~ : : ....... .
Review
Fat replacers
and the functionality
of fat in foods
Paula A. Lucca and Beverly J. Tepper
Developing no- and low-fat products is a high priority for the
fo~d industry. Given the variety of fat replacers available,
how does a product developer decide which to use? Fat
replacers ~.an be divided into three classes on the basis of
their comf×),,ition: protein-based, carbohydrate-based
b.,s~.,d. Each has different functiona[ propert;es that provide
tx~th ad'~antages and limitations in specific applicatiol~s.
Preseotb.' there is no 'silver butleC - no single fal replacer that
~ontribu|es all of the desired sensory and iunctional qualities
to all products. A ~.vstems approach, one that makes use of a
combmalion of twc or more wisely chosen (at
coupled with formula and procedural changes appears to be
the best current strategy.
Developing no- and low-fat products has been given a
high priorit~ by most food companies. The list of in-
gredients offered as potential fat replacers is lo~g and
varied. Deciding which ingredient or combination of in-
gredients is best tk)r a specitic application can be a diffi-
cult task. One approach is to systematically screen the
various fat replacers in the base formula. However,
product development timetables rarely allow lk)r this time-
consuming, hit-or-miss effort. An alternative approach
is to determine what functional properties fat contrib-
utes to the t'ull-tk~t version of the product. This knowl-
edge ,-will point out what qualities the fat replacer will
need tt~ impart to the low-fat version, before any for-
mulati~n ,,~ork is begun. By understanding what qual-
ities the various fat replacers can and cannot offer,
the number of ingredients that should actually be tested
can be minimized.
Sensory qualities of f a t s
Fats impart a wide range of characteristics to food~.
including desirable appearance, flavor, aroma, texture
Pauta A. Luccai, at Ih~'(ampbeHS~upC~mpar~,. t ampb~'][PI,I~.'rCamdt'l~
%l 0810t-17,)t) LSA Beverly I. Tepper i, at flat' I~t'[)artm~'nlof [~(~d functional properties that have proven useful as fat
S~it,n(t, (l!,)k (()[[~'R~,' [)() [~o\ )~l Rtttg~,,rs[ ~aixt,r,it~",.e~ t~rui~i~k replacers ~*~. Although some whey proteins aggregate
]2 ~ ~,,.,~ ik,.,,,, ~, ,,.,,,. ~,,5~,,,:~ .': ~.~,,~ s~- -,~
~ ......
and mouthfeel (see Table I ). The first sensory character-
istics perceived by the consumer are usually visual cues,
tk)tlowed closely by arorna sensations ~. These initial per-
ceptions will set !lp expectations about the product,
which may influence the interpretation of the other sen-
sory qualities and ultimately affect prcxtuct acceptance.
If the reduced-fat product lacks the gloss, sheen or
opacity normally present in the full-fat version, the con-
sumer might expect it to be less rich and creamy '.
Although the impact of fat level on appearance and
texture of lk~ods is well known ~,~.', its influence on
flavor might not be as obvious. Not only can the fat
present in a lk~od contribute a flavor of its own (but-
tery, nutty, etc.), it also impacts upon the intensity,
duration and balance of the other flavors present. This
appears to be due to the ability of fat to slow flavor-
release. As a full-fat food is chewed, fat-soluble flavor-
ants are gradually released. The lowering or removal of
fat from a food disrupts the timing of this release. The
• " ," " J , , ' - " , J c,' " ,-.-
and fat-
decreases-'. Since fat-soluble flavorants are often un-
stable in aqueous or hydrophilic environments, a flavor
system that is effective in a full-fat food may not deliver
the same flavor profile in a reduced-fat product ~:-~ 6.
Most of the currently available fat replacers can be
divided by composition into three categories: protein-
replacers, based, carbohydrate-based and fat-based. The protein-
and carbohydrate-based fat replacers are known as fat
mimetics since they cannot fully replace the functional-
ity of fat in foods. The fat-based fat replacers or fat sub-
stitutes can replace fat in a food on a one-to-one basis.
Each category of fat replacer can provide a range of sen-
sory and functional qualities to low-fat products, and
they are reviewed below.
Protein-based fat mimetics
Protein-based mimetics have limited applications as
fat replacers since they cannot be used as cooking oils
or in products intended to be fried ~ ~z. This is because
high temperature causes denaturation and coagulation of
the proteins, which results in loss of the crearny, fat-like
texture. Additionally. proteins tend to chemically bind
some flavor components, causing them to lose intensity
or contribute o f f flavors ~. These reactions are highly
system specific, varying not only with the protein source
used but also with the other ingredients present in
the formulation. Because of these ['actors, it is diffi-
cult to predict their behavior in a formulation without
extensive batch-testing. A partial listing of the protein-
based fat mimefics currently available is given in
Table 2.
Whey protein concentrate
~ i l k protein consists of two major fractions, casein
protein (8(,)'~ and whey protein (20%). Concentrations
of whey protein exceeding 5()c~ yield products with
and precipitate at their isoelectric points (pH 4.5-5.2),
Trends in Fond Science & Technology January ] 994 iVo]. "3[
Table I. Attribules associated with fat for several categories of food '

