectively, we find that
us
A AD BC 1 D
z11 = z12 = z21 = z22 =
C C C C
Next, let us derive the relation between hybrid parameters and z parameters.
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2 (7.57)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2 (7.58)
vt
From equation (7.58), we can write

z21 V2
I2 = I1 + (7.59a)
z22 z22
Substituting this value of I2 in equation (7.57), we get

z21 I1 V2
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 +
z22 z22

z11 z22 z12 z21 z12 V2
= I1 + (7.59b)
z22 z22
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Comparing equations (7.59b) and (7.59a) with
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
in
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
z11 z22 z12 z21 Δz
we get, h11 = =
z22 Z22
z12 z21 1
h12 = h21 = h22 =
n.
z22 z22 z22
where Δz = z11 z22 z12 z21
Finally, let us derive the relationship between y parameters and ABCD parameters.
io
I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2
From equation (7.61), we can write

(7.60)
(7.61)
ut
I2 y22
V1 = V2
y21 y21
y22 1
= V2 + I2 (7.62)
y21 y21
ol
y11 y22 y11

I1 = V2 + y12 V2 + I2
y21 y21
Δy y11
= V2 + I2 (7.63)
y21 y21
us
Comparing equations (7.62) and (7.63) with the following equations,
V1 = AV2 BI2
I1 = CV2 DI2
y22 1 Δy y11
we get A= B= C= D=
vt
y21 y21 y21 y21

where Δy = y11 y22 y12 y21
Table 7.1 lists all the conversion formulae that relate one set of two-port parameters to another.
Please note that Δz, Δy, Δh, and ΔT, refer to the determinants of the matrices for z, y, hybrid,
and ABCD parameters respectively.
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Table 7.1 Parameter relationships
in
z y T h
2 3 2 3 2 3
2 3 y22 y12 A ΔT Δh h12
z11 z12 6 Δy
4 5 6 Δy 7 7
6 C
6 C 77
6 h22
6 h22 7
7
z 4 y21 y11 5 4 1 D 5 4 h21 1 5
z21 z22
n.
Δy Δy C C h22 h22
2 z 2 3 2 3
22 z12 3 2 3 D ΔT 1 h22
y11 y12 6 B
6 Δz Δz 7 4 5 6 B 77
6 h11
6 h11 77
y 4 5 4 1
z21 z11 A 5 4 h21 Δh 5
y21 y22
T
Δz
2
z11
6 z21
6
4 1
Δz
Δz
3
z21 7
7
z22 5
2
y22
6 y21
6
4 Δy io
1
y21 77
y11 5
3
B
2
4
A B
C D
B
3
5
2
h11
Δh
6 h21
6
4 h22
h11
h11
h21 7
1 5
7
3
ut
z21 z21 y21 y21 h21 h21
2 3 2 3 2 3
Δz z12 1 y12 B ΔT 2 3
6 z22 h11 h12
6 z22 7
7
6 y11
6 y11 77
6 D
6 D 77 4 5
h 4 z21 1 5 4 y21 Δy 5 4 1 C 5
h21 h22
ol
z22 z22 y11 y11 D D
Δz = z11 z22 z12 z21 ; Δy = y11 y22 y12 y21 ; Δh = h11 h22 h12 h21 ; ΔT = AD BC
EXAMPLE 7.34
us
Determine the y parameters for a two-port network if the z parameters are

10 5
z=
5 9
Δz = 10 9 5 5 = 65
SOLUTION
vt
z22 9
y11 = = S
Δz 65
z12 5
y12 = = S
Δz 65
z21 5
y21 = = S
Δz 65
z11 10
y22 = = S
Δz 65
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
EXAMPLE 7.35
Following are the hybrid parameters for a network:

in
h11 h12 5 2
=
h21 h22 3 6
Determine the y parameters for the network.
n.
Δh = 5 6 3 2 = 24
SOLUTION
1 1
y11 = = S
h11 5
h22 6
y12 = = S
h11 5
y21 =
y22 =
h21
h11
Δh
h11
3
= S
5
24
= S
5 io
ut
R.P 7.1
The network of Fig. R.P. 7.1 contains both a dependent current source and a dependent voltage
ol
source. Determine y and z parameters.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 7.1
SOLUTION
From the figure, the node equations are

V2
Iab = I2
2
At node a,
V2
I1 = V1 2V2 I2
2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
At node b,
V2
V1 = V2 2V1 I2
in
2
Simplifying, the nodal equations, we get
3
I1 + I2 = V1 V2
2
n.
3
I2 = 3V1 + V2
2
In matrix form,
2 3 3
1
)
1 1
0 1

