I

NTRODUCTI
ONTOTHECOMPUTER

*
CAMPUTER*
Thecomput eri
saprogr
ammableelect
roni
cdev
icewhi
chaccept
stheinputandpr
ocesses
them togi
vedesir
edout
put.Computeral
socal
l
eddatapr
ocessorbecausedat
ais
processedi
ncomputertogi
veout
put.

TYPESOFCOMPUTER:
Computersdi
fferbasedonthei
rdat
aprocessi
ngabil
i
ties.Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
ed
accor
dingtopurpose,wor
kandsizeandcapaci
ty.

ONTHEBASESOFPURPOSE
Onthebasesofpurposecomputer
sar eei
thergeneral
pur poseorspecif
icpur
pose.
Generalpur
posecomputer
saredesignedtoperfor
m ar angeoftasks.Theyhavethe
abi
li
tytostorenumer
ousprogr
ams, butl
ackinspeedandef f
ici
ency.

Speci
fi
cpurposecomput
ersaredesi
gnedtohandl
easpeci
fi
cpr
obl
em ort
oper
for
m
aspeci
fi
ctask.Asetofi
nst
ructi
onsi
sbuil
tint
othemachi
ne.

ONTHEBASESOFWORK,
Ont
hebasesofwor
k,comput
ersar
eanal
og,
digi
tal
orhy
bri
d.

Anal
ogcomput
erwor
kont
hepr
inci
pleofmeasur
ing,
inwhi
cht
hemeasur
ement
s
obtai
nedaretranslatedi nt
odat a.Moder
nanalogcomput er
susuallyempl oy
el
ectri
calpar
amet ers, suchasv olt
ages,
resi
stancesorcurr
ents,t
or epresentthe
quanti
ti
esbeingmani pulated.Suchcomputersdonotdealdir
ectl
ywi ththenumbers.
Theymeasurecont inuousphy si
calmagnit
udes.Examplesaretel
ephonel ines,
Oscil
l
oscopeandt elev isi
onet c.

Feat
ureofanal
ogcomput
er
 I
tisspecif
ictoapart
icul
artasksocannotbeusedf ormulti
pleappl
i
cat
ions.
 I
twor ksonconti
nuousdataandgivescont
inuousout put
.
 I
tgivesoutputi
ntheform ofgr
aphs,si
gnal
sandt ablesetc.

Di
git
alcomput
ersar
ethoset
hatoper
atewi
thi
nfor
mat
ion,
numer
ical
or
other wi
se,r
epresentedinadigi
talform.Suchcomput ersprocessdataintoadigit
al
value( i
n0sand1s) .Theygi
vet heresul
tswi t
hmor eaccuracyandataf asterr
ate.
Digitalcomputerdoesnotmeasur econtinuousdataforcontinuousoutput
.Theyare
usedi npreparat
ionofrepor
ts,document ati
on,bi
l
li
nget c.ExamplesareSmar t
phone,
tablets,smartwatchandMacBooket c.
Feat
ureofDi
git
alComput
er
PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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 I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOTHECOMPUTER

 I
twor ksondi sconti
nuousordi
scret
edata.
 I
tisbasedondi gi
t0and1.
 I
tisfasterthananalogcomputers.
 I
thasst oragecapacity
.
 I
tishighlyaccurateandrel
iabl
ethananal
ogcomput
ers.

Hy
bri
dcomput
eri
sthecombi
nat
ionofanal
oganddi
git
alcomput
ersy
stem.I
t
workswithcontinuousanddiscr
eteval
ue.Theseareusedinint
ensiv
ecareuni t(
ICU)
ofhospit
als,j
etplanesandotherdat
aanalysi
sterminal
s.Hybri
dcomputertransfer
thedatafrom analogtodi
git
alanddigi
tal
toanalog.Exampl
esar eUl
trasound
machine,ECGet c.

Feat
uresofhy
bri
dcomput
ers
 I
tisanexpensi
vesy
stem
 I
tisdesi
gnedf
orspeci
alsy
stem
 I
twor
ksondi
scr
eteandcont
inuousv
alue
 I
thasl
i
mit
edst
orage.
 I
tiscompl
ext
hanot
hercomput
ers
HARDWARE/
COMPONENTSOFCOMPUTER
Thet er
m' comput erhardware'or'computerparts'i
susedtodescr i
becomput er
component sthatcanbeseenandt ouched.Themaj orcomponent sofgener al-
purposecomput ersystem ar
eI nputUnit
,main/int
ernalMemor yorSt orageUnit,
OutputUni t
,CentralProcessi
nguni t.TheCPUi sfurt
heri
ncludesAr i
thmet i
clogicuni
t
(ALU)andcont rolunit(CU).Al
l theunit
salsoreferr
edtoas" Thefunct i
onalunit
s”.
Devicesthatarenoti ntegr
alpartofCPUr efer
redtoasperi
pheral
s.