Creamed soup,
Dairy Frozen sauces and Frostin~ and
Baked goods products Salad dressings desserts gravies Fried foods Meats fillings

Flavor Flavor Flavor Flavor Moulhfeel Fla,,or Fla~or Viscosity/body

Viscosity/body Creaminess Viscosity/body, Viscosity/body Opacity Heal transfer Mouthfeel Mouthfeel
Richness Saltiness yield ~tress Creaminess Flavor Crispness luiciness Creaminess
Texture Acidity Saltiness Mouthfeel Saltiness Aroma Tenderness Aeration
Aeration Viscosity/t~ody, Acidity Mell Satiety Color Texture Spread
Shortness yield stress Smoothness Heat-shock Bite Emulsion
Tenderness Smoothness Aeration stabilitv Handling Smoothness
Elasticity Mouthfeel Mouthfeel Overrurl Heat transfer Melt
Flakiness Melt Shear sensitivity Opacity,, Satiety
Leavening Emulsion Color
Lubricity Aeration Opacity
Dough handling Color Cold storage
Moisture retention Sheen stability
Opacity
Satiety

'Data takenfrom Refs| and 2

Table 2. Prolein-based fat mimefics ~

kcal/g
Manufacturer Product name Label designation Microparticulated? Functions (dry weight)

American Dairy CMP-1Complete Milk Complete milk protein No Extendsfunctionality of remaining fat 3.6
Specialties Protein

AMPC Inc. AMP800 Whey protein concentrate No Texture and mouthfeel simulation 4.0

Calpr~ln~redients Calpro 75 Whey protein concentrate No Water.'%am/cmulsion

slabilization: body 3.4

The NutraSweetCo. Simplesse100 Provides body, texture mouthfeel. 3.8

Simpiesse 100-Dry ~,~,/he,,'. protein concentrate Yes opacity, viscosilv, {reaminess .~;.8
J SinrplesseBrand
Simplesse I!I!1 Grade A inhibits syneresis:binds wal" 3.8

' Datatakenfrom Relst, 7, 8 and I(t-14

...............................................................................................................

most whey proteins are soluble over a wide pH range
(approximately pH 2-11) and can theretbre be used in
man~,' liquid or moist tbod systems ~l~. M~~derate heat
(>70"C) causes partial loss o f solubility between pH 3
and 5. The application o f temperature and pH causes the
whey protein concentrate (WPC) molecules to partially
unfold, leaving them !'re~ to associate and aggregate with
other molecules. Protein concentration, pH and tempera-
ture each play an important role in deter;;dng whether
this reaction will yield the formation o f small, soluble
aggregates or a gel-lattice structure '~. Moderate lem-
peratures (60-90°C) and tow levels o f protein (<10~:'~)
f~vor the ti)mtation o f small molecules: these bind water
and increase the viscosit}' o f a li~od, addin~ body or rex-
lure ~'~. WPC concentrations o f lO-]2ci and tempera-
lures o f 70-9(Y~C fa~or the R)rmation o f gel lattices.

