PARTS OF SPEECH

According to their functions, words are divided into eight categories which are called parts of
speech.

THE NOUN: A word used as the name of a person, a place, a thing or an idea is called noun.

Examples: Boy, City, School, love.

THE PRONOUN: A word that is used in place of a noun is called pronoun.

Examples: He, She, They, You, It

THE VERB: A word that is used to describe an action, state or feeling is called verb.

Examples: You go. We eat food.

THE ADJECTIVE: A word that is used with a noun to add something to its meaning is called
adjective.

Examples: Small, Great, Honest , Beautiful

THE ADVERB: It is a word that adds something to the meaning of any part of speech except
noun or pronoun.

Examples: quickly, fast, always, slowly.

THE PREPOSITION: It is a word that shows the connection of a noun or pronoun with other
words in a sentence.

Examples: On, In, Above, Under, at, of

THE CONJUNCTION: It is a word that joins words or sentences.

Examples: and, but, as well as, because

THE INTERJECTION: It is a word that shows sudden feeling or emotion.

Examples: Ah, Alas, Hurrah, Oh, Ouch

THE NOUN
 Def: A word used as the name of a person, an animal, a place, a thing or an idea is called
noun.

A noun can be a subject or an object of a verb.

Examples:

boy, city, school, love, pencil, happiness, table

KINDS OF NOUNS

(i) Proper Noun

Def: The name of a particular or proper thing, place, person, is called proper noun.

Examples:

Lahore, Ali, London, Atlantic Ocean, Spain, the moon

(ii) Common Noun

Def: A common noun is used for the name of a common thing, place, person and idea.

Examples:

 People: man, girl, baby, son, policeman, teacher

 Animals: Cat, dog, fish, ant, snake
 Things: bear, book, boat, table, chair, phone
 Places: bank, school, city, building, shop
 Ideas: love, hate, idea, pride

(iii) Abstract Noun

Def: The name of an idea, quality or such an object that does not have physical existence is
called abstract noun.

Examples:

friendship, peace, sorrow, love, happiness.

(iv) Collective Noun

 Def: A collective noun is the name given to a collection of things or a group of people or
animals regarded as one whole.

Examples:

team, class, committee, jury, army

(v) Concrete Noun

Def:A concrete noun refers to objects and substances, including people and animals,
physical items that we can perceive through our senses.

Concrete nouns can be countable nouns or uncountable nouns, and singular nouns or plural nouns.
Concrete nouns can also be a common noun, proper nouns and collective nouns.

Examples:

 Common concrete Noun:

boy, bat, , girl, water.

 Countable Concrete Nouns (Singular):

chair, computer, boy, book.

 Countable Concrete Nouns (Plural):

chairs, computers, boys , books.

 Uncountable Concrete Nouns:

sugar, rice, water, air, oil, salt, butter

 Proper Nouns:

Ali, Hina, Newton,

(vi) Compound Noun

Def: The name of a person or thing that is a combination of two or more words is called
compound noun.

Examples:
Brother-in-law, Shopkeeper, Bus driver.

(vii) Countable Nouns

Def: Countable nouns are the names of things or beings that can be counted.

Countable nouns have two forms; singular and plural.

Examples:

a book, a table, a car, Books, Men

(viii) Uncountable Nouns

Def: Uncountable nouns are the names of things or beings that can not be counted.

Mostly these nouns don’t have plural form.

Examples:

wood, rice, peace, happiness

A) GENDER

Gender shows the difference of sex. It is of four kinds.

i) Masculine Gender

ii) Feminine Gender

iii) Common Gender

iv) Neuter Gender

(I) The Masculine Gender

A noun denoting a male animal is said to be of the Masculine Gender; as,

boy, horse, king, Alamgir, lion

(II) The Feminine Gender

A noun denoting a female is said to be in the Feminine Gender; as,

girl, mare, queen, Mrs, Madam, lioness

(III) The Common Gender

A noun denoting an animal of either sex is said to be in the Common Gender; as,

student, baby, friend, pupil, parent.

(IV) The Neuter Gender

A noun denoting a lifeless thing is said to be in the Neuter Gender; as,

table, pen, book, knife, ticket, toy, apple.

THE PRONOUN

Def: A word that is used in place of a noun is called pronoun.

Examples: He, She, They, You, It

KINDS OF PRONOUNS

(i) PERSONAL PRONOUN

Def: A personal pronoun is used in the place of the name of a person or a thing.

Examples:

he, they, I, it, we, you

We can distinguish two types of personal pronouns: “Personal Subject Pronouns” and “Personal
Object Pronouns”.

Personal Pronouns

Subject form Object form

I Me

You You

He him

She her
 It it

We us

You you

They them

Personal Subject Pronouns

We use the Personal Subject Pronouns to refer to the person who is doing the action of the verb or
the verb speaks about. A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the
subject of the sentence.

 He listens to me.
 They play cricket daily.
 I read a book.

Personal Object Pronouns

We use the Personal Object Pronouns to refer to the person whom the action of the verbs affects.
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb.

 I like him.
 We always help them.
 He will invite you.

(ii) POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

Def: A pronoun that is used to show possession over something is called possessive
pronoun.

Examples: My, His, Their, our

Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone; some
describe a noun.

Used alone: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose

 That computer is hers.

 This computer is mine.

Modify noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
 That is her computer.
 This is my computer.

(iii) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN

Def: A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out a noun or nouns.

Examples: This, That, These, Those

 Ali wrote that. (That is the direct object of the sentence.)

 These look good. (These is the subject of the sentence.)
 Amjad brought this. (This is the direct object of the sentence.)

(iv) RELATIVE PRONOUN

Def: A relative pronoun is used to connect a subordinate clause to the main clause, and serve
as conjunction also.

Examples:

Who, Whom, That, Which, Whoever, Whomever, Whichever

 People who speak two languages are called bilingual.

 This is the book which I bought from the market.
 This is the same man that I saw in the street.

(v) INDEFINITE PRONOUN

Def: A pronoun that does not refer to a particular noun but refers to an unspecified noun or
nouns.

Examples: Few, Some, Any, someone, all, another, none

(vi) Reflexive Pronoun

Def: A reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and the object of the sentence are the
same or the action passes back to the subject.

Examples: myself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

 Singular

1st person
I talk to myself when I am nervous or excited.

2nd person
You cut yourself while cutting tomatoes.

3rd person (male)

He hurt himself playing hockey.

3rd person (female)

She enjoyed herself at the party.

3rd person (non-person)

It saw itself in the mirror.

Plural

1st person
We blame ourselves for the results of the election.