I1
I2
I1
io
=4
6

3
1 1
3
2
2 7 V1
1
5
2
6
4
1
V2
3 3
2 7 V1
5

ut
=
I2 0 1 3 V2
3
2
2 3
4 3
Therefore; y=4 3
3 5
2
ol
2 3 3 2 3
3 0:5 1
14 5=4 4 5
and Z= 2
1
3 3
3 4
us
R.P 7.2
Compute y parameters for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.2.
vt
Figure R.P. 7.2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
The circuit shall be transformed into s-domain and then we shall use the matrix partitioning
in
method to solve the problem. From Fig 7.2, Node equations in matrix form,
I s s V P Q V
I s s V V
n.
V M N V

I1 V1
= P Q N 1 M
I2 V2

s+3 s 1 2 V1
= 2 1
=
8
>
<
>
:

s+3
s s+2
s s+2
s

5 1
6 5 5 7
4
io
2 4 2 39
2 1 >
5 5
5
>
=
;
V1
V2
V2

ut

s + 2:2 (s + 0:4)
y=
(s + 0:4) s + 1:8
R.P 7.3
Determine for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 7.3(a): (a) Y1 , Y2 , Y3 and gm in terms of y parameters.
ol
(b) Repeat the problem if the current source is connected across Y3 with the arrow pointing to the
left.
us
Figure R.P. 7.3(a)

vt
SOLUTION
(a) Refering Fig. R.P. 7.3(a), the node equations are:

At node 1
I1 = Y1 V1 + (V1 V2 )Y3
= V1 (Y1 + Y3 ) Y3 Y2 (7.64)
At node 2
I2 = gm V1 + V2 Y2 + (V2 V1 )Y3
= (gm Y3 )V1 + (Y2 + Y3 )V2 (7.65)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Then from equations (7.64) and (7.65),
y11 = Y1 + Y3 ; y12 = Y3
in
y21 = gm Y3 ; y22 = Y2 + Y3
Solving,
Y3 = y12 ; Y1 = y11 + y12
n.
Y2 = y22 + y12 ; gm = y21 y12
(b) Making the changes as given in the problem, we get the circuit shown in Fig R.P. 7.3(b).
io
ut
Figure R.P. 7.3(b)
ol
Node equations : At node 1
I1 = Y1 V1 + (V1 V2 )Y3 gm V1
= (Y1 + Y3 gm )V1 Y3 V2 (7.66)
us
At node 2,
I2 = V2 Y2 + (V2 V1 )Y3 + gm V1
= (gm Y3 )V1 + V2 (Y2 + Y3 ) (7.67)
From equations (7.66) and (7.67),

vt
y11 = Y1 + Y3 gm ; y12 = Y3
y21 = gm Y3 ; y22 = Y2 + Y3
Solving,
Y3 = y12 ; Y2 = y22 y12

gm = y21 y12
Y1 = y11 Y3 + gm
= y11 + y12 + y21 y12 = y11 y21
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 7.4
Complete the table given as part of Fig. R.P. 7.4. Also find the values for y parameters.
in
Table
Sl.no V1 V2 I1 I2
1 50 100 1 27
n.
2 100 50 7 24
3 200 0
4 20 0
Figure R.P. 7.4 5 10 30
SOLUTION
From article 7.2,
I1
I2

=

y11 y12
y21 y22 io
V1
V2

ut
Substituting the values from rows 1 and 2,

1 7 y11 y12 50 100
=
27 24 y21 y22 100 50
ol
Post multiplying by [V] 1,
1
y11 y12 1 7 50 100
=
y21 y22 27 24 100 50

0:1 0:06
us
=
0:14 0:2
For row 3:
I1 0:1 0:06 200 20
= =
I2 0:14 0:2 0 28
For row 4:
1
vt
V1 0:1 0:06 20 140:84

= =
V2 0:14 0:2 0 98:59
For row 5:
1
V1 0:1 0:06 10 133:8
= =
V2 0:14 0:2 30 56:338
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 7.5
Find the condition on a and b for reciprocity for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.5.
in
n.
SOLUTION
The loop equations are io
Figure R.P. 7.5
ut
V1 aV2 = 3(I1 + I3 ) (7.68)
V2 = (I2 I3 ) bI1 (7.69)
I3 = V2 (V1 aV2 )
= (1 + a)V2 V1 (7.70)
ol
Substituting equation (7.70) in equations (7.68) and (7.69),
V1 aV2 = 3I1 + 3(1 + a)V2 3V1