Trends in Fo{;d Science & le;'hnolog'~ lanum,~ H)q4 [Vol. 51 1~

 Opaque, wet, weak gels are formed under acidic con- to be physically modified protein and are therefore
ditions (pH 4.6-6), whereas above pH 7 the resulting classified as GRAS by the FDA. Nutritionally, they
gels are more translucent, t, lastic and rubbery t~. As with are digested and absorbed as protein ~~:.
small aggregates, gel lattices also have iv,creased water-
binding capacity. G e h formed under acidic conditions Carbohydrate-based fat mimetics
are smooth and elastic h~ nature and resemble egg-white Most of the low-fat products introduced i~ recent
years contain carbohydrate-based fat mimetics. These
In addition to concentration, pH and temperature, mimetics achieve fat replacement mainly by stabilizing
other ingredients present in the food system can also substantial quantities of water in a gel-like matrix.
affect gel formation. Calcium and sodium salts tend to resulting in lubricant and flow properties similar to
weaken ~he gel structure and reduce its water-holding those of fatsZ-~LThey function primarily to increase vis-
capacity. A synezgistic effect has been noted with some cosity and body. and to provide a creamy, slippery
other proteins ~. Whey proteins are also amphiphilic. In mouthfeel similar to that of ['at:.~. Carbot'ydate-based
solution Ithe hydrophobic groups tend to be buried within mimetics suffer from several sensor3,' and functional
the coiled molecules, while the hydrophilic groups are limitations as general fat replacers. The two most
located on tile surface. This arrangement confers not notable of these are that they cannot be used as frying
only increased water solubility on the molecules but media, and that their high associated-water content
also excellent surface-active and emulsion-stabilizihg increases the water activity of the product and thus
properlies. During emulsion tbrmation the whey pro_ reduces product shelf life z. The type of carbohydrate-
reins diffuse to the oil-water interface and reorient such based fat mimetic used will have a profound infuence
that the hydrophobic segments extend into the oil phase on the final flavor profile of the product. Starch- and
and the hydrophitic portions extend into the aqueous cellulose-based fat mimetics tend to decrease the inten-
phase. This reduces the interfacial tm~ .ion and stabilizessity of flavors, while often adding a slight flavor of their
t h e e n l u t N i o n I/1¢' , own 5. Gum-based fat mimetics do not generally influ-
Foam formation and stabilization, another property ence the flavor of the system to which they are added.
of WPCs, occurs somewhat similarly to the stabilization Furthermore, they do not mask any of the flavors or
of an emulsion. Here WPC forms a stabilizing inter- tastes in the system, nor do they add any flavor of their
face around the air bubble. The speed of air incorpor- own ~. The broad category of carbohydrate-based fat
ation and the stability of the foam depend upon several mimetics can be divided into several subsections.
parameters such as WPC type. protein denaturation including starches, maltodextrins and dextrins, poly-
levels, pH, fat content, protein and carbohydrate concen- dextrose, cellulose gel and gums. A representative listing
trafions, and concentration of calcium and other ions ~5. of available starch- and cellulose-based ingredients is
Whey protein concentrates are classified as "generally given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Although most
recognized as sale" (GRAS) by the Food and Drug of the carbohydrate-based ingredients have GRAS
Administration (FDA). Nutritionally, they are digested status ~2'':-" 2~, polydextrose and xanthan gum are approved
and absorbed as protein ~,~s. fl~r use in specific applications as discussed below.

Microparticulated protein Starches

Although proteins from a variety of foods can be con-
verted into nfieroparficutated protein (MPP), whey. milk
and egg proteins arc used most often. While the specific
procedures and raw materials may vary, the process of
microparticutation basically involves the application of
heat to the proteins, causing them to coagulate into a gel
structure, while at the same time applying high shear.
Ordinarily. heat-coagulated proteins form large particles
of gel, which are perceived as rough in the mouth. In
microparticu!ation, however, the applied shear reduces
the coagulating proteins to very small spheroidal par-
ticles 0 . I - 2 . 0 ~rn in diameter 7"~"' ~z~, This ,.mall diam-
eter is very important as it is widely regarded that par-
ticles less than 3 ~ m in diameter are too small tk~r
the human tongue to distinguish as individual particles.
Instead, they are perceived as a creamy, smooth
fluidVm ~2u,h. MPP fat replacers tend to coat the mouth
and taste buds, in a similar way to fat. This coating
action not only allows flavors to reach the receptors
slowly and gradually, but also helps mask some of the
bitter and astringent fla,'ors that seem more pronounced
in low-fat products'. MPP fat mimetics are consklered
Speciality starches, developed through physical
and/or chemical modification of native starches, can
help replace fat by enhancing the stability, creaminess
and moisture retention of food products 2' . Various
starches offer differem physical characteristics, such
as degree of spreadability, thermoreversibflity, stability
tc, gelling, and resistance to heat. acid and shear.
Differences in these properties are due not only to the
parent material used, but also to the specific modifi-
cation and the degree of modifcation. To date, fat mi-
merits from potato, corn. oat. rice and tapioca starch
have bcc~ developed. Each of these maintains some
,~t the qualities of its parent material, while at the same
tirne exhibiting properties that make it usethl as a D.t
replacer > .
It has been proposed that small-granule starch having
a granule diameter similar to that of lipid micelles
( ~ 2 g i n ) might have potential as a fat replacer:".
Although native starches from some grass and cereal
seeds have granule diameters sufficiently small, the
production costs involved in their preparation make
their use economically unatmtctive >. A combination