2nd person
You helped yourselves to more ice cream.

3rd person
They believed in themselves.

(vii) RECIPROCAL PRONOUN

Def: A reciprocal pronoun is used in order to indicate persons or things mutually affected.
There are two reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another

 The students in this classroom cooperate with one another.

 Both the friends like each other.
 They care a lot for one another.

(viii) INTENSIVE/ EMPHATIC PRONOUN

Def: An intensive pronoun is used to intensify or emphasize the proceeding noun or pronoun.

Examples: himself, myself, herself

 She herself wanted to join the company.

 Weourselvesbelieve that is true.
 She went to the door herself.
 (ix) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

Def: An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question.

Examples: who, whose, whom, what, which

 Who is this man?

 Whose shoes are those?
 Whom have you seen?

(x) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN

Def: The pronouns each, either and neither are called ‘Distributive Pronouns’ as they denote
all of a class taken separately.

Examples:

 Each of them has performed satisfactorily.

 Either of the two pencils will do.
 Neither of them came.

THE VERB

Def: A word that is used to describe an action, state or feeling is called verb.

Examples:

 You go to school.
 We eat food.
 We play hockey and they enjoy it.

In the given examples the italicized words; go, eat, play and enjoy are verbs.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS

Verbs may well be classified according to their function as well as their formation.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

 (i) Transitive Verbs

Def: These are the verbs which require an object to pass over the action from the subject to
the object.

Examples:

 We believe in one God.

 They built a house.
 They enjoyed music.

In the given examples, the italicized words; believe, built and enjoyed are transitive verbs.

(ii) Intransitive Verbs

Def: These are the verbs which do not require an object to pass over the action from subject
to object.

Examples:

 He died.
 We slept.
 We laughed and they cried.

In the above given examples the underlined words; died, slept,laughed and cried are intransitive
verbs.

Note: A number of verbs can be used as both the kinds of verbs (either transitive or intransitive):

Examples:

Verb used as transitive

Verb used as intransitive

Fire burnt his finger. Fire burns.

See the fun. A blind person can’t see.

John drinks whisky. I never drink.

 Mohan wrote a letter to his brother. Ram writes well.

(iii) Ditransitive Verbs

Def: A ditransitive verb is one that takes two complements, a direct object and an indirect
object at the same time.

Examples

 Ali gave Hina a book

 The teacher asked Ali a question.
 He told the children a story.

(iv) Auxiliary/ HelpingVerbs

Def: An auxiliary verb is a helping verb used to express tense, mood, or voice.

There are two groups – primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries.

Primary Auxiliaries :The primary auxiliaries are: be, have, and do.

Examples:

I am eating bread.
They have eaten bread.
You do eat bread.

Primary auxiliaries can also work as main verbs.

Examples:

I am happy to see these names included.

I have a new life now and new friends.
We do things that are controversial.

Modal Auxiliaries : will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need

Examples:

I shall eat bread.

I might eat bread.
I could eat bread.
 Modal auxiliaries cannot work as main verbs and normally appear with a main verb.

(vii) Infinitive

Def: Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which
follows “to”.

Examples:

(to) cry, (to) be,(to) go, (to) fight, (to) understand,

 The woman seemed to have been crying.

 She failed to explainthe problem clearly
 I can’t afford to goout tonight.

(viii) Bare Infinitives

Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker “to”. Infinitives without “to” are
known as bare infinitives.

Examples:

 Help me.
 Open the door.
 Follow the instructions.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORMATION

(ii) Regular Verbs

Def: A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed (or in some cases
“t”) to the base form.

Present Past Past Participle

Act Acted Acted

Banish Banished Banished

Carry Carried Carried

Reach Reached Reached

Borrow Borrowed Borrowed

Wish Wished Wished

Work Worked Worked

(ii) Irregular Verbs

The verb in which the past tense is not formed by adding the usual -ed ending for the Past Simple
and Past Participle forms. Some irregular verbs do not change; while others change completely.
Irregular verbs have no rules for conjugation. These can only be learnt in context.

Examples:

Present Past Past Participle

Awake Awoke Awoken

Bear Bore Borne

Beat Beat Beaten

Catch Caught Caught

Flee Fled Fled

Hide Hid Hidden

 Meet Met Met

THE ADJECTIVE

Def: A word that is used with a noun to add something to its meaning is called adjective.

Examples:

 Small boy
 Great leader,
 Ten rupees,
 English movies
 Thisboy

In the above given examples the italicized words are the adjectives.

KINDS OF ADJECTIVES

(i) Proper Adjective

Def: An adjective that is formed by a proper noun is called a proper adjective.

Examples:

 I always enjoy Indian movies.

 He is a French boy.
 Russianwine is famous all over the world.

In the above given examples the italicized words are proper adjectives.

(ii) Adjective of Quality

Def: An adjective of quality shows the kind , quality or state of a person or thing.

Examples:

 He lives in a big city.

 Ali is an honest fellow.
 Badpeople always cheat others.

In the above given examples the italicized words are adjectives of quality.
 (iii) Adjective of Quantity

Def: An adjective of quantity shows how much of a thing is meant.

Examples:

 I bought somerice to cook.

 There is sufficient sugar in the pot.
 There is a little milk in the jug.

In the above given examples the italicized words are adjectives of quantity.

(iv) Numeral Adjective

Def: A numerical adjective shows how many persons or things are meant.

Examples:

 I have three pens in my bag.

 There are sevenstudents in the class.
 He has ten rupees in his pocket.

In the above given examples the italicized words are numeral adjectives.

(v) Demonstrative Adjective

Def: A demonstrative adjective points out which person or thing is meant.

Examples:

 Thisboy is my friend.
 These girls are students.
 I like that book which you gave me yesterday.

In the above given examples the italicized words are demonstrative adjectives.

(vi) Interrogative Adjective

Def: An interrogative adjective is used with nouns to ask questions.

Examples:

 Whichbook is yours?
 Whose pen is this?

In the above given examples the italicized words are interrogative adjectives.

(vii) Possessive Adjective

Def: A possessive adjective is used with nouns and does the work of an adjective.

Examples:

My ideas are criticized by others.

I appreciate hiswork.

Our school is famous in the city.

In the above given examples the italicized words are possessive adjectives.

THE ADVERB

Def: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs may indicate place or direction (where, whence), time (ever, immediately), degree (very,
almost), manner (thus, and words ending in-ly, such as wisely), and belief or doubt (perhaps, no).

KINDS OF ADVERBS

(i) Adverbs of Manner

Def: Adverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.