) 4V1 = (3 + 4a)V2 + 3I1 (7.71)
us
V2 = I2 [(1 + a) V2 V1 ] bI1
) V1 + (2 + a) V2 = bI1 + I2 (7.72)
Putting equations (7.71) and (7.72) in matrix form and solving

1
V1 4 (3 + 4a) 3 0 I1
=
V2 1 2+a b 1 I2
vt

1 2 + a 3 + 4a 3 0 I1
=
Δ 1 4 b 1 I2

1 M 3 + 4a I1
=
Δ 3 4b N I2
For reciprocity,
3 + 4a = 3 4b
Therefore; a= b
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 7.6
For what value of a is the circuit reciprocal? Also find h parameters.
in
n.
Figure R.P. 7.6
io
ut
SOLUTION
The node equations are
V1 0:5V1 I1 = V2
ol
V2 = (I1 + I2 )2 + aI1
1
0:5 0 1 1
h=
0 2 2+a 1

1 2 0 1 1
us
=
Δ 0 0:5 2+a 1
2 3
2 2
6 7
=4 2+a 5 (Δ = 1)
0:5
2
vt
For reciprocity,
h12 = h21
2+a
) 2=
2
) 4 = 2 + a; a = 2

2 2
Therefore h=
2 0:5
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
R.P 7.7
Find y12 and y21 for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.7 for n = 10. What is the value of n for the
in
network to be reciprocal?
n.
Figure R.P. 7.7
SOLUTION
Equations for I1 and I2 are
I1 =
V1
io
0:01V2
5
= 0:2V1 0:002V2
ut
(7.73)
V2 V2 0:01V2
I2 = + n I1 + (7.74)
20 50
Substituting the value of I1 from equation (7.73) in equation (7.74), we get
V2 V2 0:01V2
I2 = n(0:2V1 0:002V2 ) + + (7.75)
ol
20 20
Simplifying the above equation with n = 10,
I2 = 2V1 + 0:0498V2 (7.76)
From equation (7.73), y12 = 0:002

us
and from equation (7.75), y21 = 0:2n

For reciprocity y12 = y21
) 0:002 = 0:2n
Hence; n = 0:01
vt
R.P 7.8
Find T parameters (ABCD) for the two-port network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.8.
Figure R.P. 7.8
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Network equations are
in
V1 10I1 = V2 1:5V1 (7.77)
V2 1:5V1 V2
I1 + I2 =0 (7.78)
25 20
n.
Simplifying,
2:5V1 10I1 = V2
0:06V1 + I1 = 0:09V2 I2
In matrix form,

2:5
0:06
10
1

V1
I1

=
io

1 0
0:09 1

V2
I2

ut
Therefore 1
2:5 10 1 0 0:613 3:23
T= =
0:06 1 0:09 1 0:053 0:806
R.P 7.9
ol
(a) Find T parameters for the active two port network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.9.
(b) Find new T parameters if a 20 Ω resistor is connected across the output.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 7.9
SOLUTION
(a) With Vx = 10I1 ,
0:08Vx = 0:8I1
Therefore; V1 10I1 = V2 5(I2 0:08Vx )

= V2 5I2 + 4I1 (7.79)
V1 10I1
I1 + I2 0:8I1 = (7.80)
50
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Simplying the equations (7.79) and (7.80),we get
V1 14I1 = V2 5I2
in
and V1 + 20I1 = 50I2
Therefore, 1
n.
1 14 1 5 3:33 133:33
T= =
1 20 0 50 0:167 9:17
(b) Treating 20 Ω across the output as a second T network for

which " #
T=
Then new T-parameters,

1 0
1
20

1
io
" 1 0 #
ut
3:33 133:33 10 133:33
T= 1 =
0:167 9:17 1 0:625 9:17
20
R.P 7.10
Obtain z parameters for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.10.
ol
us
Figure R.P. 7.10
SOLUTION
vt
At node 1,
V1 = (I1 0:3V2 )10 + V2

