Electronic

DC Principles
Study Unit
Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
By
Robert Cecci
Magnets and electromagnets are important components in
industrial controls and automation devices. Devices such as
relays, contactors, motors, and transformers all use electro-
magnets in their operation.
In this text, you’ll first be introduced to natural and artificial
Preview
magnets. Next, you’ll learn about various magnetic units and
terms. This text will then conclude with presentations on
electromagnetism, electromagnetic devices, and electromag-
netic induction.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be

able to
• Identify the north and south poles of permanent
magnets and electromagnets
• List several magnetic and nonmagnetic materials
• Describe how to magnetize a piece of steel by
induction
• Explain the difference between simple, compound,
and closed magnetic circuits
• Determine the direction of magnetic lines of force
around a conductor (if the direction of the current is
known)
• Use the right-hand rule to locate the poles of a
solenoid
• Describe the operation of simple electromagnetic
relays, buzzers, and stepping switches
• Explain how a DC motor operates
• Explain the generator action and motor action of
electromagnetic induction in simple terms
iii
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM 1
What Is a Magnet?
Magnetic Poles
Contents
Identifying Magnetic Poles
Attraction and Repulsion of Magnetic Poles
Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials
Magnetic Induction
Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic Units and Terms
Magnetomotive Force
Magnetic Properties
ELECTROMAGNETISM 18
Conventional Theory and Electron Theory of
Current Flow
Electromagnetic Forces
Magnetic Forces Between Parallel Conductors
Magnetic Coils
Electromagnets
Electromagnetic Relays
Alarm Bells or Buzzers
Electromagnetic Stepping Switches
Solenoids
DC Motors
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 37
Magnetic Field, Voltage, and Conductor Movement
Generator Action of Electromagnetic Induction
Motor Action of Electromagnetic Induction
Mutual Inductance and Transformers
POWER CHECK ANSWERS 45
v
Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
What Is a Magnet?
In general terms, a magnet is a special bar of iron that can
attract and hold other pieces of iron to it. The term magnet-
ism refers to the power of attraction between a magnet and
iron. A magnetic field is the area of space directly around a
magnet in which magnetic forces can be felt.
The term magnet is used to refer to both natural and artificial
magnets. Natural magnets (sometimes called lodestones) are
ores that have the unusual ability to attract pieces of iron
placed close to them. These ores were first discovered in the
ancient Greek district of Magnesia, and were therefore called
“magnets.”
Later, someone observed that if a small bar of magnetic ore
was hung by a thread in a horizontal position and allowed to
swing freely, the ore would align itself in a north/south direc-
tion. This discovery led to the invention of the magnetic
compass, a device that can point out the magnetic north and
south poles of the earth.
An artificial magnet is simply a man-made magnet that has
all the properties of a natural magnet. An artificial magnet
can be created by rubbing a natural magnet in one direction
against a bar of hardened steel. Straight artificial magnets
are called bar magnets. Curved artificial magnets are called
horseshoe magnets. Artificial magnets that keep their mag-
netic properties for a long time are called permanent magnets.
1
Very strong permanent magnets can be made artificially by
compressing magnetic powder under high pressure and tem-
perature. These magnets are called rare earth magnets and
are used in devices such as DC motors and special high-
power loudspeakers.
A special type of artificial magnet called an electromagnet can
be created with electric current. When a magnetic metal core
is wrapped in a coil of wire and electric current is applied to
the wire, a magnetic field forms around the core. The mag-
netic field concentrates in the metal core and increases the
magnetic power of the core. Electromagnets can be used to
create mechanical motion, thereby converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
Natural magnets are seldom used in industry because their
magnetic force is weak. However, electromagnets have many
practical industrial applications. Small, relatively weak elec-
tromagnets are used in small relays. Larger, much stronger
electromagnets are used in large relays, contactors, or in
motors. Some other devices that use electromagnets are sole-
noids and transformers. (We’ll discuss electromagnets in
more detail later in the study unit.)
Magnetic Poles
The parts of a typical bar magnet are shown in Figure 1. The
ends of the magnet are called the poles. As you can see in the
figure, there are two opposite poles on a bar magnet: a south
pole and a north pole. The strongest force of magnetic attrac-
tion is located at the poles of a magnet. The axis is the
imaginary line that’s drawn through the center of the bar
magnet. The neutral line is the point that falls exactly halfway
between the north and south poles. Little magnetic force is
present at the neutral line.
FIGURE 1—This figure

shows the parts of a
bar magnet.
2 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

A permanent magnet always has a north pole and a south
pole. In a bar magnet, as you’ve seen, the poles are located at
the opposite ends of the magnet. In a horseshoe magnet
(Figure 2A), the poles are also found at the opposite ends, and
the neutral line is found at the extreme top of the bend of the
magnet. An axis passes through one pole, continues through
the center of the magnet, and exits through the opposite pole.
FIGURE 2—Figure 2A shows the basic parts of a horseshoe magnet. In 2B, a device called a keeper joins
the ends of the horseshoe magnet. The keeper provides a path between the two ends of the magnet
when the magnet isn’t in use.
A piece of soft iron called a keeper joins the two free ends of
the horseshoe magnet shown in Figure 2B. The keeper helps
the magnet to retain its magnetism for a long time.
If a bar magnet is cut apart at its neutral line (or at any other
place), the two halves become two new magnets, each with its
own north and south poles.
Electromagnets also have two poles. The location of the north
and south pole depends on the direction of current flow in
the wire coil surrounding the metal core of the magnet.
To see how the north and south poles of a magnet are deter-
mined, look at Figure 3. Figure 3A shows a magnetized steel
needle resting on a point. The needle can turn freely on the
point. If no iron, steel, or other magnets are nearby, the mag-
Magnetism and Electromagnetism 3

FIGURE 3—The simple mag-
netic compass in 3A can be
made from any thin piece
of hard, magnetized steel
suspended carefully at its
center so that it’s free to
move horizontally. The
familiar magnetic compass
shown in 3B is constructed
according to the same basic
principles.
netized needle comes to rest with one end pointing north and
one end pointing south. The end that points to the north is
the north pole and the opposite end is the south pole.
This device acts as a simple magnetic compass. A real com-
pass (Figure 3B) is constructed in much the same way,
except that the magnetized needle is suspended by jeweled
bearings and sealed in a marked case.
Magnets or electromagnets always attract ferrous metals
(metals that contain iron). Ferrous metals include steel, iron,
or cast iron. Copper, brass, aluminum, and some types of
stainless steel are unaffected by magnets. These materials
are often referred to as nonferrous.
If a bar magnet is dipped in iron filings (Figure 4), the filings
are attracted to the two poles and stick there in tufts. These
tufts of iron filings visibly identify the strongest areas of mag-
netic attraction on the bar magnet. Note that there are no
filings stuck to the middle area of the magnet.
FIGURE 4—Iron filings

are attracted to the
ends of a magnet. Near
the center of the mag-
net, there’s little or no
tendency for the filings
to stick.