Themai
ncomponent
sofcomput
erar
e
1.I
nputUni
t.

2.Out
putUni
t

3.St
orageUni
t

4.Cent
ral
Processi
ngUni
t(CPU)

5.Cont
rol
Uni
t

1.I
NPUTUNI
T
Dataandinst
ruct
ionsmustentert
hecomputersy
stem beforeany
computat
ioncanbeperformedonthesuppl
i
eddata.Theinputuniti
sthatwhi
ch

PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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 I
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ONTOTHECOMPUTER

l
inkst heexter
nal env i
ronmentwi t
ht hecomput ersy stem.Dat aandi nstructions
enterinputunitsinf ormst hatdependupont hepar ti
cul ardev i
ceused.Forexampl e,
dataisenteredf rom akey boar dinamannersi milartot y
ping,andt hisdiffersfrom
thewayi nwhichdat aisent er
edt hroughamouse, whi chisanot hert y
peofi nput
dev i
ce.Howev er,regardlessoft hefor minwhi cht heyr eceiv
et hei
rinput sall i
nput
dev i
cesmustpr ovideacomput erwi thdatat hatar etransf or
medi ntot hebi nary
codest hatt
hepr i
mar ymemor yoft hecomput erisdesi gnedt oaccept .This
transfor
mat i
oni saccompl i
shedbyuni tsthatcalledi nputi nter
faces.Inputi nterf
aces
aredesignedtomat chtheuni quephy sicalorelect r
ical characteri
sticsofinput
dev i
cestother equi r
ement soft hecomput ersystem.

I
nshor
t,ani
nputuni
tper
for
mst
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions.

 I
taccept
s(orr
eads)t
hel
i
stofi
nst
ruct
ionsanddat
afr
om t
heout
sidewor
ld.

 I
tconv
ert
sthesei
nst
ruct
ionsanddat
aincomput
eraccept
abl
efor
mat
.

 I
tsuppl
iestheconv
ert
edi
nst
ruct
ionsanddat
atot
hecomput
ersy
stem f
or
f
urt
herprocessi
ng.

2.OUTPUTUNI
T
Thej obofanout putuni
tisjustther everseofthatofani nputunit.I
tsuppli
ed
i
nf or
mat i
onandr esul
tsofcomput at
iont otheout si
dewor ld.Thusitli
nksthe
comput erwi t
htheexternalenvi
ronment .Ascomput er
swor kwit
hbi narycode,t
he
resul
tspr oducedarealsointhebinaryfor m.Hence, beforesupplyi
ngt heresul
tsto
theoutsidewor l
d,i
tmustbeconv ert
edt ohumanaccept able(r
eadable)form.This
taskisaccompl i
shedbyuni tscall
edout putinterf
aces.

I
nshor
t,t
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ionsar
eper
for
medbyanout
putuni
t.

 I
tacceptstheresul
tsproducedbythecomput
erwhi
char
eincodedf
orm and
hencecannotbeeasil
yunderstoodbyus.

 I
tconv
ert
sthesecodedr
esul
tst
ohumanaccept
abl
e(r
eadabl
e)f
orm.

 I
tsuppl
i
edt
heconv
ert
edr
esul
tst
otheout
sidewor
ld.

3.STORAGEUNI
T
Thedat
aandi nst
ruct
ionsthatareent
eredintothecomputersyst
em thr
ough
i
nputunit
shavetobestoredinsi
dethecomput erbefor
etheactualpr
ocessi
ngstar
ts.
Si
mil
arly
,ther
esult
sproducedbyt hecomputerafterpr
ocessi
ngmustalsobekept
PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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somewher einsidet hecomput ersystem befor

ebeingpassedont otheoutputunits.
Mor eover
, t
hei ntermediateresultsproducedbythecomput ermustalsobe
preservedforongoi ngprocessing.TheStorageUnitortheprimary/mainstorageof
acomput ersy stem i sdesi
gnedt odoal lt
hesethi
ngs.Itprovi
desspaceforstoring
dataandi nstructions,spaceforinter
medi at
eresul
tsandal sospacefort
hef i
nal
result
s.