14 Trendsin FoodScience& TechnologyJanuary1994 [Vol. 5[

Table 3. Carbohydrate-based fat mimetics: starches ~

Manufacturer Product name b Label designation Parent starch Functions

A.E. Sta!ey Sla-Slim 142, 14 ~ Food starch - modified Modified potalo star( h Texlttre and mutdhleelsh~lulalion;
Manulacluring Co Sta-Slim 150,151 F¢)od starch - modified Modified lal)i~, a eklt'nds Itln(tionalitv ol remaining fat
Sla-Slim 171
Stellar
Food starch modified
Food start 13- modified
Modified '.'~ax\' maize
Acid-modified (~om ',larch
} Texture and mouthfee] simulation

Ameri(an Maize- Al'nalean I Food star¢h - modilied [nhan~ es hod,, and muuthfeel
Produ(ts Co, Amalean II, instant Food star(h - modified I Corn Texlure and mo~ll'ffeel simulation
LoDex Mahodexlrm Pru~ ide,, hulk

AVEBE American Inc. Paselli SA2 Maltodextrin Enzyme-conxerled polalo start h TeMure and mouthfeel simulation

ConAgra Speciality TrimChni(e Hydrulysed oat flour ()at Texture and moulhfeel simulation
Grain Producls

Grain ProcessingCorp. MahrinM040 I

Maltrin MIO0 Enzyme- andor acid- ~. Texlure and mouthfeel simulation; bulk
Maltodexlrin
Mallrin M150 nlodilicd t om slar,,h J
Maltrin M! 80 Bulk
Maltrin M520 Texture, melt ( haracteristics

National Starch & Lean Bind Food star(h - modified

Chemical Co. N-Lile B For×t-grade maltodextrin
N-Life D Modified food star~h Wa',,v maize
N-Lile L Food starch - modified
Texture and mouthfeel simulation
N-Life LP Modified food startt3
Instant N.Oil II Tapioca mahodextrin
N-Off Tapiu(a dextrin Tapioca
Slenderlean Food starch - m()dified

Opta Food Ingredients ()ptaGrade TM Cornslar(h Corn Texture and nlouthieel simulation

Rhone-Poulerl( Food Oatrirn FDA: modified oat flotir Enzynle-rnoclitied ()at fl(lur Texlureantl moulhfeel simulation
Ingredienls USDA: I'rvdrolvsed ()at flour

Rixland Partnership Rice-gel L-tO0 Rke flour Ri(e Texture and mouthfeel simulation

'Data taken from R,t,fs 1 7, 8. I0.14, tl' ,,ad lq

~'All [)rOdLl( t ~, pro,.ide 4,0 k( al/g Idr', ,.,.e~ghtlexcept Sl,andorlean ',;hi( h l)rox,ide,. 4. l

of acid hydrolysis and mechanical attrition can be
successfully used to decrease the size of native,
CC,'lllntcIrl starch granules to 1.2-1.8 gin. lhe particle
size correlating with the degree of acid hydrolysis,
Modified starches produced using variations of Ihis
method reportedly functiorl ',','ell as fat replacers ~2".
Given the variety of starch-corhtairfing plarets and the
numerous modifications (e.g. hydrolysis, crosslinking,
microparliculation) that can be used. it follows that dif-
ferent starch-based fat nlimetics i'nay differ sigrlificantl5
in their functional properties:"::. In .general. there are
various pros and cons to using a starch-based fat mi-
merit. On the positive side are reasonable costs, wide
availability, and convenlional storage and handling
procedures. However. freeze-thaw-, heat-, acid- and
shear-stability are not guaranteed. Additionally, depend-
ing on the type of starch and the level used, some flavor
masking and/or flavor corltribution can he expected.
This might be an advantage when masking unvcanted
flavors or when Itavors from the starch actually help