Identifying Magnetic Poles
You can easily identify the north and south poles of a magnet
by using a compass. You know that a compass pointer is a
permanent magnet with its north pole and south pole clearly
marked. Place the compass near one pole of the magnet. If
the north pole of the compass pointer is attracted to the
nearby magnet, you’ve identified the south pole of the mag-
net. If the south pole of the compass pointer is attracted to
the magnet, you’ve identified the north pole of the magnet.
This experiment is possible because of the rule of magnetic
attraction and repulsion: like magnetic poles repel each
other; unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
Attraction and Repulsion of

Magnetic Poles
If two magnets are brought close together, the opposite
poles attract each other. That is, the north pole of one
magnet is attracted to the south pole of the other magnet.
If the like poles are brought close together, they repel each
other. That is, if the north pole of one magnet is brought
near the north pole of another magnet, the magnets repel
each other.
Simply stated, like magnetic poles repel each other, and
unlike magnetic poles attract each other. These reactions of
attraction and repulsion have useful applications in many
devices. For example, in motors, these forces can create a
turning motion.
If like poles repel each other, why does the north pole of a
compass pointer point to the north pole of the earth? The
reason is that the earth’s geographic poles and magnetic
poles are different. The earth’s poles are called north and
south according to their geographic location, not their mag-
netic effect. The earth has two magnetic poles that are
slightly displaced from the geographic poles (Figure 5). The
geographic north pole acts as the magnetic south pole. The
geographic south pole acts as the magnetic north pole.
Therefore, although the compass pointer points to geographic
north, it actually points to magnetic south.

FIGURE 5—The earth has
two magnetic poles and
two geographic poles, but
the locations of these poles
don’t exactly coincide.
Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force

The forces of magnetic attraction and repulsion flow in definite
directions or “lines” around a magnet. These lines of magnetic
force are called magnetic flux. The lines of force are strongest
near the surface of the magnet, and grow weaker as you move
away from the surface. The area of space around a magnet in
which the lines of force move is called a magnetic field.
We can’t actually see these lines of force, but we can see the
path followed by the lines of force by performing a simple
experiment. If you place a sheet of paper over a bar magnet
and sprinkle fine iron filings over the paper, the iron filings
will align themselves in curved lines extending from the north
pole to the south pole of the magnet. The majority of the fil-
ings will align themselves at the poles of the magnet. The
remainder of the filings will form bands around the magnet
as shown in Figure 6.
In another experiment, we can place a sheet of paper over the
end of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings on the paper
(Figure 7). The figure shows that the lines of force spread out
evenly in all directions from the end of the bar magnet. The
greatest concentration of force is directly at the magnet, with
a lighter concentration as you get farther from the magnet.

FIGURE 6—The lines of
force and the strength of
the magnetic fields are
concentrated at the north
and south poles.
FIGURE 7—Iron filings are

attracted to the north
end of a magnet, as
shown here. The view at
the south end would be
the same.
As we mentioned, magnetic flux is strongest right at the mag-

net’s surface. The strength of the flux grows weaker as you
move away from the magnet. The strength of magnetic flux
and the distance from a magnet are related mathematically
according to the inverse square law of physics. Each time you
double your distance away from the magnet, the strength of
the flux is divided by four. For example, if the flux has a
given strength when you’re one foot away from the magnet, at
two feet away from the magnet, the flux will be one-fourth as
strong as it was before.

The lines of force move in a specific path around a magnet.
This path is called the magnetic circuit. Each line of force
leaves the north pole of a magnet, makes a complete path
around the magnet, and then returns to the south pole. From
there it goes through the magnet to the north pole again. The
magnetic circuit of a bar magnet is shown in Figure 8A. The
distribution of the lines of force between the poles of a horse-
shoe magnet is shown in Figure 8B.
FIGURE 8—Whether a mag-

net is straight (8A) or
horseshoe-shaped (8B),
the lines of force leave the
north pole of the magnet,
go through the external
magnetic circuit, and enter
the south pole of the mag-
net. Every line of force
makes a complete mag-
netic circuit.
The direction of the lines of force in any magnetic field can be

traced using a small magnetic compass. The north pole of the
compass pointer always points in the direction of the lines of
force. If you move the compass along the length of the mag-
net, the pointer will turn so that it always lines up with the
lines of force.
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials

All substances oppose the passage of lines of force through
them to some degree, just as all substances offer some resist-
ance to the flow of electricity. Those materials that offer very

little opposition to the passage of lines of force are called
magnetic or ferromagnetic materials. Some examples of mag-
netic materials are iron, nickel, and cobalt (and the alloys of
these metals). However, iron and its alloys are much more
magnetic than nickel and cobalt.
Not all magnetic materials are magnets; that is, they don’t
always have magnetic poles. However, all magnetic materials
are capable of being attracted by a magnet.
There’s no material that can totally prevent magnetic lines of
force from passing through it. Some materials do, however,
offer much more resistance than others. These materials are
called nonmagnetic materials. Air, paper, wood, glass, copper,
brass, and stainless steel are all nonmagnetic. (In fact, most
materials are nonmagnetic.)
Most nonmagnetic substances offer about 2,000 times as
much resistance to magnetic lines of force as iron. The resist-
ance of air (compared to other nonmagnetic substances) is
about the same. However, at least some magnetic lines of
force will pass through all nonmagnetic substances. Thus, if
you place a piece of paper or wood between a magnet and a
piece of iron, the nonmagnetic material won’t prevent the
attraction of the iron to the magnet.
Magnetic Induction
When a piece of magnetic material (such as iron) is moved
into a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force pass through
it and the piece immediately becomes magnetic. When this
occurs, the lines of force appear to crowd together as they
pass through the magnetic material. This happens because
the magnetic material is a better “conductor” of lines of force
than is the surrounding air.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 9. In the figure, a small
piece of iron is placed in the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
While the piece of iron is in the field of the permanent mag-
net, the iron becomes a temporary magnet. As long as the
piece of iron is in the magnetic field, it behaves like any mag-
net: the magnetic lines of force enter the iron piece at its
south pole and leave at its north pole. When the iron is

FIGURE 9—In this illustra-
tion, a piece of iron is
moved into the magnetic
field of a bar magnet.
Notice that some of the
lines of force go out of
their way to pass through
the iron piece. If a hard-
ened-steel bar is placed in
the magnetic field, the
steel will retain its magnet-
ism after the field is
removed.
removed from the magnetic field, its magnetism disappears.