= 10I1 2V2 (7.81)
At node 2,

V2 5
V 2 = I2 10 + V1 = 10I2 + V1 V2
6 3
) 8
3
V2 = V1 + 10I2 (7.82)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Putting in matrix form,

in
1 2 V1 10 0 I1
−8 =
1 V2 0 −10 I2
3
Therefore,
n.
−1
1 2 10 0 5.71 −4.286
z= −8 =
1 0 −10 2.143 2.143
3
R.P 7.11
Obtain z and y parameters for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.11.
io
ut
ol
us
Figure R.P. 7.11
SOLUTION
For the meshes indicated, the equations in matrix form is
vt
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
By matrix partitioning,
2 s+2 3 2 3
in
2 1
6 s s 7 2s 4 1 5 1
z=4 5 1
2 s+4 3s + 4 2 2
s 2s
2 s+2 2 3 2 1 3

n.
1
6 s s 7 2s 6 2 7
=4 5 4 5
2 s+4 3s + 4 1 1
s 2s 2 4
2 s+2 3 2 3
2 2s s
6 s
=6
4 2
2 2
s
s
s+4
2s
s + 10s + 8
6 s(3s + 4)
7
7
5
io
6 3s + 4
6
4
s2 + 6s + 8
s(3s + 4) 7
3
s
3s + 4
3s + 4 7
8s 5
3s + 4
7
ut
6 7
=6
6 s2 + 6s + 8
7
4 s + 8s + 8 7
2
5
s(3s + 4) s(3s + 4)
ol
R.P 7.12
Find z and y parameters at ! = 108 rad/sec for the transistor high frequency equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. R.P. 7.12.
us
vt
Figure R.P. 7.12
SOLUTION
In the circuit, Vx = V1 . Therefore the node equations are
I1 = (10 5
+ j 6 10 4
j 10 4 V2)V1
I2 = j 10 4 V1 + 0:01V1 + 10 4 (1 + j )V2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Simplifying the above equations,
I1 = 10−4 [(0.1 + j6)V1 − j1V2 ]
in
I2 = 10−4 [(100 + j1)V1 + (1 + j)V2 ]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0.1 + j6 −j1 V1
I1
Therefore, =⎣ ⎦ × 10−4 ⎣ ⎦
I2 100 − j1 1 + j1 V2
n.
ωC1 = 108 × 5 × 10−12 = 5 × 10−4
ωC2 = 108 × 10−12 = 10−4
Δ = 10−8 [(0.1 + j6)(1 + j) + (100 − j1)(j1)]
Therefore,
= 10−8 × 106.213 /92.64◦
y=⎣
⎡
6 /89◦
√
io −j1
⎤
⎦ × 10−4
ut
100 /−0.6◦ 2 /45◦
⎡ √ ⎤
2 /45◦ j1
Then, z = y−1 = ⎣ ⎦ × 10−4 ÷ Δ
100 /−180.6◦ 6 /89◦
ol
⎡ √ ⎤
2 /45◦ j1 10−4
=⎣ ⎦×
100 /−180.6◦ 6 /89◦ 10−8 × 106.213 /92.64◦
⎡ ⎤
us
133.15 /−47.64◦ 94.16 /−2.64◦

=⎣ ⎦
94.16 /86.8◦ 565 /−31.6◦
R.P 7.13
Obtain TA , TB , TC for the network shown in Fig. R.P. 7.13 and obtain overall T.
vt
A B C
Figure R.P. 7.13
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
SOLUTION
Using the equation for T-parameters for a T -network
P
in
Z1 + Z3 Z1 Z3 1 Z2 + Z3
A= ; B= ; C= ; D=
Z3 Z3 Z3 Z3
2 7 3
2
6 5 7
We have for A TA = 4 5
1
n.
1
5
2 9 54 3
6 6 6 7
For B; TB = 4 5
1 10
For C;
Overall T :
"
TC = 1
6 6
1 0
7
1
io
#
T = [TA ][TB ][TC ] =

4:709 15:93

ut
0:962 3:46
This dervation is left as an exercise to the reader.
Verification:
Using T Δ transformation, that is changing T (3, 4, 6 ) of Fig. R.P. 7.13, in to Δ,
Zxz = 13:5
ol
Zxy = 9
Zyz = 18
us
Figure R.P.7.13(a)
vt
Putting the values in the circuit of Fig. R.P. 7.13, we get
Figure R.P.7.13(b)
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
Reducing, the above circuit, we get the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 7.13c.
in
n.
Figure R.P. 7.13(c)
Converting the circuit into T, we get the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 7.13(d).
Now from Fig. R.P. 7.13(d),
A=
B=
3:8564 + 1:0396
1:0396
= 4:709
io
1:0396(3:8564 + 2:5644) + 3:8564 2:5644
ut
1:0396
= 15:93 Ω
1 1
C= = = 0:962 Figure R.P. 7.13(d)
Zp 1:0396
2:5644 + 1:0396
D= = 3:46
ol
1:0396
Exercise Problems
us
E.P 7.1
Find the y parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.1.
vt
Figure E.P. 7.1