Trends irt Food Science & Technology January 1994 [Vol. 5] 13

Table 4. CarbohydraIe.basedfal mimelks:gum¢

Manufacturer Product nameh label designation Functions

[)o~ Ci~emi~aI Me hyl(eilulnse Meth'~lceilulose "l

(o Hydrnxypmp,,I Hydrox,,propyl melhykelh~lose / Texture and mouthfeel simulation
methyicellulnse
FM(ZCorp. Avicel RC/(! Cellulose gel, mi( rocrystaIiine,':ellulose, Te×ture and mouthfeel simulalinn;
carboxymethyI cellulose stabilization
Novagel RCN 10 Ce t osege, gutr ]
No,.agel RCN 15 Cel ulose ge. guar j Texture and mouthteel simuliltion: opa(itv
A~icel RCN-~{t Microcrystalline cellulose, maltodextrin, xantllan
Fun(tionaI F(~o(ts EX-CEL Microcrvsta]tine(elluIose ~, Textureand mnuthieel simulation;extends
Corp. EX-CEL SD Celluloso gel J lunctionalib of remaining fat; hulk

Her(ules Slendid Peclin Texture and mnuthfeel simulat~ou

Dahttaken fromRei~I. 8. 14. 17 20 anti 2 I

' All i)rcxlu¢t,, pro'~ute o k(:al g Mr; ,.:eighI~

round out the overall flavor. In other cases this could first step in the manufacture of MCC is the acid hy-
present an addilionat challenge to be overcome. drolysis of cellulose pulp. Microcrystalline cellulose
remains insoluble during this treatment. It is then sub-
Mallodex(rins and dexlrins jetted to severe mechanical attrition, which physically
Maltodextrins and dextrins are nonswem starch breaks it down into colloidal crystallite aggregates I-'.
hydroIysales that have a dextrose equivalence ( D E ) less These co!loidal aggregates are then co-dried with
than 20 (Refs 18, 19). When used at high concentrations, carboxymethylcelhflose and/or other functional ingredi-
dextrins and mahodexlrins contribute signiticantIy to ent(s), which later aid redispersion of the insoluble
mouthI'cel, body and viscosity. Typically. one part of a microcrystals in water, tn most colloidal grades o1' MCC
20-35g4 aqueous solution is considered equivalent to 60-709+ of the micmcrystals are less than 0.2 p.m long.
one part of oiP". When a 25c,,~ solution of mahodextrhl/ When added to an aqueous medium these submicron
dextrin is substituted for fat/oil on a gram-for-gram particles disperse rather than hydrate. The functional
basis, a net reduction of 8 kcal/g can be realized ~". As ingredients (e.g. carboxymethylccllulose, guar gum) hold
with starch-based mhaetics, some flavor-masking and/or the insoluble cellulose microc~'ystals together in a
llavor contribution can be expected when using a mal- network 3~. It is this network that gives colloidal cellulose
mdextrin or dextrin as a lat mimetic. Additionally. as gels their functional properties, such as creamy mouthfeel,
the DE and/or the usage level increases so too does the body and opacity ' -'' :~.
tendency to brown during heal proces~,h~g. This might
not be a problem in baked applications, but could limit Gums
use of these nlinletics ill dressings, creanl satlces, soups Gtuns are hydrocolloids that provide viscosity or
and similar applications. thickening and. in some cases, gel formation 7~-'~. The
importance of gums is based upon their ability to control
Polydextrose the rheology of water-based systems via stabilization of
Polydextrose is a randomly bonded condensation emulsions, suspension of particulates, control of crys-
polymer of dextrose that contains bound sorbitol and tallization and inhibition of syneresis 2~. Gums. such as
citric acid. Although primarily a bulking agent, poly- xanthan, gnat and locust bean. are frequently included
dextrose can also be used as a partial fat replacer *-I'~. [n reduced-fat lk~rmulations to help stabilize the system.
Polydextmse, which contributes I kcal/g, is partially Others. such as pectin and carrageenan, are also effective
digested and absorbed by the bod,. (Ref. 10). Poly- fat-mimicking ingredients ::'~ (see Tables 4 and 5).
dextrose is approved for use in certain applications, in- Readily soluble in hot or cold water, xanthan gum
eroding baked goods, toppings, beverages, frozen des- produces highly viscous solutions even when used at
sects and puddings k~''. low concentrations. Xanthan solutions m'e highly
pseudoplastic, a property that is a key element in
C e l l d o s e gel the non-gummy mouthfeel and desirable flavor-release
Cellulose gel. also knowu as microcrystalline cellu- noted in xanthan-stabilized systems :'*>''. Additionally.
lose o: MCC, is a nonfibrous form of cellulose in which xanthan solutions are freeze-thaw-, heat- and acid-
the cell wall of plant fibers has been physically IYag- stable. While a 98% decrease in viscosity occurs at
mented into lengths ranging from a few hundred retort temperatu,es of 120°C. 80% of the original
microns to a few tenths of a micron > Isee Table 41. T h e xiscosity returns after cooling ~'~. Xanthan functions