Magnetizing a piece of magnetic material in this way is called
magnetic induction.
Note that when the piece of iron is in the magnetic field, it
has north and south poles just like the permanent magnet.
The north pole of the temporary magnet is always aligned
with the south pole of the permanent magnet. If the iron bar
is moved near to the north pole of the permanent magnet, the
poles on the iron bar reverse. That is, the upper pole of the
iron bar becomes the south pole and the lower pole becomes
the north pole.
Magnetic Circuits
You already know that a magnetic circuit is the path of the
lines of force through a magnet. In this section of your text,
we’ll examine three types of magnetic circuits: simple, com-
pound, and closed.
A simple magnetic circuit is a magnetic circuit in which all the
lines of force are contained within the magnetic material
(Figure 10). The material provides a continuous path for all of

FIGURE 10—In the simple
magnetic circuit shown,
all of the lines of force are
contained within the mag-
netic material.
the lines of force. Such a circuit is often used as a magnetic

shield to surround and shield electric and electronic parts or
circuits—and also watches or clocks—from the effects of
stray magnetic fields.
A compound magnetic circuit is a circuit in which the lines of
force pass through several kinds of magnetic or nonmagnetic
materials, as shown in Figure 11. Note how the lines of force
pass through the body of the magnet, then across an air gap,
through the iron bar, and back to the body through the air
gap, completing the circuit.
FIGURE 11—Any kind of

magnetic or nonmag-
netic material—whether
it’s air, glass, wood,
iron, or some other
material—that separates
a magnet from another
magnetic material forms
a compound magnetic
circuit.

A closed magnetic circuit is composed entirely of a magnetic
material; the lines of force don’t pass across an air gap. The
magnetic circuit shown in Figure 10 is closed. Another exam-
ple is a magnetic circuit in the shape of a ring. A compound
magnetic circuit could be closed if the air gaps were filled
with some magnetic material other than iron, even with a
type of iron different from that in the body of the magnet.
Magnetic Units and Terms

Your study of magnetic circuits wouldn’t be complete without
a brief discussion of the units in which magnetic quantities
are measured. Because an electrician or electronics techni-
cian seldom has to measure magnetic fields, the instruction
here is limited to a few magnetic terms and their definitions.
In a drawing, magnetic flux is represented by lines of force
that pass along a magnetic circuit. In a bar magnet, for
instance, magnetic flux is shown as lines passing through
the bar from pole to pole (Figure 12).
FIGURE 12—Lines of
magnetic force can be
clearly seen exiting the
north pole of this bar
magnet.
The standard unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell. One maxwell

is equal to one magnetic line of force. A larger unit of magnetic
flux is the weber. One weber equals one hundred million
(100,000,000) maxwells, or one hundred million lines of force.
Flux density is the number of lines of force in a given unit
area. Flux density is expressed in a unit called a gauss and
represented by the letter B. One gauss is equal to one
maxwell per square centimeter. A larger unit of flux density is
a tesla, which is equal to one weber per square meter.

Magnetomotive Force
The magnetic flux produced by a magnet can be compared to
the electric current flowing through a conductor. Electric cur-
rent flows because electromotive force (abbreviated EMF)
pushes current through a circuit. In a similar manner, mag-
netomotive force (abbreviated MMF) pushes magnetic flux
through a magnet.
In an electric circuit, the resistance of conductors opposes
the flow of current. Magnetic circuits also offer opposition to
magnetic flux because they’re made of materials that oppose
the passage of the flux. In a magnetic circuit, this opposition
to flux is called reluctance.
Magnetic flux can be generated by applying electric current to
a wire, or several turns of wire. The magnetomotive force that
pushes flux through an electromagnet is measured in
ampere-turns. We can calculate the number of ampere-turns
in a given electromagnet using a mathematical formula. The
amount of MMF (in ampere-turns) is equal to the current (in
amperes) times the number of turns in the coil. For example,
if a current of 2 A flows through a wire coil with 20 turns,
you would multiply 2 A times 20 (20 2 40) to calculate
the number of ampere-turns produced. According to your cal-
culations, this electromagnet has an MMF of 40
ampere-turns. The value of the magnetomotive force doesn’t
depend on any magnetic properties of the material.
The MMF exerted per unit of length of magnetic material is
called the magnetic field intensity. The magnetic field inten-
sity is represented by the letter H and is measured in units
called ampere-turns per meter. A comparison of electrical cir-
cuit values and magnetic circuit values is given in Table 1.
Table 1
CIRCUIT VALUES
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Force emf mmf
Flow current flux
Opposition resistance reluctance

Magnetic Properties
In the study of magnetism, certain terms are used to refer to
magnetic properties, such as the ability of a material to carry
or resist flux, or the ease with which a material can be mag-
netized or demagnetized. The magnetic properties of a
particular material determine its use in electrical or elec-
tronic devices such as transformers, motors, and generators.
Some of the common terms used to describe magnetic prop-
erties are permeability, relative permeability, hysteresis,
saturation, and residual magnetism.
In any magnetic material, the relationship between the mag-
netic field intensity (H) and the flux density (B) can be
illustrated by the magnetization curve. The magnetization
curve for a magnetic material is shown in Figure 13. In this
figure, the horizontal axis represents the magnetic field inten-
sity (in ampere-turns per meter) and the vertical axis
represents the flux density (in gauss).

illustrates a magnetization
curve for a magnetic mate-
rial. The shaded area is
called the hysteresis loop.
It can be seen that for any value of H there are two values of
B. The lower curve in this figure represents the value of the
flux density when the magnetic field intensity is increasing