Examples:

 She did the work carefully.

 We writes neatly
 They work honestly

(ii) Adverbs of Place

Def: Adverbs of place show where the action is done.

Examples:
 They live locally.

(ii) Adverbs of Time

Def: Adverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.

Examples:

He did it yesterday. (When)

They are permanently busy. (Duration)

(iv) Adverbs of Frequency
Def: An adverb of frequency shows how frequently an action takes place.

Examples:

 He always tells a lie.

 They often come here.

PLACEMENT OF ADVERBS

Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end
of the sentence).

Examples:

 Their teacher speaks quickly.

 He writes neatly.
 They walk briskly.

Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the
sentence).

Examples:

 I received the letter yesterday.

 She visited her school last year.
 They are permanently busy.
 Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb (not the auxiliary
verb).

Examples:

 He oftengoes to bed late.

 She always tells a lie.
 Do you sometimes get up early?

Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree are placed after the verb or entire expression.

Examples:

 He is doing very well.

 Do you sometimes get up early?
 She’ll attend the meetingas well.

Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment are placed at the beginning of a sentence.

Examples:

 Undoubtedly, Islam is a complete code of life.

 Luckily, I was able to attend the presentation.

Forming Comparative And Superlative Adverbs

‘LY’ Adverbs

With LY adverbs (adverbs formed from adjectives by adding -ly to the end) we form the
comparative and superlative forms with more and most.
 Superlative
Adjective Adverb Comparative Adverb
Adverb

quiet Quietly more quietly most quietly

careful Carefully more carefully most carefully

happy Happily more happily most happily

 Ali works more quietly than Aslam does.

 She drives more carefully than he does.
 Of the three drivers, she drives the most carefully.
 She sings the most happily of all the girls in the group.

OTHER ADVERBS

For adverbs which retain the same form as the adjective form, we add -er to form the
comparative and -est to form the superlative.

Adjective Adverb Comparative Adverb Superlative Adverb

hard Hard Harder hardest

fast Fast Faster fastest

early Early Earlier earliest

 Please work harder.

 He works the hardest.
 She runs faster than he does.
 Ali gets to work earlier than I do.

IRREGULAR ADVERBS
 Adjective Adverb Comparative Adverb Superlative Adverb

good well Better best

bad badly Worse worst

far far farther/further farthest/furthest

 Ali plays tennis better than Aslam does.

 On our tennis team, Ali plays tennis the best.
 I did worse on the test than Bart did.
 On that test, I did the worst in the class.

THE USE OF SOME PARTICULAR ADVERBS

1. Very & Much:

“Very” is used (i) with Adjectives and Adverbs of the Positive Degree; as,

He was very happy. She runs very fast.

(ii) With Present Participles; as,

The scenery of Kashmir is very charming.

(iii) With the following Past Participles: -

Pleased. Surprised. Annoyed. Tied. Grieved. Pained. Delighted. Experienced. Contented.

Dejected.

“Much” is used

(i) with Adjectives and Adverbs of the comparative Degree; as,

The patient is much better today.

We reached the station much earlier.

(ii) With an Adjective in the Superlative Degree to intensify the meaning; as,
She is much the tallest girl in the class.

(iii) With Past Participles; as,

They were much surprised to see his tricks.

2. Before & Ago:

“Before” means formerly, and is used in respect of a point of time; as,

It never happened before.

This is what we knew before.

“Ago” is used to denote a period of time from the present dating back wards; as,

She came here three years ago.

Long, long ago there lived a king.

3. Too, Very & Quite:

“Too” signifies more than enough, and should not be used instead of “Very” or “Much”. It is used in
a negative sense and is equal to “so that……..not”; as,

I shall be too glad to meet.

It is too hot to sit inside.

It is never too late to mend.

“Too” preceded by “only” has a positive sense; as,

He is only to glad to help the poor.

“Very” conveys the idea of high degree or extent; as,

It is very hot inside.

This building is very large.

“Quite” conveys the idea of completely or altogether; as

His work is quite satisfactory.

She was quite innocent.

4. Still & Yet:

“Still” lays emphasis on the continuance of a condition; as,

He is still in the bath-room.

“Yet” lays emphasis on an expected even; as,

The rain has not yet stopped.

5. Hard & Hardly:

“Hard” is the real Adverb, not “Hardly”; as,

I work hard in winter.

“Hardly” means scarcely; as,

We can hardly work at nights in summer.

I had hardly left my room when its roof fell down.

6. At Present & Presently:

“At Present” means at the present time; as,

I am very busy at present.

At present he is out of work.

“Presently” means shortly or immediately after; as,

They will be back here presently.

I shall do it presently.

7. Dear & Dearly:

“Dear”, and not “Dearly”, is used after the Verbs like cost, sell, pay; as,
Rice sells dear now-a-days.

They paid dear for their folly.

It well cost you dear to plot against him.

“Dearly” is used in the sense of tenderly; as,

She loved her father dearly.

8. Of Course & Had Better:

“Of Course” means in the course of nature or by a natural consequence; as,

I love my mother and, of course, she loves me.

“Had Better” is always followed is followed by a verb in the Present Tense; as,

You had better come to terms.

We had better hush up this matter.

9. Perhaps & Probably:

“Perhaps” means possibly; as,

Perhaps he has forgotten to attend the meeting.

“Probably” means likely or expected to happen; as,

Probably you will get the job.

THE PREPOSITION

Prepositions are the words which are used to show relationships between nouns, pronouns
and other words in a sentence.

Generally, they come before a noun and never change their form, regardless of the case, gender
etc. of the word they are referring to.

SOME COMMON PREPOSITIONS

About by outside
 above despite over
across down past
after during since
against except through
along for throughout
among from till
around in to
at inside toward
before into under
behind like underneath
below near until
beneath of up
beside off upon
between on with
beyond onto within
but out without.

KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are classified as simple or compound.

(I) Simple Prepositions

A Simple preposition consists of a single word.

Examples:

 The book is on the table.

 He is in the room.
 The train arrived at the station.

(II) Compound Prepositions

A compound preposition consists of more than one word.

Examples:

 He is sitting in front of me
 Fresh vegetables are available throughoutthe year.
 He jumps into the river.