lh trend, in Food Science & Technology lanuarv 1994 iVnl. 5[

synergistically with guar gum to increase viscosity, and
with locust bean gum to produce a thermoreversible
gel '''u. The use of xanthan gum in new |brmulations
may require FDA appreval ~.
Guar gum hydrates rapidly in cold water to give
highly viscous, thixotropic (becoming less viscous
under stress) solutions -'4.-'~. It is used mainly as a stabil-
izer, water binder and viscosity builder -'a-~. Guar gum
alone is non-gelling z~. Although very high heat (i.e.
frying temperatures of -36()°F) degrades the gun]. it is
freeze-thaw- and acid-stable 2~. Viscosity synergisms oc-
cur with wheat flour, fresh egg yolks, ltt.id skim milk
and some other gums such as xanthan 24.
Insoluble in cold water, locust bean gum must be
heated for complete hydration and viscosity develop-
ment-'". Solutions of locust bean gum are heat-,
freeze-thaw- and acid-stable. They also tend to have a
slight opacity due to the presence of insoluble protein
and cellulose impurities -'s. Although locust bean gum
will not form a gel by itself, gelation will rapidly occur
when either xanthan or carrageenan are added -'5--'~.
Pectin functions as a gelling agent, thickener, sus-
pending agent and, in some cases, as a fat mimetid 7--'~.
Low-methoxyl pectins (i.e. pectins with a degree of
methylation of less than 50%) form soft. elastic, thermo-
reversible gels, which have been lk)und useful as fat
substitutes -'s. The pecti~l concentration, pH and calciurn
content of the solution all have an impact upon the
strength of low-methoxyl pectin gels. A pH in the range
of 3.0-3.5 results in a gel of optimum strength. As the
calcium content increases so too does the gel strength.
At high calcium levels, however, the gels formed are
brittle and prone to syneresis. Conversely. as the amount
of soluble solids is increased, the gels tend to be less
brittle and less prone to syneresis -':-''~.
The three main fractions of carrageenan (K-, t- and h-
carrageenan) differ primarily in the coment and distri-
Table 5. Properties of carrageenans"
Properlies K-Carrageenan
Solubility
Hot v,,ater Soluble above 70C
Cold waler Na" salt soluble
Salts of carrageenan Low to high swelling of
K', Ca:', NH~" salts
ttnt milk Soluble
Cold milk Insoluble
Gelalion
Effect of cations Gels most strongly Vvilh K"
Type of gel Brittle with s~.,neresis
Efle~.l of !o( .sl bean gun] Synergislic
[ Stability
Neutral or alkaline pH Stable
A(id q)H ].:3) Hydrolvses, gel state stable
'Data taken from Refs 2~ and 28
[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trends in Food Science & lechnologv lanuary 19q4 [Vol. 5]
but|on of sulfate ester groups as well as in their func-
tional properties -'~'z'~ (see Table 5). t-CalTageenan is a
gelling agent that lbrms thermoreversible gels. In the
presence of calcium ions the gel formed is clear,
elastic and syneresis-free, and resets after shear -''.-'s.
Of the three types discussed here, t-carrageenan has
the best freeze-thaw stabilily. It is also the most ef-
fective carrageenan to use for moisture retention in
low-fat beef pauiesZ'L K-Carrageenan is a stronger gel-
ling agent than L-carrageenan, forming strong, rigid gels
that tend towards syneresis. Blending with L-carrageenan
will control this syneresis-''-'~. MCarrageenan does not
form g,zls but does act as a thickener :~. In general,
when added to guar gum, tow concentrations of car-
rageenan pr(~uce an increase in viscosity, while high
carrageenan concentrations result in increased gel
strength. Conversely. when carrageenan is added to a
pectin solution, a decrease in viscosity is noted -'s. Only
K-carrageenan has a synergistic effect will| locust bean
gum. This combination provides an enhancemenl of
gel strength: a change in gel texture, from brittle to
elastic: and a lessening in the degree of syneresis z'.
t-CaITageenan in combination with various starches,
such as modified tapioca, modified potato, unmodified
rnaize, and modified and unmodified waxy maize.
results in a substantial synergistic increase in viscosity.
h-Carrageenan produces only a limited viscosity in-
crease, while K-carrageenan yields no viscosity in-
crease ~-"
Deciding which gum to use can be a complex de-
cision. The critical factors that should be considered zs''
include: the effects of temperature and shear on the