(that is, when the current in the electromagnetic coil is
increasing). At some point, increasing the magnetic field
intensity causes only a slight increase in the flux density.
The value of the flux density at this point is called the satura-
tion flux density (BS).
The upper curve in this figure represents the value of the flux
density when the magnetic field intensity is decreasing (that
is, when the current in the electromagnetic coil is decreas-
ing). When the magnetic field intensity reaches zero, some
flux density still remains in the material. This flux density
value is called the residual flux density (BR).
If the magnetic field intensity is reversed (by reversing the
current direction in the electromagnetic coil) the flux density
is reduced to zero gauss. The value of magnetic field intensity
at this point is called the coercive force (HC). If the magnetic
field intensity is increased further in the negative direction,
the flux density decreases until it reaches a negative satura-
tion point. The arrows in Figure 13 indicate the changes in
flux density for both increasing and decreasing currents.
The permeability () of a material at any point on the magne-
tization curve is defined as the ratio of the flux density to the
magnetic field intensity. This definition is true at any point
on the curve. In a vacuum, with no magnetic material pres-
ent, the permeability value (O) is 1.257 106 webers per
ampere-meter. In a magnetic material, the permeability may
be several thousand times the value of O.
Relative permeability (R) is the ratio of the permeability of a
material to the permeability of a vacuum. Relative permeabil-
ity is one (1) for a vacuum and nearly one for air and other
nonmagnetic materials.
The shaded loop in the magnetization curve in Figure 13 is
called the hysteresis loop. The area inside the loop represents
the energy used to align the atoms inside the magnetic mate-
rial. If the magnetic field intensity continually reverses itself,
the atoms continually reverse themselves, and power (in the
form of heat) is produced in the magnetic material. Since
power is the rate of energy use, the faster that the magnetic
field changes state, the more power that’s produced by the
magnetic material.

Special “low loss” magnetic steels that have very narrow hys-
teresis loops are used in the manufacture of transformers,
motors, and generators that operate at high frequencies. In a
vacuum (which has no atoms to align) there’s no hysteresis
loop. The magnetization curve in a vacuum is a straight line
that runs through the origin of the magnetization curve.
Magnetic materials used to make permanent magnets have
large residual flux density values (BR) SO that the magnets are
strong and have large coercive force values (HC). The mag-
netic fields of these permanent magnets won’t be affected by
stray magnetic fields. Some typical residual flux density val-
ues and coercive force values for several permanent magnet
materials are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
RESIDUAL FLUX DENSITY AND COERCIVE
FORCE OF PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS
Material BR (Gauss) HC (Amp/Meter)
Carbon Steel 9500 3600
Cobalt Steel 9500 18000
Alnico 2 7600 42000
Alnico 5 12500 44000
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by

completing Power Check 1.

Power Check 1
At the end of each section of your Magnetism and Electromagnetism text, you’ll be asked
to check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Power Check.”
Writing the answers to these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far.
Please complete Power Check 1 now.
Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.
1. The two poles of a magnet are the and the poles.
2. Iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel are examples of materials.
3. A magnetic circuit that consists of two or more magnetic materials is called a

magnetic circuit.
4. If two magnets are moved close together, the poles attract each other.
5. A is one unit of magnetic flux.
6. A is a measure of flux density equal to one maxwell per square centimeter.
7. The MMF that pushes flux through an electromagnet is measured in .
8. is needed to demagnetize a magnetic material.
9. A on a magnetization curve represents the energy used to align the atoms inside the
magnetic material.
10. is similar to resistance in an electric circuit.
Check your answers with those on page 45.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Conventional Theory and Electron

Theory of Current Flow
Scientists have two different theories regarding the flow of
electricity in a circuit. You should be familiar with both of
these theories, the conventional theory and the electron
theory.
According to the conventional theory of current flow, a positive
charge of electricity flows from the positive terminal of the
voltage source, through the circuit, and back to the negative
terminal of the source. In contrast, according to the electron
theory of current flow, the flow of electricity is actually the
movement of negative charges, or electrons. Electrons move
from the negative terminal of the voltage source, through the
circuit, and back to the positive terminal of the source. These
two theories are illustrated by the circuits in Figure 14.

compares the conventional
theory and electron theory
of current flow.
Actually, for most purposes, it doesn’t matter whether the

electron or conventional theory is used. However, it’s stan-
dard practice to use the conventional theory of current flow
to explain electromagnetic forces used in motors and genera-
tors. The electron theory is used to explain the principles and
operation of electric circuits and equipment. For this reason,
in this text, we’ll use the conventional theory to describe the
direction of current flow (that is, from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal) as we examine various electromagnetic
principles.

Electromagnetic Forces
Electromagnetism is the magnetic effect produced when elec-
tric current flows through a conductor. A conductor carrying
an electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field. The
magnetic field is densest in the space immediately next to the
conductor. The density of this field decreases as the distance
from the conductor increases.
Suppose that a current-carrying conductor is run through
the center of a square piece of cardboard as shown in
Figure 15. If iron filings are sprinkled on the cardboard,
the filings will arrange themselves in circles or whorls
around the conductor. The whorls have the conductor at
their center and entirely surround the conductor. (Note: If
you try this experiment, be sure to use a long conductor
and place a resistor in the circuit to limit the current.
Otherwise, the battery will quickly run down because of the
short circuit.)
The behavior of the iron filings in this experiment indicates
that the field around a current-carrying conductor consists
of magnetic rings or whorls.
FIGURE 15—In this figure, a conductor is run through a piece of card-

board, and iron filings are sprinkled over the surface of the cardboard.
When electric current is applied to the conductor, the filings arrange
themselves in the pattern seen here.

In Figure 16, the pattern of filings is even easier to see. If the
cardboard is pulled from one end of the conductor to the
other, the circles on the cardboard remain the same. Thus,
the magnetic field of the conductor is the same all along the
length of the conductor.
FIGURE 16—The dashed

lines in this figure repre-
sent the magnetic field
around the conductor. If
you look down at the
surface of the card-
board, the lines of force
are traveling clockwise
around the conductor.
When conventional current flows through the conductor in

the direction indicated by the solid arrows (from positive to
negative), the direction of the lines of force around the con-
ductor is clockwise.
Because a magnetic field forms around a wire that’s carry-
ing current, it’s possible to use a compass to show the
presence of the magnetic lines of force. You can also use a
compass to see the direction of the lines of force. Figure 17
shows a conductor through which current is flowing away
from the observer. One compass is placed above the con-
ductor and another is placed below the conductor. The
broken-line circle and the arrowheads show the direction of
the lines of force. Each of the two compass needles points
in the same direction as the lines of force. Note that the
lines of force are moving clockwise and at a right angle to
the conductor.

FIGURE 17—If you look at
a conductor in the direction
of conventional current
flow, you’ll see that the
magnetic lines of force
travel around the conduc-
tor in a clockwise direction.
If the direction of the current in this conductor is reversed,

the direction of the lines of force around the conductor will
also reverse. So, in this example, if the direction of the cur-
rent was reversed, the lines of force would move
counterclockwise.
Right-Hand Rule: Imagine that you’re grasping a cur-

rent-carrying wire in your right hand with your thumb
pointing in the direction of conventional current flow.
The curled fingers of your right hand now point in the
direction of the lines of force, or the magnetic field,
encircling the wire.
You can determine the direction in which the lines of force

are moving around a conductor by using the right-hand rule.
Imagine that you’re grasping a current-carrying conductor in
your right hand with your thumb pointing in the direction of
the current flow (Figure 18). With your right hand in this
position, your curled fingers point in the direction in which
the magnetic lines of force move in the magnetic field encir-
cling the wire. (Warning: Never actually grasp an energized
conductor with your bare hands due to the possibility of
electric shock.)