Rules for Prepositions

 The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions of Time

English Usage Example

 on  days of the week  on Monday

 in  months / seasons  in August / in winter

 time of day  in the morning
 year  in 2006
 after a certain period of time (when?)  in an hour

 at  for night  at night

 for weekend  at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?)  at half past nine

 since  from a certain point of time (past till  since 1980

now)

 for  over a certain period of time (past till  for 2 years

now)

 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago

 before  earlier than a certain point of time  before 2004

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

 to / till / until  marking the beginning and end of a  from Monday to/till Friday
period of time

 till / until  in the sense of how long something is  He is on holiday until Friday.
going to last

 by  in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

 By 11 o’clock, I had read five
  up to a certain time
Prepositions of Place
English Usage
 in  room, building, street, town,
country
 book, paper etc.
 car, taxi
 picture, world
 at  meaning next to, by an object
 for table
 for events
 place where you are to do
something typical (watch a film,
study, work)
 on  attached
 for a place with a river
 being on a surface
 for a certain side (left, right)
 for a floor in a house
 for public transport
 for television, radio
 by, next to,  left or right of somebody or
beside something
 under  on the ground, lower than (or
covered by) something else
 below  lower than something else but
above ground
 over  covered by something else
 meaning more than
 getting to the other side (also
across)
 overcoming an obstacle
pages.
Example
 in the kitchen, in London
 in the book
 in the car, in a taxi
 in the picture, in the world
 at the door, at the station
 at the table
 at a concert, at the party
 at the cinema, at school, at
work
 the picture on the wall
 London lies on the Thames.
 on the table
 on the left
 on the first floor
 on the bus, on a plane
 on TV, on the radio
 Jane is standing by / next to /
beside the car.
 the bag is under the table
 the fish are below the surface
 put a jacket over your shirt
 over 16 years of age
 walk over the bridge
 climb over the wall
 above  higher than something else, but not  a path above the lake
directly over it

 across  getting to the other side (also over)  walk across the bridge
 getting to the other side  swim across the lake

 through  something with limits on top,  drive through the tunnel

bottom and the sides

 to  movement to person or building  go to the cinema

 movement to a place or country  go to London / Ireland
 for bed  go to bed

 into  enter a room / a building  go into the kitchen / the house

 towards  movement in the direction of  go 5 steps towards the house

something (but not directly to it)

 onto  movement to the top of something  jump onto the table

 from  in the sense of where from  a flower from the garden

THE CONJUNCTION

Def: It is a word that joins words or sentences.

Examples:

 You and I play cricket.

 I could not come because I was ill.
 Ali is a student as well as a player.

In the above given examples, the words and,because and as well as are the conjunctions.

Note : Conjunctions must carefully be distinguished from relative pronoun and relative adverbs on
the one hand and from prepositions on the other, as

This is the house that was sold by me.

In this sentence the word that is relative pronoun.

 Kinds of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are mainly divided into two main categories:

(i) Co-ordinating conjunctions

(ii) Subordinating conjunctions

(1) Co-ordinating Conjunctions

Co-ordinating conjunctions join the clauses of equal rank.

. Examples:

We play cricket and they play hockey.

It is time to go therefore let us start.

In the given examples and and therefore are the coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions are further divided into four kinds. Let’s discuss each kind with examples.

(i) CUMULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions merely add one statement to other statement.

Cumulative conjunctions are; And, Both… and, Also, Not only … but also, As well as, Too

Examples :
Night came on. The room grew dark.
Night came on and the room grew dark.
He is a fool. He is a knave.
He is a fool and he is a knave.
He is not only a fool but also a knave.
He is a fool as well as a knave.

(ii) ALTERNATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions describe or express choice between two alternatives.

Alternative conjunctions are; Either … or, Else, Otherwise, Or

Examples :
Make haste. You will be late.
Make haste or you will be late.
Come in. Go out.
Come in or go out.
Either come in or go out.
Do not be a borrower. Do not be a lender.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.

(iii) ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions describe or express opposition or contrast between two statements. Alternative
conjunctions are; But, Still, Yet, However, Only, Whereas, While

Examples:
He is slow. He is sure.
He is but he is sure.
I was annoyed. I kept quite.

I was annoyed, still I kept quite.

He failed. He persevered.

He failed, nevertheless he persevered.

He will not oppose my design. I can not approve of it.
He will not oppose my design; however, I can not approve of it.
He was all right. He was fatigued.
He was all right; only He was fatigued.

(iv) ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions describe or express an inference.

Illative conjunctions are; For, So, Therefore, Then

Examples :

He was obstinate. He was punished.

He was obstinate; therefore he was punished.

I can not see. It is very dark
It is very dark so I can not see.
I can not see for it is very dark.
It is raining heavily. I will take an umbrella with me.
It is raining heavily, so I will take an umbrella with me.
 (2) Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join the subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause.

Subordinating conjunctions are; That, Unless, Before, If, As, etc

THE INTERJECTION

It is a word that shows sudden feeling or emotions.

Examples: Ah, Alas, Hurrah, On.

THE ARTICLE
Articles are sometimes regarded as a distinct part of speech. But, properly speaking these are
merely adjectives. An article is always placed with a noun like other adjectives.

KINDS OF ARTICLES

There are two kinds of articles; the indefinite article and the definite article.

(I) INDEFINITE ARTICLE

“A” and “An” are called Indefinite Articles because they do not particularize a noun but generalize
it; as,

 I bought a table. (Here, a table means any table)

 We read a book. (Here, a book means any book)
 He ate an apple. (Here, an apple means any apple)

(II) DEFINITE ARTICLE

“The” is called the Definite Article because it particularizes a noun.

 I saw the doctor who treated me.

(the doctor – not any doctor but some particular doctor).

 Where is the book which I gave you?

(the book – not any book but some particular book).

 THE USE OF INDEFINITE ARTICLE

The Indefinite Article “A” or “An” is properly speaking, a Numeral Adjective for it originally means
one.

Examples:

A player can be tall or short. (any player).

An anchor came to see the stage. (any anchor)

Choice between “A” and “An”

The choice between “A” and “An” is determined by the sound.

“A” is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound; as,

a boy, a horse, a useful book, a European

“An” is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound; as,

an ass, an inkpot, an hour, an apple, an officer

THE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

“The” is used;

(i) When we speak of a particular person or thing; as,

 Has he returned from the club?

 Let us go to the canal.

(ii) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class; as,

 The dog is a faithful animal.

 The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.
 The cat s a loving animal.

(iii) But the noun ‘man’ and ‘woman’ when used to denote the whole class never have either
article; as,
 Man is mortal.
 Woman is man’s mate.
 Man is the only animal that uses fire.

(iv) With the names of rivers, seas, oceans, gulfs, groups of Islands and mountain ranges; as,

The Ravi, The Chenab, and The Indus

the Arabian Sea, the Atlantic Ocean

These passengers are bound for the British Isles.