I
nshor
t,t
hespeci
fi
cfunct
ionsoft
hest
orageuni
tar
etost
ore:

 Stor
eallt
hedatatobeprocessedandt
hei
nst
ruct
ionr
equi
redf
orpr
ocessi
ng
(r
eceiv
edfrom i
nputdev
ices)
.

 I
nter
medi
ater
esul
tsofpr
ocessi
ngar
est
oredher
e.

 Fi
nalresul
tsofprocessi
ngbef
oret
heser
esul
tsar
erel
easedt
oanout
put
devi
cearestoredinit
.

4.CENTRALPROCESSI
NGUNI
T(CPU)
Themai nunitinsi det hecomput eristheCPU.Thi suni tisresponsibleforal l
eventsinsi
det hecomput er.I
tcont rolsal li
nternal andexternal devices,
performs
“Ari
thmeticandLogi cal oper ations”.Theoper at i
onsaMi cropr ocessorper f
ormsar e
call
ed“instructionset ”oft hispr ocessor .Thei nstruct
ionseti s“ har
dwi red”inthe
CPUanddet er
mi nest hemachi nelanguagef ort heCPU.Themor ecompl i
catedt he
i
nstructi
onseti s,t
hesl owert heCPUwor ks.Pr ocessorsdifferedf r
om oneanot her
bytheinstructionset .Ifthesamepr ogram canr unont wodi fferentcomput erbr ands
theyaresaidt obecompat ible.Progr amswr i
ttenf orI
BM compat i
blecomput erswi ll
notrunonAppl ecomput ersbecauset heset woar chi
tect
uresar enotcompat ible.

Thecont rolUnitandt heAr i

thmeti
candLogi cunitofacomput ersyst
em ar
e
j
oint
lyknownast heCent ralProcessi
ngUnit( CPU).TheCPUi sthebrai
nofany
comput ersy st
em.I nahumanbody ,al
lmajordecisionsaretakenbythebrai
nand
theotherpar tsofthebodyf uncti
onasdirectedbyt hebr
ain.Simil
arl
y,i
nacomput er
syst
em, allmajorcalculat
ionsandcompar i
sonsaremadei nsi
detheCPUandt he
CPUisal soresponsibleforactivat
ingandcont r
oll
ingtheoperati
onsofotheruni
tsof
acomput ersystem.

5.CONTROLUNI
T
Thecontroluni
tdi
rect
sandcontrol
stheact
ivi
ti
esoftheinternal
andexternal
dev
ices.Iti
nterpret
sthei
nstr
uct
ionsfet
chedint
othecomput er,
determineswhat
dat
a,ifany,areneeded,wherei
tisst
ored,wher
etostoret
her esult
softheoperati
on,
PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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 I
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ONTOTHECOMPUTER

andsendsthecont
rol
signal
stot
hedev
icesi
nvol
vedi
ntheexecut
ionoft
he
i
nstr
ucti
ons.

COMPUTERMEMORY
Computermemor yisanyphysi
caldev
icecapabl
eofstor
inginformati
ontemporar
il
yli
ke
RAM (r
andom accessmemor y)
,orpermanent
ly,
li
keROM (read-onl
ymemor y
).Memory
dev
icesuti
l
izeint
egratedci
rcui
tsandareusedbyoper
ati
ngsy stems,sof
tware,
and
har
dware.

TYPESOFCOMPUTERMEMORY
Memor yist
hemostessenti
alel
ementofacomputi
ngsyst
em becausewit
houti
tcomput
er
cannotperf
orm si
mpl
etasks.Comput
ermemor yi
soft
wobasictypesi.
e.,
Pri
marymemory
andSecondar
ymemory.

1.RANDOM ACCESSRANDOM ACESSMEMORY(

RAM)
I
tisalsocall
edasreadwrit
ememoryorthemainmemor yort
hepr
imar ymemory.The
pr
ogramsanddat athatt
heCPUrequir
esdur
ingexecut
ionofaprogram arest
oredint
his
memor y.I
tisavol
ati
lememoryasthedatal
oseswhent hepoweri
st ur
nedoff
.

RAM i
sfur
thercl
assi
fi
edint
otwotypes-SRAM (
Stat
icRandom AccessMemor
y)andDRAM
(Dy
namicRandom AccessMemor
y).