FIGURE 18—You would
never actually hold a
conductor in your right
hand as shown here;
just imagine that you’re
doing so. The thumb
points in the direction of
conventional current
flow. The curled fingers
point in the same direc-
tion as the lines of force.
Magnetic Forces Between Parallel

Conductors
If two energized conductors are placed in a parallel position,
the magnetic flux produced by each wire exerts a force of
either attraction or repulsion on the moving electrons in the
other wire. For example, if the current in each wire is moving
in the same direction, the wires will be attracted to each other
(Figure 19A). If the current in two parallel wires is moving in
opposite directions, the wires repel each other (Figure 19B). If
FIGURE 19—When current flows in the same direction through two parallel wires, the wires attract each
other. When current flows through the two wires in opposite directions, the wires repel each other.

no current is flowing in one of the conductors, no force is
applied to either conductor. (Note: The direction of the force of
the wire can be determined by using Fleming’s left-hand rule,
which we’ll discuss later in the study unit.)
From these observations, we can state the following rules:
Rule 1: If parallel conducting wires are carrying current in
the same direction, the magnetic field around each wire cre-
ates a force on the moving electrons in the opposite wire. The
force attracts the wires together.
Rule 2: If parallel conducting wires are carrying current in
opposite directions, the magnetic field around each wire cre-
ates a force on the moving electrons in the opposite wire that
repels the opposite wire away.
These magnetic forces can place enormous stress on conduc-
tors in electrical machinery circuits. When a large current is
moving through parallel wires in such machinery, the mag-
netic forces of attraction and repulsion that are produced can
cause trouble. For this reason, conductors in machinery cir-
cuits must be fastened and braced very securely to hold them
in place. In large generators and transformers, short circuits
or surges caused by lightning can cause unusually high cur-
rents to flow. The resulting magnetic forces can tear
conductors out of place or crush insulation.
Magnetic Coils
If a piece of insulated conductor wire is formed into a coil, we
call it a magnetic coil or a solenoid. When current is applied
to a magnetic coil, the magnetic lines of force around each
coil of the conductor combine together to form a larger and
stronger magnetic field around the entire coil. The coil also
develops a magnetic north and south pole. Magnetic coils are
usually made of insulated wire to prevent short circuits
between the turns of the coil.
Figure 20 shows a magnetic coil and the magnetic lines of
force surrounding it. The arrow indicates the direction of con-
ventional current flow. Current flows through each turn of
the coil in the same direction. The magnetic fields in each
loop of the coil combine together to form a stronger magnetic
field around the entire coil.

shows a basic magnetic
coil and the magnetic lines
of force that surround it.
The magnetic field at the center of a magnetic coil is more

concentrated and therefore more intense than the fields
above or below the coil. Because of this concentration of the
lines of force in the center of the coil, a magnetic coil acts
like a permanent bar magnet. A north pole and a south pole
develop at opposite ends of the coil.
A magnetic field around a magnetic coil looks much like a
magnetic field around a bar magnet. That is, the lines of
force leave the north pole and go around to the south pole.
If you already know the direction of current flow through a
magnetic coil, you can use the right-hand rule to determine
the polarity of the coil. Imagine that you’re placing your
right hand over the wire with your thumb pointing in the
direction of the conventional current flow Your curled fin-
gers now indicate the direction of the magnetic field.
Reversing the direction of the current flow will reverse the
direction of the magnetic field and the polarity of the poles
(Figure 21).

FIGURE 21—In Figure
21A, note the direction
of the current flow and
the magnetic lines of
force. The end of the
coil that the magnetic
field leaves is the
north pole. In 21B, the
direction of the current
is reversed, and the
magnetic lines of force
move in the opposite
direction.
Electromagnets
An electromagnet is a magnet made by inserting a piece of
magnetic material (usually iron or soft steel) into a magnetic
coil (Figure 22). The magnetic material around which the
conductor is coiled is called the core.

shows the construction of
a basic electromagnet. A
piece of magnetic mate-
rial is inserted into a
magnetic coil.

When current is applied to the magnetic coil, the core
becomes magnetized and develops a north and south pole.
Figure 23 shows a straight conductor that has been formed
into a single coil. A piece of magnetic material has been
placed inside the loop of wire. When current is applied to
the loop, the core centers itself with respect to the lines of
force (that is, with its north pole downward) creating a bar
magnet. The larger arrows indicate the direction of the cur-
rent flow. The smaller arrows indicate the direction of the
lines of force.
FIGURE 23—Notice how the lines of force add together at the center of
the coil creating a bar magnet with north and south poles.
Note that the right-hand rule for the direction of the lines of
force still applies in this situation. If you imagine that you’re
grasping the conductor with your thumb facing in the direc-
tion of the current flow, the curled fingers of your right hand
will point in the direction of the lines of force.
In general, an electromagnet is stronger than a magnetic
coil of similar size. This is because the iron core in an elec-
tromagnet increases the attractive force of the magnetic
coil due to the flux density at the ends of the core. The flux
density in an electromagnet is much greater than that in
an empty magnetic coil. Thus, the addition of an iron core
to a magnetic coil intensifies the strength of the magnetic
field.

A number of factors affect the strength of the magnetic field
around an electromagnet. The three main factors are the
following:
1. The number of turns in the coil. The more wire turns a
coil contains, the stronger the magnetic field.
2. The strength of the current. The greater the current flow
through a magnetic coil, the stronger the magnetic field.
3. The core material. A coil containing a magnetic core is
stronger than a similar coil with a nonmagnetic core.
A horseshoe electromagnet is shown in Figure 24. It consists
of an iron bar bent into a horseshoe shape. Two magnetizing
coils are placed on the straight ends.
FIGURE 24—If the wire on the right-hand side of the horseshoe magnet is wound in the opposite
direction, the magnetic flux from each coil will flow in opposite directions in the iron bar, and they’ll
cancel each other out.
Now look at the end view of the horseshoe electromagnet

(Figure 24B). Note that the current circulates around one
end of the electromagnet in one direction, and around the
other end in the opposite direction. If the current were to
circulate around both cores in the same direction, the
lines of force produced in the two cores would oppose
one another. The curved bar would then exhibit no mag-
netic force.