(v) Before the name of divine books or newspapers; as,

 The muslims read the Holy Quran.

 The Nawa-i-Waqt is published from Lahore.

(vi) Before common nouns which are names of heavenly bodies; as,

 The moon shines in the sky.

 The earth moves round the sun.
 The rich do not like the poor.

(vii) Before an Adjective used as a Noun; as,

 People always appreciate the brave.

 The rich do not like the poor.

(viii) When a Proper Noun is used as a Common Noun; as,

 Lahore is the Paris of Pakistan.

 He is the Newton of my class.

(ix) Before Superlatives; as,

 He is the best boy of my class.

 He is the tallest student.

(x) As an adverb before adjectives in the comparative degree; as,

 The more we get, the more we desire.

 The slower you move, the greater time you take.

(xi) Before musical instruments; as,

He can play the flute.

(xii) Before the names of directions; as,

 The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.

(xiii) Before words denoting natural phenomena; as,

 The day follows the night.

(xiv) With ordinals; as,

 He was the first man who came to see me.

 This is the sixth edition of this book.

(xv) With the qualitative names of Allah.

 the Kind, the Merciful etc.

(xv) With an abstract or material noun to specify I; as,

 The gold of Africa

 The life of Muhammad (PBUH)

The Omissions of “the” Article

“The” is omitted: -

Before a common noun used in its widest sense; as,

Man is mortal.

What kind of flower is it?

Before abstract, material and proper noun; as,

Honesty is the best policy.

Gold is a precious metal.

When a common noun is used in the plural number and is not particularized; as,

Boys play football.

Before titles used in apposition to a proper noun or as the complement of a sentence; as,

Mr. Muhammad Ali, Prime Minister of Pakistan, is on tour.

He became captain of the cricket eleven.

Before names of relations; as,

Father has returned.

Before languages; as,

I learnt French from school.

Before names of drinks, meals; such as,

Dinner is ready.

Before a collective noun used in an indefinite sense; as,

Parliament will meet again in April.

Government has sanctioned the proposal.

EXERCISES

1. Say whether “a” and “an” should be placed before the following:

(i) __________ island

(ii) __________ big city

(iii) __________ umbrella

(iv) __________ honest man

(v) __________ university

(vi) __________ orange

(vii) __________ hour

(viii) __________ M.N.A

(ix) __________ heir

(x) __________ European

(xi) ___________outstanding performance

(xii) ___________ L shaped street

(xiii) __________ iron will

(xiv) __________ piece of advice

(xv) __________ intelligent boy

2. Fill in the blanks with “a” or “the”.

(i) The sun sets in _________ west.

(ii) Japan is _________ big island.

(iii) We belong to one and _________ same village.

(iv) Many _________ rose will bloom tomorrow.

(v) _________ health of my father is falling.

(vi) Naseem is _________ cleverer of the two.

(vii) Do not make _________ noise.

(viii) This is ________ shortest of all the roads.

(ix) ________ honesty of this man is praise worthy.

(x) He is ________ Newton of our class.

(xi) It is _______ unique idea.

 (xii) ________ Ravi is a famous river.

(xiii) I have ______ piece of work at home.

(xiv) I have ______ beautiful pen.

(xv) This is _______ first edition of this book.

THE SENTENCEDef: A group of words which expresses a complete sense or thought is

called a sentence.Examples:

 He goes to school.
 Ali is a good boy.
 He is the same man that stole my pen.
 Where do you live?
 What a pleasant weather it is!

Note:A sentence always begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, question mark or the
mark of exclamation.

(A) CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

Sentences may well be classified according to their purpose as well as their structure.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

Your sentences reflect your purpose as a speaker or a writer. According to their purpose, sentences
may be classified as declarative, imperative, interrogative, negative, exclamatory and optative.
(i) Declarative SentenceDef: A declarative sentence makes assertion or states an idea
without expecting a reply.Examples:

 He goes to school daily.

 We read a book.
 He offers his prayer.

(ii) Imperative Sentence Def: An imperative sentence gives a

command, makes a request or expresses a piece of advice.Examples:

 Polish the shoes.

 Open the door.
 Untie the knot.
 (iii) Interrogative SentenceDef: An interrogative sentence asks a question and is always
followed by a question mark.Examples:

 Where do you live?

 How does she touch you?
 Have you attended the classes?

(iv) Negative SentenceDef: A negative sentence is used to negate something.Examples:

 He is not reading a book.

 It is not my book.
 We did not write a letter.

(v) Exclamatory SentenceDef: An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings of joy,

sorrow and wonder.Examples:

 Hurrah! We have won the match.

 Oh! Now the battery is dead.
 Alas! He is dead.

(vi) Optative SentenceDef: An optative sentence is used to pray or wish.Examples:

 May God bless you!

 May you live long!
 Would that I were your friend.

CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE

According to structure we may classify sentences into four kinds, simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex.

(i) Simple Sentence

Def: A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clause and it has
only one subject and one verb. Examples:

 He went to school.
 We played cricked.
 I wrote my first novel last year.
 It has been raining since morning.

(ii) Compound Sentence

 Def: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clause.
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators
are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Examples:

 I came and he went.

 We played hockey and they played cricket.
 Ali waited for the train, but the train was late.
 Consumers buy fewer goods when prices rise.

(iii) Complex Sentence

Def: A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. A
complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a
relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. Examples:

 He is the man who stole my pen.

 He said that he had never visited the zoo.
 There are dreams that cannot die.

(iv) Compound-Complex / Multiple Sentence

Def: A compound complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. It is also called multiple sentences. Examples:

 I went to my village and met my old friends who reminded me my childhood.

 Life is a race and we are runners which most of us understand.
 When he opened the door, he found an old man there who asked her if she could give him some
money.

(B) PARTS OF A SENTENCE

A sentence has two parts; Subject and Predicate. Ali goes to school. Subject Predicate
Lahore is a big city. Subject Predicate 1. THE SUBJECT Def: A word or a
group of words in a sentence about which any information is given called subject.

Kinds of Subjects

(i) Complete Subject:The subject with all its words is called complete subject. A complete
subject may have one or more than one word. Examples:

 The Principal of our college is a rich man.

 The manager of our factory announces bonus for the labour.
 Lahore is called the city of gardens.

In the above given examples the italicized; The principal of our college, The manager of our
factoryandLahore are complete subjects. (ii) Simple SubjectsDef: The key word in the complete
subject is called simple subject. Examples:

 The Principal of our college is a rich man.

 The manager of our factory announces bonus for the labour.