Di
ff
erencebet
weenSRAM andDRAM
DRAM:

1)Theconst
ruct
edoft
inycapaci
tor
sthatl
eakel
ect
ri
cit
y.

2)Requi
resar
echar
geev
eryf
ewmi
l
li
secondst
omai
ntai
nit
sdat
a.

3)I
nexpensi
ve

4)Sl
owert
hanSRAM.

5)Canst
oremanybi
tesperchi
p.

6)Usesl
esspower
.

7)Gener
atesl
essheat
.

8)Usedf
ormai
nmemor
y.

SRAM:

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1)Const
ruct
edofci
rcui
tssi
mil
art
oD-
fl
ipf
lops.

2)Hol
dsI
tsCont
ent
sasl
ongaspoweri
sav
ail
abl
e.

3)Expensi
ve

4)Fast
ert
hanDRAM.

5)Cannotst
oremanybi
tspersecond.

6)Usesmor
epower
.

7)Gener
atesmor
eheat
.

8)Usedf
orcat
ches.

2.READONLYMEMORY(
ROM)
Stor
escruci
alinformationessenti
alt
ooper
atethesystem,li
ketheprogr
am essentialt
o
bootthecomput er
.Itisnotvolat
il
e.I
tal
waysret
ainsi
tsdata.Usedinembeddedsy stemsor
wheretheprogrammi ngneedsnochange.Usedincalcul
atorsandperi
pher
aldevices.

TYPESOFREADONLYMEMORY(
ROM)
ROM i
sfur
thercl
assi
fi
edi
nto3t
ypes,
PROM,
EPROM,
andEEPROM.

PROM (
Progr
ammabl
eread-
onl
ymemor
y)–i
tcanbepr
ogr
ammedbyuser
.Once
pr
ogr
ammed,
thedat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsi
nitcannotbechanged.

EPROM (
Erasabl
ePr
ogr
ammabl
ereadonl
ymemor
y)–i
tcanber
epr
ogr
ammed.Toer
ase
dat
afr
om i
t,exposei
ttoul
tr
avi
oletl
i
ght
.Tor
epr
ogr
am i
t,er
aseal
lthepr
evi
ousdat
a.

EEPROM (
Elect
ri
cal
l
yer
asabl
epr
ogr
ammabl
ereadonl
ymemor
y)–t
hedat
acanbe
erasedbyappl
yi
ngel
ect
ri
cfi
eld,
noneedoful
tr
avi
oletl
i
ght
.Wecaner
aseonl
ypor
ti
onsof
thechips.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenRAM andROM
1)RAM i
stempor
aryst
oragewhi
l
eROM i
sper
manentst
orage.

2)RAM st
oredat
ainMBswhi
l
eROM st
oredat
ainGBs.

3)RAM i
svol
ati
l
ememor
ywhi
l
eROM i
snon-
vol
ati
l
eMemor
y.

4)RAM usedf
ornor
mal
oper
ati
onswhi
l
eROM usedf
orst
art
uppr
ocessofcomput
er.

PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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 I
NTRODUCTI
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5)I
nRAM wr
it
ingdat
aisf
ast
erwhi
l
einROM wr
it
ingdat
aissl
ower
.

SECONDARYMEMORY
Secondarymemor yiswhereprogramsanddat aarekeptonal ong-
term basis.Common
secondarystor
agedev i
cesaretheharddiskandopt i
caldisks.Thehar ddiskhasenormous
storagecapaci
tycomparedtomai nmemor y.Theharddi skisusual
lycont ai
nedinsi
dethe
caseofacomput er.Theharddiskisusedforlong-
term storageofprogramsanddat a.Data
andpr ogr
amsont heharddiskareorgani
zedintofi
les.Af i
leisacollecti
onofdat aonthe
diskthathasaname.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
ymemor
y
i
)Pr
imar
ymemor
yisf
ast
ert
hansecondar
ymemor
y.

i
i
)Pr
imar
ymemor
yisexpensi
vet
hansecondar
ymemor
y.

i
i
i)Pr
imar
ymemor
yisofl
owcapaci
tywhi
l
esecondar
ymemor
yhashi
ghcapaci
ty.

i
v)Pr
imar
ymemor
ywor
ksdi
rect
lywi
thCPUwhi
l
esecondar
ydonotwor
kdi
rect
ly
wi
thCPU.