Electromagnetic Relays
An electromagnetic relay is a device that operates one or more
switches or contact sets when current flows through its coil.
A relay acts like a switch, opening or closing other circuits
that are electrically separate from the circuit that activates
the relay. The construction of a simple electromagnetic relay
is shown in Figure 25.
FIGURE 25—Electromagnetic
relays act like switches to
open and close circuits. The
circuits can be energized by
a different power source
than that which energizes
the relay.
A relay’s main parts are an electromagnet and an armature.

A spring holds the armature away from the electromagnet
and against the stationary normally closed (NC) contact. When
the electromagnet is energized, the armature is attracted to
the magnetic field of the electromagnet, and therefore moves
to the stationary normally open (NO) contact. The contact
spring that’s attached to the armature is the movable con-
tact. It makes connections between the two stationary
contacts. The pigtail connection from the armature to the
common terminal is part of the switching system. The elec-
tromagnet is part of the control circuit. The switching system
(the contacts) is part of the controlled circuit.
When control-circuit power is applied, the electromagnet
attracts the armature. The contact spring moves down, away
from the NC contact, and makes connection with the NO con-
tact. Thus the controlled circuit is closed, or completed,

through the common terminal and the NO contact. The control-
circuit terminals are the terminals of the electromagnet coil.
The controlled-circuit terminal is the common terminal which is
connected to the pigtail and the NO and NC contacts.
The control circuit that energizes a relay’s coil can be a low-
voltage circuit, with a supplied voltage of 12 or 24 VDC.
However, the controlled circuit may be a high-voltage or high-
current circuit that contains a large load such as a motor.
Very large relays called contactors use low voltage coils but
can have high voltages (as much as 440 VAC) connected to
their many contacts.
Alarm Bells or Buzzers

The alarm bell or buzzer is one of the simplest electric devices
to work by electromagnetism. A typical alarm bell or buzzer
and its circuit are shown in Figure 26. Figure 26A shows an
external view of the alarm unit. Figure 26B shows the operat-
ing circuit inside the alarm. The operating circuit consists of
the bell mechanism, a battery, a push button, and the neces-
sary wiring. The bell mechanism contains a U-shaped
electromagnet, an armature, and a spring attached to the
armature. The armature spring rests against a fixed contact
screw. The armature is pivoted at its lower end and has a
small clapper or hammer at its upper end.
FIGURE 26—Figure 26A

shows an external view of
a simple alarm unit. Figure
26B shows the operating
circuit of the alarm. From
this sketch and the
information given in the
text, you should be able to
find the source of trouble
in an alarm unit if a prob-
lem develops.

When the push button is pressed, current flows from the bat-
tery through the electromagnet, the spring, the contact, and
the push button, and then back to the battery. The armature
is attracted to the poles of the electromagnet. As the arma-
ture makes contact with the electromagnet, the clapper at its
upper end strikes the alarm bell. The armature spring moves
with the armature, breaking away from the fixed contact
screw it rests against.
As soon as the spring moves away from the contact screw, the
circuit is opened and the magnet is de-energized. The arma-
ture then springs back to make contact, and the circuit is
closed again. The magnet is then re-energized, and the arma-
ture is attracted to the magnet again. This process repeats
rapidly, over and over, as long as the push button completes
the circuit. The repeated striking of the clapper on the alarm
bell creates the alarm bell sound with which we’re all familiar.
Electromagnetic Stepping Switches

The stepping switch or stepper is a relay that can make con-
nections, step-by-step, to a large number of circuits. One
type of stepping switch is shown in Figure 27. The bank of

shows a stepping switch
and its parts.

fixed contacts is wired to circuits to which connections are to
be made. The electromagnet drives the movable wipers to the
desired set of contacts in the bank of fixed contacts.
A pulse of current in the electromagnet attracts the arma-
ture. The movement of the armature pushes a lever against
the ratchet mounted on the wiper shaft. The wipers are
thereby moved to the next set of contacts. In order to move
the wipers to a desired set of contacts, the required number
of pulses must be passed through the electromagnet.
Some stepping switches are automatically reset to the start-
ing position after operation; others require some form of
resetting. Stepping switches were often used in sequence
controllers in industry. Although they’ve largely been
replaced by electronic controllers, you may still find them in
older pieces of equipment.
Solenoids
Earlier in this text, we used the term solenoid to refer to a
magnetic coil. However, the term solenoid is also used to refer
to a special electromagnet that has a moveable iron core.
Industrial solenoids contain magnetic coils made up of hun-
dreds of turns of fine wire. Often these coils are encased in
plastic or phenolic material. Inside the coil is a moveable
round metal core called a plunger. In most cases, when the
solenoid coil is magnetized by a flow of current, the plunger
moves upwards into the coil. When the flow of current stops,
a spring above the plunger presses the plunger back to its
original position. Figure 28 shows a cross section of a basic
solenoid and plunger.
Figure 29 shows the magnetic forces in a typical solenoid. If
an energized solenoid coil and a piece of iron are placed in
the position shown in the figure, the iron will be attracted to
the solenoid. A magnetic field exerts a force on a movable
plunger in a direction that minimizes the reluctance in the
magnetic circuit. The iron plunger has a much lower reluc-
tance to a magnetic field than to the air inside the coil. That
is, the magnetic field would much rather flow through the
plunger than through the air.

FIGURE 28—Here is a cross
sectional view of a typical
industrial solenoid. In 28A,
the coil is de-energized. In
28B, the coil is energized
and the plunger has moved
upward into the coil.
FIGURE 29—The magnetic

field of a solenoid coil pro-
duces a force on the iron
plunger, moving it into a
position of minimum re-
luctance (the center of the
coil). Solenoids such as this
one are used to control
valves, such as hot and
cold water mixing valves.
When the plunger is in the position shown in Figure 29,

some of the magnetic flux doesn’t flow in the plunger
because the plunger is too far away from the coil. Because
this situation isn’t a condition for minimum reluctance, a
force acts on the plunger and causes it to move into the coil.
This condition occurs when the plunger moves into the coil.
As the plunger moves into the center of the coil, all of the