solubility or dispersibility of the gum: lhe rheological
characlerislics of the gel formed; and the effect of tem-
perature, concentration, pH and time on the viscosity-
and gel-forming properties of the gum. Compalibility
with other ingredients in the formulation needs to be
t-Carrageenan MCarragee~n
Soluble above 7(YC Soluble
Na" sall soluble All sail'-,s~luble
fhixotropic dispersion (ff ~.II salts soluble
Ca " salts
Soluble Soluble
Insoluble Disper~,es with lhickening
Gels most strongly v, ith Ca" Non-gelling
Elastic, no syneresis Non-gel ing
None None
Stable Stahlt
Accelerated hv heat H', drol,. ',e',
1'
 assessed as well as the effect, if any, on the color, odor
and tasm of the finished product. Other considerations
include i'egulatory status for the intended application.
and the usage cost.
Fat-based fat replacers
Fat-ba*ed fat replacers are substances that look and feel
like fat aud have physical and themml properties similar to
fat. They are often called fat substitutes as they can, theor-
etically, replace all or part of the fat in a food. Included
in this category are: emulsifiers, medium-chain triacyl-
glycerols (MCTs), structured lipids and acaloric lipids.
Emulsifi~Irs
Emulsifiers act as fat extenders by helping make a
little fat seem like more (fat sparing). The several hun-
dred emulsifiers available to the food industry differ in
their structure as well as their functional and metabolic
properties. Lipid-based emulsifiers include mono- and
diacylglycerols, sodium stearoyl lactylates (SSL), diacetyl
tartaric esters of mono- and diacylglycerols (DATEM) and
lecithin. These compounds can be used to replace all or
part of tl~e shortening content in numerous applications,
and produce finished products close in sensory proper-
ties to their full-fat counterparts 3"*(see Table 6). Blends
of emulsifiers combine the functional properties of
the separate ingredients. The combination of DATEM and
monoacylglycerols (Grinsted Products Inc.. Industrial
Airport, KS, USA). which serves as a dough conditioner
and crumb softener, is one such examr, le,
Medium-chain triacylglycerols
Medium-~.hain triacylglycerols are triacylglycerols that
have fairy acid chains with carbon lengths less than 12
{Ref. 35¢ They are colorless liquids at room t, mpera-
ture, stable at both high and low temperatures, and very
stable to oxidation '~. Nutritionally, MCTs supply only
8.3 kcal/g, rmher than the 9 kcal/g supplied by conven-
tional fats, so a slight ~'aloric reduction can be realized
through their use ~5.
Structured lipids
Structured lipids are MCTs that have been inter-
esterified with a long-chain fatty acid ~'. They are often
Table 6. Fat-based fat replacers: emulsifiers"
Name Chemical classification
Mono- and diacvlgh,cerols Gl,/cerolesters
SSL Sodium stearoyl lact~,,lates
DATEM Diac.etyl tartaric acid estersol mono-
and diacylgh/cerols
Spans Sorhilan fatty acidsester!;
Lecithin Phospholipid
...........................................
' Data taken from Refs8 and 34
.................................................................................
18
called "designer lipids" since it is possible to lbrmulate
them to meet specific needs. "Caprenin" (Procter &
Gamble, Cincinnati, OH, USA) is one such example.
and has functional properties similar to cocoa butter.
It is formed by the esterification of glycerol with three
naturally occurring fatty acids, capric (Cm), caprylic
(C~) and behenic (C_~ (Refs 1, 8, 37). The body di-
gests, absorbs and metabolizes Caprenin by the same
route used for other triacylglycerols L8~7.However, behenic
acid is only partially absorbed; the bulk of it passes
through the gastrointestinal system without contributing
calories 8~7. Additionally. the medium-chain fatty acids,
capric and caprylic, are inefficiently metabolized ~7. The
net result of the combination of these three fatty acids is
a llat that yields a caloric density of only 5 kcal/g (RelLs
8, 37). Caprenin is considered to be GRAS for use in
soft candy, such as candy bars, and in confectionery
coatings lbr nuts, fruits and cookies. Caprenin is not
intended for use in frostings or icings, coatings for ice
cream or frozen desserts, beverage mixes or baking
chocolate 3".
Acaloric synthetic compounds
Acaloric synthetic compounds are materials with
ffrnctional and sensory properties similar to fat. Since
these compounds are resistant to hydrolysis by digestive