SOFTWARE
Software,i
nit
smostgeneral
sense,isasetofinstr
ucti
onsorprogr
amsinstr
uct
inga
comput ert
odospeci
fi
ctasks.Soft
wareisagener i
cterm usedt
odescr
ibecomputer
programs.Soft
war
eisoftendiv
idedint
othreecategori
es:

Sy
stem sof
twar
eser
vesasabasef
orappl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
e.Sy
stem sof
twar
e
i
ncludesdevi
cedriv
ers,operati
ngsyst
ems( OS),compi
ler
s,diskf
ormatter
s, t
ext
edit
orsanduti
li
ti
eshelpingthecomputertooperatemoreeff
ici
entl
y.I
tisalso
responsi
blef
ormanaginghar dwar
ecomponent sandprovi
dingbasicnon-
task-
specif
icf
uncti
ons.Thesy st
em soft
wareisusuall
ywrit
teni
nCpr ogramming
l
anguage.

Pr
ogr
ammi
ngsof
twar
eisasetoft
ool
stoai
ddev
eloper
sinwr
it
ingpr
ogr
ams.
Thevari
oust
ool
sav
ail
abl
ear
ecompi
l
ers,
li
nker
s,debugger
s,i
nter
pret
ersandt
ext
edi
tor
s.

Appl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
eisi
ntendedt
oper
for
m cer
tai
ntasksonasy
stem orspeci
fi
c
progr
ams.Exampl esofappli
cat
ionsoft
war
eincludeoffi
cesuit
es,gami
ng
appli
cat
ions,
databasesystemsandeducati
onalsoft
ware.Appli
cati
onsof
twarecan
beasingleprogr
am oracol l
ect
ionofsmal
lprograms.Thist
ypeofsoft
wareiswhat
PREPAREDANDCOMPOSEDBYSI
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ONTOTHECOMPUTER

consumer
smostt
ypi
cal
l
ythi
nkofas"
sof
twar
e."

TYPESOFAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFTWARE

1.GENERALPURPOSEAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFTWARE
1.Gener al
purposeappl i
cati
onsof twar
eisat ypeofapplicat
ionthatcanbeusedfor
av ari
etyoftasks.I
tisnotlimitedtooneparticularf
uncti
on.Forexampl e,awor
d
processorcouldbeclassedasgener al
purposesof twareasitwouldallowausert
o
writeanov el
,creat
ear estaurantmenuorev enmakeapost er.ExamplesofGener
al
purposeappl i
cati
onsoftwar eincl
ude:Wordpr ocessors,
Spreadsheetand
Presentati
onsof t
ware

2.SPECI
ALPURPOSEAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFTWARE
Specialpurposeappl icat
ionsoft
wareisat ypeofsoftwarecreat
edtoexecuteone
speci
f i
ctask.Forexampl e,acameraappli
cationony ourphonewil
lonlyal
lowyouto
takeandshar epi ctur
es.Anotherexamplewoul dbeachessgame, i
twouldonly
all
owy outopl aychess.Ot herexamplesofspecialpurposeappl
icat
ionsoftwar
eare
webbr owsers, calcul
ators,
mediaplayers,
calendarprogramsetc.

TYPESOFGENERALPURPOSEAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFTWARE
Therearef ourt
ypesofgener
alpur
poseappl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
ewhi
char
egi
venbel
ow.
1)Productivi
tySoft
ware
2)Businesssoftware
3)Entert
ainmentSof t
ware
4)EducationSoftware
PRODUCTI
VITYSOFTWARE
Product i
vit
ysoft
war e(alsocall
edpersonalpr oductiv
itysoftwar eorof fi
ce
product i
vi
tysoft
war e)i
sappl i
cati
onsoftwareusedf orproduci nginformat ion(such
asdocument s,
presentations,
worksheets,dat abases,charts,graphs, digit
al
paintings,el
ect
ronicmusi canddigit
alvi
deo) .Itsnamesar osef rom t
hef actthati
t
i
ncr easesproducti
vity,
especial
lyofindi
vidual off
icewor kers,from typiststo
knowl edgeworkers.

TYPESOFPRODUCTI
VITYSOFTWARE
1.Wor
dpr
ocessor(WP)
Awordprocessori
sacomputerprogram ordevi
cethatpr ovi
desfori
nput,
edit
ing,f
ormatt
ingandoutputoft
ext
,oft
enwi t
hadditi
onalfeatures.Ear
lyword
processorswer
estand-al
onedevi
cesdedicat
edtothefunction,butcurr
entword

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processor
sarewor
dprocessorpr
ogramsr unni
ngongener
alpur
posecomput
ers.
ExamplesareMSword,WordPad,Notepadetc.