α + RA + RB 1 (α + RA ) 1
Ans: y11 = ; y12 = ; y21 = ; y22 = :
RA RB RB RA RB RB
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.2
Find the z parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.2.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 7.2
13 2 2 3
Ans: z11 = Ω; z12 = Ω; z21 = Ω; z22 = Ω:
7 7 7 7
E.P 7.3
io
Find the h parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.3.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 7.3

us
sC) R) R* + R) + (1 m)R* sC) R* + m

Ans: h11 = ; h21 = .
sC) R* + 1 sC) R* + 1
sC) R* sC)
h12 = ; h22 = .
sC) R* + 1 sC) R* + 1
E.P 7.4
vt
Figure E.P. 7.4
7 2
Ans: y11 = y22 = S; y12 = y21 = S.
15 15
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.5
Find the y parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.5. Give the result in s domain.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 7.5
2s(2s + 1) 4s2
;
Ans:
E.P
y11 = y22 =
7.6
4s + 1
y12 = y21 =
io 4s + 1
Obtain the y parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.6.
.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 7.6
Ans: y11 = 0:625 S; y12 = 0:125 S; y21 = 0:375 S; y22 = 0:125 S:

us
E.P 7.7
Find the z parameters for the two-port network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.7. Keep the result in s domain.
vt
Figure E.P. 7.7
2s + 1 2s + 2
Ans: z11 = ; z12 = z21 = 2; z22 = .
s s
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.8
Find the h parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.8. Keep the result in s domain.
in
n.
Ans: h11 =
5s + 4
2(s + 2)
; h12 =
s+4
2(s + 2)
; io
Figure E.P. 7.8
h21 =
(s + 4)
2(s + 2)
; h22 =
s
2(s + 2)
:
ut
E.P 7.9
Find the transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.9. Keep the result in s
domain.
ol
us
Figure E.P. 7.9
3s + 4 2s + 4 4s 3s + 4
Ans: A = ; B= ; C= ; D= :
vt
s+4 s+4 s+4 s+4
E.P 7.10
For the same network described in Fig. E.P. 7.9, find the h parameters using the defining equations.
Then verify the result obtained using conversion formulas.
2s + 4 s+4 (s + 4) 4s
Ans: h11 = ; h12 = ; h21 = ; h22 = :
3s + 4 3s + 4 3s + 4 3s + 4
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.11
Select the values of RA , RB , and RC in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 7.11 so that A =1, B = 34 Ω,
in
C = 20 mS and D = 1.4.
I1 I2
n.
V1 V2
Figure E.P. 7.11
Ans:
E.P
R) = 10Ω;
7.12
R* = 20Ω;
io
R+ = 50Ω:
Find the s domain expression for the h parameters of the circuit in E.P. 7.12.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 7.12

1 1 2
s Cs s2
+
C LC ; LC
h11 = ; h12 = h21 h22 :
us
Ans: = =
1 1 1
s2 + 2
s + s2 +
LC LC LC
E.P 7.13
vt
Figure E.P. 7.13
Ans: y11 = 0:04S; y12 = 0:04S; y21 = 0:04S; y22 = 0:03S:
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.14
Find the two-port parameters h12 and y12 for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.14.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 7.14
Ans: h12 = 1:2;
E.P 7.15
y12 = 0:24S:
io
Find the ABCD parameters for the 4Ω resistor of Fig. E.P. 7.15. Also show that the ABCD
parameters for a single 16Ω resistor can be obtained by (ABCD)4 :
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 7.15

us
Ans: Verify your answer using the relation between the parameters.
E.P 7.16
For the T -network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.16. show that AD BC =1.
vt
Figure E.P. 7.16
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.17
Find y21 for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.17.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 7.17
s
Ans: y21 = :
4s + 1
E.P 7.18
io
Determine the y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.18.
ut
Figure E.P. 7.18
s3 s2
+ + 2s + 1 1 s3 + s2 + 2s + 1
; ; :
ol
Ans: y11 = y12 = y21 = y22 =
s(s2 + 2) 2
s(s + 2) s(s2 + 2)
E.P 7.19
Obtain the h-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 7.19.
us
vt
Figure E.P. 7.19