enzymes, they provide no calories". None of these
ingredients are currently approved for use in the
USA, although patents have been granted for several
substances that tall into this category, including:
fatty alcohol esters of alkylmalonic and malonic acid
~DDM: Frito-Lay Corp., Piano, TX, USA), esterified
propoxylated glycerols (EPG; ARCO Chemical Co.,
Newtown Sq., PA, USA). trialkoxy tricarballylate
(TATC: also known as retrofat), a polycarboxylic acid
(Best Foods. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ, USA) and sucrose
polyesters (SPE; also known as olestra; Procter &
Gamble Co., Cincinnati, OH, USA) LT. Sucrose poly-
esters (SPE) are formed by the esterification of six
to eight of the hydroxyl groups of sucrose with long-
chain fatty acids. The degree of esterificafion (hexa,
hepta or octa) and the type of fatty acids used, including
the degree of saturation and chain length, influence
the functionalities and physicochemical properties of
I-unctions
Retain water, ,lid aeratio:~,provide crumb softness
Starch and protein complexing agents,promote
oil-in.water emulsions I
Dough conditioner a~,l volume enh,.ncer
i
Promote water-in-oil emulsions ]
Modifies viscosity, v,,ettingagent l
[
Trends in Food Science& Technologylanuary 1994 [V~ I. 5]
the resulting SPE u. Olestra has the appearance, mouth-
feel, heat stability, flash point, shelf life and, very
importantly, the flavor-carrying quality of conven-
tional fats. Olestra has yet to gain FDA approval due
to concerns about its laxative effects at higher concen-
trationsT,s.tn 12.
Conclusions and future directions
To date, no single ingredient that can replace fat in all
applications has been developed. Given the diverse roles
of fat in foods it does not seem likely that one universal
fat replacer will be identified. The use of a combination
of two or more fat replacers, coupled with formula and
procedural changes, can reproduce textural properties
(such as thickness, creaminess and bulk) reasonably
welt 5. Many of the newly introduced fat replacers are
blends of two or more ingredients, each of which con-
tributes some key complementary quality. For example,
Rice Trin 3 (Zumbro i,ac., Hayfield, MN, USA) is a
blend of rice maltodextrin and 10% rice protein.
Rice Trin 3 therefore combines the benefits of a gel-
ling carbohydrate with those of microparticulated
protein 3'~. Another example is Superbase (Excelon inc.,
Milwaukee, WI, USA). This product is a combination of
hydrolysed rice, modified food starch, whey protein
concentrate and xanthan g u m 4n.
Properties such as flavor, mouth-coating and lingering
fatty mouthfeel have still not been adequately solved by
current fat replacers. However, other solutions to these
problems are being pursued. For example, flavor com-
pounds emulsified with lipid-like materials that can pro-
vide the missing mouthfeel sensations are being used
increasingly in low-fat formulations ". Additionally,
polysaccharides have been shown to slow the release of
flavor, much as fat does. Incorporating polysaccharides
into a low-fat flavor system might give flavor-release
properties similar to that of a full-fat system t'. A further
possibility is that arotna could be used to fill taste and/or
texture gaps. Taste and texture perceptions can be
enhanced in specific baking and savory applications by
the incorporation of a strong aroma into the flavor
system 5.
Finally, there is a large amount of information
describing the capabilities and advantages of the various
fat replacers, but one should be cautioned that most of
these data come from manufacturers" literature rather
than basic research sources. This is cause for concern
since a complete understanding of the functions of fat
in foods, particularly with regard to its sensory qualities,
is still lacking. What is missing is the answer to the
question "How?" How does fat contribute to the per-
ception of creamy nnouthfeel in a frozen dessert or
flavor modulation m a salad dressing'? The need to
solve these complex issues should stimulate nnore re-
search in this area.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the expertise o f Dr Karen
Schaich and Ms Gall Civille in the preparation of this
manuscript.
Trends in Food Science & Technology lanuary 1994 [Vol. 51
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