magnetic flux flows in the plunger. The reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is then at a minimum and the force on the
plunger is zero.
If the plunger tries to continue moving away from the center
of the coil, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases. A
restoring force is then applied to the plunger, moving it back
to the center of the coil.
If a solenoid is completely encased in a magnetic shield, its
magnetizing effect is greatly increased. When current flows,
the plunger is drawn up more forcibly than it would be in an
open coil. Because of the force with which the core plunges
into the solenoid, the combination of solenoid and plunger
can be made to perform certain mechanical operations, such
as turning electricity, water, oil, or air flow on and off.
In industry, solenoids are widely used to control the motion
of objects or the flow of liquids, vacuums, or air pressure.
Many industrial conveyors use air solenoids to control the
stops or brakes on the conveyor. The brakes are used to con-
trol product flow on the conveyor. Many industrial robots are
controlled by solenoid valves. These valves control the flow of
pressurized air or oil into cylinders or motors.
DC Motors
Although AC polyphase motors are the type most widely used
in industry, DC motors are also found in industrial plants.
DC motors offer the advantages of precise speed control and
higher starting torque than AC motors of similar size. DC
motors are also used on special control systems called servo
systems. Servo systems use feedback devices that allow a
controller to precisely position the motor’s shaft and precisely
control the speed of the motor.
A simplified drawing of a DC motor is shown in Figure 30.
Note the field magnets to the left and right of the motor. The
field magnets are horseshoe-shaped magnets positioned with
their opposite magnetic poles across from each other. A rotat-
ing armature located at the center of the motor is made from
a soft metal bar. Two coils are wound on this bar in opposite
directions.

FIGURE 30—Here is a
simplified illustration of a
DC motor.
The two wires that lead from the armature coil are connected
to a device known as a commutator. The commutator is made
of two copper bars to which the armature wires are attached.
A set of spring copper or carbon brushes are used to connect
the power supply to the commutator segments, and there-
fore to the armature coil. The commutator in this example
motor is split to reverse the flow of current through the
armature coils.
Current flowing to the armature creates a magnetic field
around the armature’s coils. The armature’s iron bar is then
centered in a magnetic field, with one magnetic pole on each
end of the iron bar. The field around the iron bar is both
attracted to and opposed by the poles on the field magnets.
When the north pole of the armature faces the north pole of
the field pole, the like poles repel. Since the armature is
mounted on a shaft and able to rotate, the armature turns.
The armature turns until its south pole is aligned with the
north pole of the field magnet.
Now, unless the direction of current flow is changed, the
armature remains stationary. However, in this motor, the
commutator is split into two sections. As the armature
moves, the commutator acts as an electric switch. So, when
the north pole of the armature reaches the south pole of the

field pole, the current direction is reversed, reversing the field
on the armature coils. This results in a reversal of the poles
of the armature’s iron bar. The armature then rotates again
to align itself with the poles of the field magnet.
In this simple example motor, we’ve only described the move-
ment of one armature pole and one field magnet. Note that
the same action occurs on the opposite side of the motor.
Thus, the armature continually rotates as current is applied
to it and reversed.
The motor in our example is a simple motor with permanent
magnet field magnets. In a typical DC-powered permanent
magnet motor, at least four very strong magnets are used for
the field magnets. Also, the armature contains many seg-
ments with their associated field windings. Wound-field DC
motors are also available and are widely used in industry. In
a wound-field DC motor, windings on metal bars or poles pro-
vide a magnetic field outside of the rotor.
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by
completing Power Check 2.

Power Check 2
Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.
1. The south pole of a compass pointer is attracted to the pole of an electromagnet.
2. An electromagnetic device that makes connections, step-by-step, to a large number of circuits

is a .
3. An electromagnetic device that uses a movable core to do mechanical work is called a .
4. Inside a solenoid coil is a moveable round metal core called a .
5. If you looked at a conductor in which the current flow was away from you, the magnetic lines
of force would move around the conductor in a direction.
6. By forming a conductor into several loops and applying current to it, you make what’s known
as a .
7. A is a device that operates one or more switches or contact sets when current flows
through its coil.
8. According to the conventional theory of current flow, a charge of electricity flows from the
terminal of the power source to the terminal.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnetic Field, Voltage, and

Conductor Movement
You’ll recall that current flowing through a conductor pro-
duces a magnetic field. It’s also true that if a conductor
moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is generated on the
conductor. This effect is called electromagnetic induction. In
order for electromagnetic induction to occur, you must have
a magnetic field and a moving conductor.
Electromagnetic induction can also be observed when two
conductors are placed near each other in a parallel for-
mation. When the current in one of the two parallel
conductors is varied (without physical movement of the
energized conductor), a voltage is induced in the other
conductor. This type of electromagnetic induction is called
mutual inductance.
In this section of the text, we’ll examine two important effects
produced by electromagnetic induction: generator action and
motor action. Both of these principles have many practical
applications in industrial devices.
Generator Action of Electromagnetic

Induction
The generator action of electromagnetic induction is illus-
trated in Figure 31. A conductor is placed between the poles
of a magnet. Note that the magnetic lines of force are moving
from right to left. If the conductor is moved upward, a voltage
will be induced on the conductor and conventional current
will flow through the conductor in the direction shown. The
galvanometer connected to the conductor in the circuit indi-
cates the presence and movement of small amounts of
current in the conductor.

FIGURE 31—In this exam-
ple, the magnetic lines of
force move from right to
left, and the conductor is
being moved upward. The
generator action of elec-
tromagnetic induction
produces a current that
flows through the conduc-
tor in the direction shown
by the arrows.
When speaking of electromagnetic induction, it’s more com-

mon to refer to induced voltage than to induced current. The
strength of the voltage induced in a conductor that’s moving
in a magnetic field depends on the following factors:
1. The strength of the magnetic field through which the
conductor is moving
2. The speed at which the conductor is moving
3. The length of the conductor (or the number of coils it
contains)
4. The angle that the conductor makes with the magnetic
field
The stronger the magnetic field and the faster the move-
ment of the conductor, the greater the induced voltage.
Also, a coiled conductor (that is, a longer conductor) pro-
duces a higher induced voltage. The more turns of wire, the
higher the induced voltage. A conductor that’s placed per-
pendicular to a magnetic field and that moves in a direction
perpendicular to the wire and the field produces the great-
est induced voltage.
Note that the current caused by an induced voltage flows
only if the moving conductor is a part of a closed circuit. If an
electrical load or apparatus is connected to the moving con-
ductor, the induced voltage will energize the apparatus. In
practice, induced voltage is obtained from generators, which
provide most of the electric power for homes and industries.