30 1 1 4
Ans: h11 = Ω; h21 = ; h12 = ; h22 =
11 11 11 11
E.P 7.20
The following equations are written for a two-port network. Find the transmission parameters for
the network. (Hint: use relation between y and T parameters).
I1 = 0:05V1 0:4V2 I2 = 0:4V1 + 0:1V2
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.21
Find the network shown in figure, determine the z and y parameters.
in
n.
Figure E.P. 7.21
Ans: y11 = 4 ; y22 = 3; y12 = y21 = 3,

4
z11 = 1Ω; z22 = Ω; z12 = z21 = 1Ω:
E.P 7.22
3
io
Determine the z, y and Transmission parameters of the network shown in Fig. 7.22.
ut
ol
Figure E.P. 7.22
3 1 4
Ans: y11 = , y12 = y21 = , y22 = ,
55 55 55
z11 = 20Ω, z12 = z21 = 5Ω z22 = 15Ω
us
A = 55Ω B = 55Ω C = 0.2, D = 3.
E.P 7.23
For the network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.23 determine z parameters.
vt
Figure E.P. 7.23
2s(5s + 1) 2s 2s3 + 5s2 + 3s + 5

Ans: z11 = , z 12 = z21 = , z 22 =
2s2 + 5s + 1 2s2 + 5s + 1 2s2 + 5s + 1

The unit and S are same
Vtusolution.in
Vtusolution.in
E.P 7.24
Determine the y parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E.P. 7.24.
in
n.
Ans: y11 =
1
4
, y21 =
4
1
, y12 =
4
5
io
Figure E.P. 7.24
, y22 =
3
4
.
ut
ol
us
vt
Vtusolution.in

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Vtusolution.

may continuously flow. Alternatively, an electric circuit is essentially a pipe-line that

1.2 Current, voltage, power and energy

p could be either positive or negative. Hence it

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 3

The element is providing energy to the charge ﬂowing through it.

1.3 Linear, active and passive elements

A linear element is one that satisﬁes the prin-

1.3.1 Passive Circuit Elements

Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors.

rent; it is represented by the symbol R.

Resistance of a wire element is calculated us-

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 5

of the ﬂux , so the total voltage v across N turns is

Since the total ﬂux N  is proportional to current in the coil, we have

The power in an inductor is

The energy stored in the inductor is

The energy stored in a capacitor is io

Since the capacitor was uncharged at t =

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques | 7

1.3.2 Active Circuit Elements (Energy Sources)

An active two-terminal element that supplies energy to a circuit is a source of energy. An

Figure 1.8 (a) An ideal independent voltage source

1.4 Unilateral and bilateral networks

1.5 Network simplification techniques

1.5.1 Resistors in Series

Figure 1.9 Resistors in series

1.5.2 Resistors in Parallel

equivalent resistance of the combination is computed as follows:

Figure 1.10 Resistors in parallel

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques | 9

1.5.3 Division of Current in a Parallel Circuit

Since 6Ω and 8Ω are connected in parallel, voltage

Current through 8Ω (betwen C and D) = 3:5

Total resistance of the circuit

Therefore applied voltage, io = 1A

Current through 20Ω = I1 or I2

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 11

Therefore, current through R = I3 = I I1 I2

1.6.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

In general, the mathematical representation of Kirchhoﬀ’s voltage law is

In Kirchhoﬀ’s voltage law, the algebraic sign

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 13

Applying KCL (Kirchhoﬀ’s Current Law) at node A, we get

and using Ohm’s law for R3 , we get

Ohm’s law for R1 is

SOLUTION Figure 1.18

(a) Calculate vy if iz = −3A

(b) What voltage would you need to replace 5 V source to obtain vy = −6 V if

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 15

Applying KVL clockwise to the loop CBAC, we get

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 17

(b) Applying KCL at node a, we get

(c) Applying KCL at node b, we get

From the network shown in Fig. 1.22, i2 =

Applying KVL around the loop, we have

Substituting equation (1.22) in equation (1.21), we get

Applying KCL at node x, we get

Circuit Concepts and Network Simplification Techniques j 19

Applying KVL clockwise to the loop ABDA, we get

Applying KVL clockwise to the loop BCDB, we get

20iy + 15(iy + iz ) + 2(ix + iy ) 2 = 0

of the ﬂux , so the total voltage v across N turns is

Since the total ﬂux N is proportional to current in the coil, we have