In the above given examples the italicized; The principal and The manager are simple subjects.
(iii) Compound SubjectDef : A compound subject consists of two or more words which are
joined by using conjunction. Examples:

 Ali and Aslam are good players.

 The principal and the members of staff are attending the meeting.
 Her shoes and ankles were covered with mud.

In the above given examples the italicized; Ali and Aslam, The principal and the members of
staff andHer shoes and anklesare compound subjects. 2. THE PREDICATE Def : The part
of the sentence that says something about the subject is called predicate. Ali goes to
school.Subject Predicate

Kinds of Predicates

(i) Complete Predicate Def : The Predicate with all its words is called complete predicate. A
complete predicate may have one or more than one word. Examples:

 They laughed.
 They built a new house.
 Ali wrote a letter.

In the above given examples the italicized laughed,built a new house and wrote a letter are
complete predicates. (ii) Simple Predicate Def : The verb in the complete predicate is called
simple predicate.Examples:

 He prefers milk to tea.

 They built a new house.
 Ali wrote a letter.

In the above given examples the italicized; prefers, built and wroteare simple predicates. (iii)
Compound Predicate Def: A compound predicate consists of two verbs which are joined by
conjunction. Examples :
 Ali wrote the letter and posted it.
 We completed our work and went home.
 He wrote a book and published it.

In the above given examples the italicized wrote the letter and posted it, completed our work and
went home and wrote a book and published it are compound predicates.

A PHRASE is any group of words hanging together as a unit but without a subject-predicate pair.
Here are four phrases of different kinds:
a gray suit
in the birchwood box
to eat a huge meal
is still sleeping
A CLAUSE is any group of words containing a subject-predicate pair. The following three clauses
illustrate this definition:
If I should die
before I wake,
I pray the Lord my soul to take.

Difference between Phrase and Clause

Clauses Phrases
Wha
t is
1. Clauses is a group of words 1. Phrases is a group of words
an
Inde
2. Clauses have both a subject and a predicate. pen
dent
3 Clauses can be independent. Independent Clau
clauses are full sentences. se?
In
inde
4. Clauses can be dependent. Dependant Clauses 2. Phrases do not have a subject
pend
are not full sentences.Examples: or predicate.Examples:
ent
 The girl is nice  Excellent idea claus
 She went very fast  Great job e is
 We wash the car.  Wonderful idea a
claus
e that can stand on its own, by itself. It does not need to be joined to any other clauses, because it
contains all the information necessary to be complete sentences.

Independent clauses have three components:

 1. They have a subject- they tell the reader what the sentence is about
2. They have an action or predicate- they tell the reader what the subject is doing
3. They express a complete thought- something happened or was said.
An independent clause can be as simple as a subject and a verb:

 Jim reads.
Jim is the subject. Reads is the action or verb. A complete thought was expressed- something was
said, and the reader now knows that Jim likes to read.

What is a Dependent Clause?

A dependent clause is a clause that is lacking either a subject or an action, or does not express a
complete thought

A clause can be dependent because of the presence of a:

1. Marker Word (Before, after, because, since, in order to, although, though, whenever, wherever,
whether, while, even though, even if,
2. Conjunction (And, or, nor, but, yet)
Dependent clauses MUST be joined to another clause, in order to avoid creating a sentence
fragment.

 Because I forgot my home.

 This is a sentence fragment. We have a “because” but not a “why” or anything accompanying and
following what happened “because” they forgot.
 Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home. Here, the error is corrected. “I got sent home” is
an independent clause. “I” is the subject, “got” is the verb, “sent home” is the object. A complete
thought is expressed.
THE SENTENCE
Def: A group of words which expresses a complete sense or thought is called a sentence.
Examples:
 He goes to school.
 Ali is a good boy.
 He is the same man that stole my pen.
 Where do you live?
 What a pleasant weather it is!
Note: A sentence always begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, question mark or the
mark of exclamation.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
Sentences may well be classified according to their purpose as well as their structure.

(A) CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

 Your sentences reflect your purpose as a speaker or a writer. According to their purpose, sentences
may be classified as declarative, imperative, interrogative, negative, exclamatory and optative.

(i) Declarative Sentence

Def: A declarative sentence makes assertion or states an idea without expecting a reply.
Examples:
 He goes to school daily.
 We read a book.
 He offers his prayer.
(ii) Imperative Sentence
Def: An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a piece of
advice.
Examples:
 Polish the shoes.
 Open the door.
 Untie the knot.
(iii) Interrogative Sentence
Def: An interrogative sentence asks a question and is always followed by a question mark.
Examples:
 Where do you live?
 How does she touch you?
 Have you attended the classes?
(iv) Negative Sentence
Def: A negative sentence is used to negate something.
Examples:
 He is not reading a book.
 It is not my book.
 We did not write a letter.
(v) Exclamatory Sentence
Def: An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings of joy, sorrow and wonder.
Examples:
 Hurrah! We have won the match.
 Oh! Now the battery is dead.
 Alas! He is dead.
(vi) Optative Sentence
Def: An optative sentence is used to pray or wish.
Examples:
 May God bless you!
 May you live long!
 Would that I were your friend.
 (B) CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE
According to structure we may classify sentences into four kinds, simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex.

(i) Simple Sentence

Def: A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clause and it has
only one subject and one verb.
Examples:
 He went to school.
 We played cricked.
 I wrote my first novel last year.
 It has been raining since morning.
(ii) Compound Sentence
Def: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clause.
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators
are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Examples:
 I came and he went.
 We played hockey and they played cricket.
(iii) Complex Sentence
Def: A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although,or when or a
relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
Examples:
 He is the man who stole my pen.
 He said that he had never visited the zoo.
 There are dreams that cannot die.
(iv) Compound-Complex / Multiple Sentence
Def: A compound complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. It is also called multiple sentences.
Examples:
 I went to my village and met my old friends who reminded me my childhood.
 Life is a race and we are runners which most of us understand.
 When he opened the door, he found an old man there who asked her if she could give him some
money.
(B) PARTS OF A SENTENCE
A sentence has two parts; Subject and Predicate.

Ali goes to school.

Subject Predicate

Lahore is a big city.

 Subject Predicate

1. THE SUBJECT
Def: A word or a group of words in a sentence about which any information is given called
subject.
Kinds of Subjects
(i) Complete Subject:
The subject with all its words is called complete subject.
A complete subject may have one or more than one word.