2.Spr
eadsheetsof
twar
e
Spreadsheetsoft
war ei
sasoftwar
eappli
cati
oncapabl
eoforgani
zing,stor
ing
andanal
yzingdataintabularf
orm.I
tisusedtoworkwithnumber
sandfor mulas.
Numbersareentersingri
dofr owsandcolumnsandthencomputerf
orm
cal
cul
ati
ons.Exampl esareMSexcelandLotus1,2,3.

3.Dat
abasesof
twar
e
Databasesoft
wareisasof twar epr
ogr am usedf orcreati
ng,edi
ti
ngand
maintai
ningdatabasefil
esandr ecords.Thistypeofsof twareallowsuserstost
ore
dataintheform ofstr
uctur
edf i
elds,tabl
esandcol umns, whichcanthenberetr
iev
ed
di
rectl
yand/ ort
hroughprogrammat icaccess.Dat abasesof twareisal
soknownas
databasemanagementsof tware( DBMS) ,
althought heset er
msar enotexact
synonyms.Exampl esareMy SQL,MSSQLSer ver
,andMSaccess

4.Pr
esent
ati
onpr
ogr
am
Apresentati
onpr ogram isasoftwarepackageusedt odi splayinfor
mat i
onin
theform ofasli
deshow.I thasthreemajorfunct
ions:aneditort hatall
owst exttobe
i
nser t
edandf or
mat t
ed, amet hodforinser
ti
ngandmani pul
atinggr aphicimages,and
aslide-
showsy stem t
odi splaythecontent
.Iti
susedt ocombi netext,graphi
cs,
animationsandsoundi ntoser i
es.EggMSpowerpoi nt
.

5.Gr
aphi
cSof
twar
e
Incomputergraphi
cs,gr
aphi
cssof
twarerefer
stoapr ogr
am orcoll
ect
ionof
progr
amst hatenabl
eapersont
omani pul
ateimagesormodelsvisual
lyona
computer
.Simplyiti
susedtoedi
tpict
uresandvideos.E.
g.AdobePhotoshop.

2.BUSI
NESSSOFTWARE
Businesssoft
ware(orabusinessappl
icati
on)isanysoftwareorsetofcomputer
programsusedbybusinessuserstoperformv ari
ousbusinessf
uncti
ons.These
businessappl
icat
ionsareusedtoincr
easepr oducti
vi
ty,
tomeasureproducti
vi
tyand
toperfor
m otherbusi
nessfuncti
onsaccuratel
y.E.g.Qui
ckBook.

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3.ENTERTAI
NMENTSOFTWARE
Ent
ert
ainmentsoft
war ei
sanysoftwarethatsupport
sahobbyorprovi
desaform of
amusement.Enter
tai
nmentsoft
war eincl
udesvideogames,
videosandanyother
sof
twarethatauserfeel
sisenj
oyable.

4.EDUCATI
ONALSOFTWARE
Educat i
onalsoftwarei
sat er
m usedforanycomput ersoft
war ewhichismadef oran
educational
pur pose.I
tencompassesdiff
erentr
angesf rom languagelearning
softwaretoclassroom managementsoftwaretoreferencesoftware,etc.The
purposeofal lt
hissoft
wareistomakesomepar tofeducationmor eeffecti
v eand
eff
icient.

TYPESOFEDUCATI
ONALSOFTWARE
i
. Comput
erbasedt
rai
ningsof
twar
e(CBT)
Thist
ypeofsof
twar
eisnor
mal
l
yusedi
nai
rpl
aneswher
epi
l
otl
ear
nshowt
o
fl
yair
plane.
i
i
. Comput
erai
dedl
ear
ning
Thi
skindofsof
twar
ehelpsi
nteachi
ngandimproveslear
ningpr
ocesses.
Teacher
suseaudi
o,vi
deopr
ogramstoprepar
electur
es.
i
i
i. Ency
clopedi
a
Thi
ssoft
war econt
ainsi
nfor
mat i
onaboutdif
ferentsubj
ectsoralotof
i
nfor
mationaboutapart
icul
arsubject
.Theycontai
npictur
es,audi
os,vi
deos
andani
mations.E.
g.MSEncarta.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCOMPUTERONTHEBASESOFSI
ZE,
SHAPEAND
CAPACI
TY
1)Mi
crocomput
ers