A definite relationship exists between the direction of the
motion of a conductor, the direction of the magnetic lines of
force, and the direction of current flow in the conductor. If
the directions of two of these quantities are known, the direc-
tion of the third can be determined by applying Fleming’s
right-hand rule or generator rule.
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule: Position the thumb, forefin-

ger, and middle finger of your right hand as shown in
Figure 32. Point your thumb in the direction of the con-
ductor motion. Point your forefinger in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force. Your middle finger now points in
the direction of the induced voltage. The induced current
flows in the same direction as the induced voltage.
Figure 32 shows you how to apply Fleming’s right-hand rule.

Note that the conductor is moving upward as indicated by
the thumb; the magnetic lines of force are moving from right
to left, as indicated by the forefinger; and the flow of current
is toward the observer, as indicated by the middle finger.
FIGURE 32—This illustra-

tion shows you how to
apply Fleming’s right-hand
rule to he generator action
of electromagnetic induc-
tion.
Note that if we reverse either the direction of the magnetic

field or the direction of the conductor motion, the direction of
the induced voltage and the resulting current will also
reverse.

Motor Action of Electromagnetic
Induction
You know that when a conductor moves through a magnetic
field, a voltage is induced in the conductor. Now, suppose
that a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field. What happens? Well, the interaction between the mag-
netic field and the moving electrons in the conductor causes
a force to be applied to the conductor. If the conductor is free
to move, the force will move the conductor as long as the
conductor current and the magnetic field are maintained.
This process is called the motor action of electromagnetic
induction (Figure 33).
FIGURE 33—Because the

current-carrying con-
ductor is in a magnetic
field, electromagnetic
induction causes it to
move.
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: Position the thumb, forefin-

ger, and middle finger of your left hand as shown in
Figure 34. Point your forefinger in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force. Point your middle finger in the
direction of current flow through the conductor. Your
thumb now points in the direction in which the conductor
will move.
To determine the direction in which the conductor moves,

you can use Fleming’s left-hand rule or motor rule (Figure 34).

shows you how to apply
Fleming’s left-hand rule to
the motor action of electro-
magnetic induction.
The motor action of electromagnetic induction is applied

mainly in electric motors and in other devices where move-
ment is produced electrically.
Mutual Inductance and Transformers

Earlier in this section of the text, we mentioned that when
two conductors are placed close together, and one of the con-
ductors carries a fluctuating current, a voltage will be
induced on the other conductor. The closer the two conduc-
tors are, the stronger the induced voltage will be.
If the two conductors are formed into coils and placed near
each other (such as around a core) and a current is applied
to the first coil, the magnetic field produced in the first coil
induces a voltage in the second coil. In such an arrangement,
the first coil is called the primary coil and the second coil is
called the secondary coil.
The principle of mutual inductance is used to operate trans-
formers. A basic transformer is shown in Figure 35. The
transformer consists of two coils or windings wound around
an iron core. The primary coil is connected to a battery
through a switch and a resistor; a voltmeter (V) is connected
across the secondary coil. When the switch is open (as
shown), no current flows through the primary coil, no mag-
netic field is produced, and no voltage is induced in the

FIGURE 35—A basic
transformer is illustrated
here. A change in volt-
age in the primary coil
induces a voltage in the
secondary coil.
secondary coil. However, when the switch is closed, current

flows through the primary coil, setting up a magnetic field
around the coil. The magnetic lines of the field spread out-
ward and cut across the turns of the secondary coil, inducing
a voltage in it. The voltage can be read on the voltmeter.
The current from the battery is a direct current (DC). This
current produces a change in flux only when the switch is
first opened or closed. Thus, a voltage is induced in the sec-
ondary coil only during the short time when the primary coil
circuit is first opened or closed. At the instant the switch is
closed, the momentary voltage induced in the secondary coil
has one polarity, or direction: it’s increasing. When the
switch is opened, the voltage induced in the primary coil has
the opposite polarity: it’s decreasing. When the current in the
primary winding continuously varies (as in an alternating
current or AC transformer), the voltage induced in the sec-
ondary coil is present as long as the primary current varies.
The voltage in the secondary coil is an alternating voltage.
Take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by com-
pleting Power Check 3.

Power Check 3
Answer each of the following questions in your own words.
1. What two elements are essential for electromagnetic induction?
2. When a transformer is placed in a DC circuit, will the secondary coil continue to produce
voltage?
3. What rule can be used to demonstrate the motor action of electromagnetic induction?
4. When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, what form of electromagnetic induction
occurs?

NOTES

Power Check Answers 1
1. north, south
2. magnetic
Answers
3. compound
4. opposite
5. maxwell
6. gauss
7. ampere-turns
8. Coercive force
9. Hysteresis loop
10. Reluctance

1. north
2. stepping switch
3. solenoid
4. plunger
5. clockwise
6. magnetic coil or solenoid
7. relay
8. positive, negative

1. A magnetic field and a moving conductor
2. No, it will stop shortly after the primary coil is energized.
3. Fleming’s left-hand rule or motor rule
4. The generator action of electromagnetic induction
45

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DC Principles

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be

POWER CHECK ANSWERS 45

FIGURE 1—This figure

2 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 3

FIGURE 4—Iron filings

4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Attraction and Repulsion of

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 5

Magnetic Fields and Lines of Force

6 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 7—Iron filings are

As we mentioned, magnetic flux is strongest right at the mag-

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 7

FIGURE 8—Whether a mag-

The direction of the lines of force in any magnetic field can be

Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Materials

8 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 9

removed from the magnetic field, its magnetism disappears.

10 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

the lines of force. Such a circuit is often used as a magnetic

FIGURE 11—Any kind of

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 11

Magnetic Units and Terms

The standard unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell. One maxwell

12 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Force emf mmf

Flow current flux

Opposition resistance reluctance

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 13

FIGURE 13—This figure

14 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 15

Material BR (Gauss) HC (Amp/Meter)

Carbon Steel 9500 3600

Cobalt Steel 9500 18000

Alnico 2 7600 42000

Alnico 5 12500 44000

Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by

16 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.

1. The two poles of a magnet are the and the poles.

2. Iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel are examples of materials.

3. A magnetic circuit that consists of two or more magnetic materials is called a

5. A is one unit of magnetic flux.

6. A is a measure of flux density equal to one maxwell per square centimeter.

7. The MMF that pushes flux through an electromagnet is measured in .

8. is needed to demagnetize a magnetic material.

10. is similar to resistance in an electric circuit.

Check your answers with those on page 45.

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 17

Conventional Theory and Electron

FIGURE 14—This figure

Actually, for most purposes, it doesn’t matter whether the

18 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

FIGURE 15—In this figure, a conductor is run through a piece of card-

Magnetism and Electromagnetism 19

FIGURE 16—The dashed

When conventional current flows through the conductor in

20 Magnetism and Electromagnetism