Examples:
 The Principal of our college is a rich man.
 The manager of our factory announces bonus for the labour.
 Lahore is called the city of gardens.
In the above given examples the italicized; The principal of our college, The manager of our
factory and Lahore are complete subjects.
(ii) Simple Subjects
Def: The key word in the complete subject is called simple subject.
Examples:
 The Principal of our college is a rich man.
 The manager of our factory announces bonus for the labour.
In the above given examples the italicized; The principal and The manager are simple subjects.
(iii) Compound Subject
Def : A compound subject consists of two or more words which are joined by using
conjunction.
Examples:
 Ali and Aslam are good players.
 The principal and the members of staff are attending the meeting.
 Her shoes and ankles were covered with mud.
In the above given examples the italicized; Ali and Aslam, The principal and the members of
staff and Her shoes and ankles are compound subjects.
2. THE PREDICATE
Def : The part of the sentence that says something about the subject is called predicate.
Ali goes to school.
Subject Predicate

Kinds of Predicates
(i) Complete Predicate
Def : The Predicate with all its words is called complete predicate.
A complete predicate may have one or more than one word.

Examples:
 They laughed.
 They built a new house.
 Ali wrote a letter.
In the above given examples the italicized laughed, built a new house and wrote a letter are
complete predicates.

(ii) Simple Predicate

Def : The verb in the complete predicate is called simple predicate.
Examples:
 He prefers milk to tea.
 They built a new house.
 Ali wrote a letter.
In the above given examples the italicized; prefers, built and wrote are simple predicates.

(iii) Compound Predicate

Def: A compound predicate consists of two verbs which are joined by conjunction.
Examples :
 Ali wrote the letter and posted it.
 We completed our work and went home.
 He wrote a book and published it.
In the above given examples the italicized wrote the letter and posted it, completed our work and
went home and wrote a book and published it are compound predicates.

TENSES

Tense is the form of the verb used to express the time of an action.
Mainly there are three tenses:

 Present Tense
 Past Tense
 Future Tense
THE PRESENT TENSE

A verb that refers to the present time is said to be in the present tense.

Present family consists of four members, as; The Present Indefinite, The Present Continuous,
The Present Perfect and The Present Perfect Continuous.
(I) The Present Indefinite is used:-
 To express an action that is happening now

Examples:
 I now go to school
 He writes a letter.
 They read a book.
To express the universal truths:

Examples:
 The sun rises in east.
 Two and two make four.
To express a future action:

Examples:

 The office opens on Monday week.

 He comes tonight.
To quote from the existing work of authors:

Examples:
 Shakespeare says, “Frailty thy name is woman.”
(II) The Present Continuous is used to denote an action that is going on at the time when a
statement is made.
Examples:
 They are telling a lie
 We are helping the poor.
 He is playing cricket.
(III) The Present Perfect is used to denote an action that has just been completed.
Examples:
 They have told a lie.
 We have helped the poor.
 He has played cricket.
(IV) The Present Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action that started in the past and still
going on.
Examples:
 It has been raining since morning.
 He has been playing cricket for two hours..
THE PAST TENSE

A verb that refers to the past time is said to be in the past tense.
 Past family consists of four members, as; The Past Indefinite, The Past Continuous, The Past
Perfect and The Past Perfect Continuous.
(I) The Past Indefinite is used to denote an action as going on at some point in past.
Examples:
 He wrote a letter.
 We helped the poor.
 They told a lie.
(II) The Past Continuous is used to denote an action that was going on at some time in the past.
Examples:
 They were telling a lie
 We were helping the poor.
 He was playing cricket.
(III) The Past Perfect is used to denote an action that has completed in past before another action
started.
Examples:
 They had told a lie before I came.
 He had played cricket when we reached there.
(IV) The Past Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action that finished at some definite time in
the past but that had been going in before it finished.
Examples:
 It had been raining since morning.
 He had been playing cricket for two hours.
THE FUTURE TENSE
A verb that refers to the future time is said to be in the future tense.

Past family consists of four members, as; The Future Indefinite, The Future Continuous, The
Future Perfect and The Future Perfect Continuous.
(I) The Future Indefinite is used to denote an action that has still to take place.
Examples:
 He will write a letter.
 We shall help the poor.
 They will tell a lie.
(II) The Future Continuous is used to denote an action that will going on at some time in the future.
Examples:
 They will be telling a lie
 We shall be helping the poor.
 He will be playing cricket.
(III) The Future Perfect is used to denote an action that will be finished at some time in the future.
Examples:
 They will have told a lie.
 He will have played cricket.
 (IV) The Future Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action that will be going on in future and
not completed in future.
Examples:
 It will have been raining since morning.
 He will have been playing cricket for two hours.
THE PRESENT TENSE
(I) THE PRESENT INDEFINITE
(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I go. I don’t go. Do I go?

We go. We don’t go. Do we go?

You go. You don’t go. Do you go?

He goes. He doesn’t go. Does he go?

They go. They don’t go. Do they go?

It goes. It doesn’t go. Does it go?

(II) THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I am going. I’m not going. Am I going?

We are going. We are not going. Are we going?

You are going. You are not going. Are you going?

He is going. He is not going. Is he going?

They are going. They are not going. Are they going?

It is going. It is not going. Is it going?

(III) THE PRESENT PERFECT

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I have gone. I have not gone. Have I gone?

We have gone. We have not gone. Have we gone?

You have gone. You have not gone. Have you gone?

He has gone. He has not gone. Has he gone?

They have gone. They have not gone. Have they gone?

It has gone. It has not gone. Has it gone?

(IV) THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I’ve been going. I’ve not been going. Have I been going?

We’ve been going. We’ve not been going. Have we been going?

You’ve going. You’ve not been going. Have you been going?

He has been going. He has not been going. Has he been going?

They have been going. Have they been going?

They have not been
 going.

It has been going. It has not been going. Has it been going?

THE PAST TENSE

(I) THE PAST INDEFINITE
(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I went. I didn’t go. Did I go?

We went. We didn’t go. Did we go?

You went. You didn’t go. Did you go?

He went. He didn’t go. Did he go?

They went. They didn’t go. Did they go?

It went. It didn’t go. Did it go?

(II) THE PAST CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I was going. I was not going. Was I going?

We were going. We were not going. Were we going?

You were going. You were not going. Were you going?

He was going. He was not going. Was he going?

They were going. They were not going. Were they going?

It was going. It was not going. Was it going?

(III) THE PAST PERFECT

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I had gone. I had not gone. Had I gone?

We had gone. We had not gone. Had we gone?

You had gone. You had not gone. Had you gone?

He had gone. He had not gone. Had he gone?

They had gone. They had not gone. Had they gone?