2)Mai
nfr
amecomput
ers

3)SuperComput
ers

4)Mi
niComput
ers

1)MI
CROCOMPUTERS
Thesecomput
ersal
socal l
edhomecomput ersorPersonalComputer
sbecausethey
aresi
ngl
eusercomputers.Thesearedai
l
yusedcomput ershavi
ngami cr
oprocessor
andaCPU.Theysupportmanysof t
wareprogr
amslikemul t
imedi
a,vi
deoplayer
,

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gamesandgr
aphi
csetc.Thef
amouscompani
esofmi
crocomput
ersar
eIBM,
HP,
Appl
eandCompaqetc.

Ty
pesofMi
crocomput
ers
1)Deskt
op/
PC

2)Not
ebook

3)Lapt
op

4)Handhel
d

5)Smar
tphones

i
)DESKTOP/
PC
PCi st
hemostcommont y
pesofMi cr
ocomput er.Iti
sstandalonewithmachi
nethat
canbeplacedondesk.Exter
nall
yitconsistsoffourunits.I
tisnotver
yexpensi
ve
andissui
tedtotheneedsofsingleuserathome, small
businessunit
sand
organi
zat
ions.HP,Compaq,Apple,DellandLenov oaresomeoft hepc
manufact
urers.

i
i
)NOTEBOOKCOMPUTERS
ANotebookcomput erissmall
ert
hanLaptopandconvenientl
yusedinai
rpl
anescar
s,
t
emporaryof
ficesandatmeet i
ngs.NotebookComputer
sar especi
all
ydesi
gnedfor
mobi
l
ecomput i
ng,wirel
esscommunicati
onandInt
ernetAccess.

i
i
i)LAPTOPCOMPUTERS
Thel
aptopscomputersarealsoknownas"port
ablecomputers"duetothesmal
lsi
ze
andl
ightweight
.Theybecomepopularamongt hecomputerusers.Al
aptop
computerhasal
lthefaci
l
iti
esincl
udi
ngrechar
geablebat
tery.

i
v)HANDHELDCOMPUTERS
PersonalDigit
al Assistant(PDA)isasmal lcomputerthatcanbehel dontopoft
he
pal
m.I tissmal li
nsize.I nsteadofkeyboard,PDAusesapenf orinput.PDAdoesnot
haveadi skdrive.Theyhav elimi
tedmemor yandar el
esspowerful.PDAcanbe
connectedtot heinternetv i
awi r
elessconnecti
on.Casioandappl
ear esomeofthe
manuf actur
ersofPDA.Ov erthelastfewyearsPDAshav emergedi ntomobil
e
phonest ocreatesmar tphones.

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v
)SMARTPHONES
Smar tphonesarecell
ularphonest
hatfunct
ionsbothasphoneandasasmal lpc.
Theymayuseapenorhav easmal l
keyboar
dt heycanbeconnectedt
heint
ernet
wirel
essly.Theyareusedtoaccesstheemail,
downloadmusic,pl
aygamesetc.
Blackberr
y ,
Apple,
HTC, NokiaandLGaresomeoft hemanufactur
ersoft
hesmar t
phones.

2)MAI
NFRAMECOMPUTERS:
Mai
nFr
amecomput
ershav
efol
l
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs.

1)Lar
gei
nsi
ze,
lar
gei
nmemor
y,andpower
ful
but

Lesst
hansupercommut
er.

2)I
tcanhandl
esbyt
housandsofuser
satat
ime.

3)Mul
ti
plei
nput
,out
putdev
icesar
eused.

Speed:
100mi
l
li
onofar
it
hmet
icoper
ati
onpersecond.

Cost
:It
spr
icei
saboutaboutonemi
l
li
ondol
l
ar

Exampl
es:
IBM370.
IBM438I
,NEC610,
1CL2900

3)SUPERCOMPUTERS
SuperComputersar
ethel
argest
,fast
estandmoreexpensiv
ecomputersofthe
worl
d.Supercomputer
scanhandleover10000user
s.Supercomput
ersare
desi
gnedmost l
yfor

i
)Solv
ingt
heengineeri
ngandsci
ent
if
icpr
obl
ems.Supercomput
erpr
ocessbi
l
li
ons
ofi
nstr
uct
ionpersecond.

i
i)Speed:Supercomputercancal
culat
eatar
ateof400number
sev
erysecondand
areaccur
ateupt o14decimalpl
aces.

i
i
i)Cost
5to20mi
l
li
ondol
l
ars

Uses:Supercomputer
sareusedforsol
vi
ngthecompl
exappl
i
cat
ionssuchas
weatherfor
ecast
ingandsci
enti
fi
cresear
ch.