It had gone. It had not gone. Had it gone?

(IV) THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I had been going. I had not been going. Had I been going?

We had been going. We had not been going. Had we been going?

You had not been

You had going. going. Had you been going?

He had been going. He had not been going. Had he been going?
 They had not been
They had been going. going. Had they been going?

It had going. It had not been going. Had it been going?

THE FUTURE TENSE

(I) THE FUTURE INDEFINITE
(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I shall go. I shall not go. Shall I go?

We shall go. We shall not go. Shall we go?

You will go. You will go. Will you go?

He will go. He will not go. Will he go?

They will go. They will not go. Will they go?

It will go. It will not go. Will it go?

(II) THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I shall be going. I shall not be going. Shall I be going?

We shall be going. We shall not be going. Shall we be going?

You will be going. You will be going. Will you be going?

He will be going. He will not be going. Will he be going?

They will be going. They will not be going. Will they be going?

It will be going. It will not be going. Will it be going?

(III) THE FUTURE PERFECT

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I shall have gone. I shall not have gone. Had I gone?

We shall have gone. We shall not have gone. Shall we have gone?

You will have gone. You will not have gone. Will you have gone?

He will have gone. He will not have gone. Will he have gone?

They will have gone. They will not have gone. Will they have gone?

It will have gone. It will not have gone. Will it have gone?

(IV) THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

(Active voice)

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I shall not have been

I shall have been going. going. Shall I have been going?

We shall have been We shall not have been Shall we have been
going. going. going?

You will not have been

You will have going. going. Will you have been going?

Will he have been going?

He will have been He will not have been
going. going.

They will have been They will not have been Will they have been
going. going. going?

It will not have been

It will have been going. going. Will it have been going?

CTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

What is VOICE?
Voice is the form of a verb which shows whether the subject does something or has something done
to it. We have two voices in English

(a) Active Voice

(b) Passive Voice

(a) Active Voice

A verb is in the active voice when its subject does something, or in simple words the active voice
indicates that the subject is performing the action. e.g.

i) He writes a letter.
ii) We eat oranges.
iii) They play hockey.
iv) I buy furniture.
In these sentences the subjects (he, we, they, I) do something, so, the verbs used are said to be in
the Active Voice.

(b) Passive Voice

A verb is in the passive voice when something is done to its subject, or in simple words the passive
voice indicates that the action of the verb is being performed upon the subject.

i) A letter is written by him.

ii) Oranges are eaten by them.
iii) Hockey is played by them.
iv) Furniture is bought by me.
In these sentences, the subjects (letter, oranges, hockey, furniture) are acted upon, they remain
inactive or passive and their verbs are, therefore, said to be in the passive voice.
 FORMATION
OF
PASSIVE VOICE FROM ACTIVE VOICE

i) Only transitive verbs (verbs that take direct object) can be used in the passive voice.
When on active verb is changed into the passive, the direct object of the acive berb becomes the
subject of the passive verb.

Active Voice:
Hamza delivered a wonderful speech.
Passive Voice:
A wonderful speech was delivered by Hamza.
ii) When a verb has two objects, ony one of them can be used as the subject in the
passive voice, and the second one will remain as it is. (will remain the same). If such situation (two
objects in a sentence) does exist then we, normally, convert the inanimated object into the subject
and use “too” before the animated object.
Active Voice:
He gave me a new pen.

Passive Voice:
A new pen was given to me by him.

However, we can convert the animated object into subject, then, don’t use “to”.

Passive Voice:
I was given a new pen by him.

iii) While going through this process (from active into passive) change the subject into the
object and the object into the subject.
iv) Third form of verb is used in the passive voice.
v) Use “by” after the third form of verb and before the object.
vi) Change in Pronouns: The subjective form of verb is changed into objective form.
Acitve Voice Passive Voice

I Me

We Us

You You

He Him

She Her
They Them

Who By whom

Changes in the Tenses:

(a) Use of helping verbs in different types

Tense Helping verbs used in Passive

1. Present Indefinite is/am/are+V3(3rd form of verb)
2. Present Continuous is/am/are+Being+V3

3. Present Perfect has/have+been+V3

4. Present Perfect Continuous No Passive Voice

(b) PAST TENSE:

Tense Helping verbs in Passive Voice+main verbs

1. Past Indefinite was, were+V3

2. Past Continuous was/were+v3

3. Past Perfect had+been+V3

4. Past Perfect No Passive Voice

(c) Future Tense

Tense Helping Verbs in Passive + main verbs

1. Future Indefinite will be/ shall be+V3

2. Future Continuous No Passive Voice

3. Future Perfect will/shall+have been+V3

4. Future Perfect Continuous No Passive Voic

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
When a verb in the active voice expresses a command, request or advice, then it we use in passive
voice the verb ‘let’ followed by the Passive infinite without ‘to’.

The Passive Voice of an imperative sentence is made in the following way:

i) Change the subject into object and object into subject.

ii) Start the sentence with ‘let’.
iii) Use third form of verb.
iv) Use ‘be’ before the third form of verb.
Active : Open the door.
Passive: Let the door be opened.
Active : Help the needy.
Passive: Let the needy be helped.
Negative Sentences (Imperative)
Begin / start the sentence with “let not”

Active : Do not open the door.

Passive: Let not the door be opened.
Or Let the door not be opened.
Active Passive Voice

Present Indefinite: 1. Change the subject into object and object into subject 2. Use V3. 3. Use “by”
after “V3”.

Active : I eat an apple.

Passive: An apple is eaten by me.
Negative Sentences (Present Indefinite)
In the negative sentences (Passive) use (is/am/are+not) instead of “do not” or “does not”

Active : They do not write letters.

Passive: Letters are not written by them.
Interrogative Sentences (Present Indefinite)
While converting an interrogative sentence into passive omit “do” or “does” and write (is/am/are).
Close the sentence with a question mark (?).

Active : Does he kill a snake?

Passive: Is a snake killed by him?
Present Continuous: 1. Change the subject into object and object into subject. 2. Use V3. 3. Use
“by” after “V3”.
Active : I am eating an apple.
Passive: An apple is being eaten by me.
Negative Sentences (Present Continuous)
For negative sentences use “not” after the helping verb (is/am/are)

Active : They are not writing letters.

Passive: Letters are not being written by them.
Interrogative Sentences (Present Continuous)
Begin the sentence with (is/am/are) and then place the subject (which was object in the active) and
then write “being”. Put question mark at the end of the sentence.

Active : Is he killing a snake?

Passive: Is a snake being killed by him?