Exampl
es.Cr
ay-
I.Cr
ay-
2.Cr
ay-
T20.
CYBER205

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4)MI
NICOMPUTERS:
Minicomput er
saremuchsmal l
erthenmainfr
amecomput er
sandalsol ess
expensivethenmainframecomput ers.Thecostofthesecomputersstartf
rom
thousandsdollart
osev eral
hundreddollar
s.Medium andsmallbusinessesty
pical
l
y
uset hesecomputers.Examples:PRIME9755,VAX8685, I
BM SYSTEM36

OPERATI
NGSYSTEM
Anoper ati
ngsy stem i
st hecoresetofsof twareonadevicethatkeepsev eryt
hing
toget
her .Oper
at i
ngsy st
emscommuni catewiththedevi
cehardwar e.Theyhandle
every
thingfrom yourkey boardandmi cetot heWi -
Fir
adi
o,storagedev i
ces,and
displ
ay.Inotherwor ds,anoperati
ngsy stem handlesi
nputandout putdevices.
Operati
ngsy stemsusedev i
cedriver
swr i
tt
enbyhar dwar
ecreat or
st ocommuni cate
withtheirdevi
ces.

TYPESOFOPERATI
NGSYSTEMS
Fol
l
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hemostwi
del
yusedt
ypesofOper
ati
ngsy
stem.

1)Si
mpl
eBat
chSy
stem

2)Mul
ti
progr
ammi
ngBat
chSy
stem

3)Mul
ti
processorSy
stem

4)Deskt
opSy
stem

5)Di
str
ibut
edOper
ati
ngSy
stem

6)Cl
ust
eredSy
stem

7)Real
-t
imeOper
ati
ngSy
stem

8)Handhel
dSy
stem

1)SI
MPLEBATCHSYSTEMS
I
nthi
sty
peofsy
stem,
ther
eisnodi
recti
nter
act
ionbet
weenuserandt
hecomput
er.

Theuserhast
osubmi
taj
ob(
wri
tt
enoncar
dsort
ape)t
oacomput
eroper
ator
.

Thencomput
eroper
atorpl
acesabat
chofsev
eral
jobsonani
nputdev
ice.

Jobsar
ebat
chedt
oget
herbyt
ypeofl
anguagesandr
equi
rement
.

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Thenaspeci
alpr
ogr
am,
themoni
tor
,managest
heexecut
ionofeachpr
ogr
am i
nthe
batch.

Themoni
tori
sal
way
sint
hemai
nmemor
yandav
ail
abl
eforexecut
ion.

Adv
ant
agesofSi
mpl
eBat
chSy
stems
i
.Noi
nter
act
ionbet
weenuserandcomput
er.

i
i
.Nomechani
sm t
opr
ior
it
iset
hepr
ocesses.

2)MULTI
PROGRAMMI
NGBATCHSYSTEMS
Inthist
heoper ati
ngsy stem picksupandbegi nst oexecut eoneoft hejobsf rom
memor y.Oncet hi
sjobneedsanI /Ooper ati
onoper atingsystem swi tchestoanot her
j
ob( CPUandOSal way sbusy )
.Jobsi nthememor yar ealway slesst hanthenumber
ofjobsondi sk( JobPool ).Ifseveral j
obsar ereadyt or unatthesamet i
me, thenthe
system chooseswhi chonet orunt hrought heprocessofCPUSchedul i
ng.InNon-
multipr
ogr ammedsy stem, therearemoment swhenCPUsi t
si dleanddoesnotdo
anywor k.InMul ti
programmi ngsyst em, CPUwi llneverbei dleandkeepson
processing.TimeShar ingSy st
emsar ev erysimil
art oMul ti
progr ammi ngbatch
systems.Inf actti
meshar ingsy st
emsar eanext ensi onofmul ti
programmi ng
systems.InTi meshar ingsy stemst heprimef ocusi sonmi nimi zingtheresponse
ti
me, whileinmul ti
programmi ngthepr imef ocusi stomaxi mi zet heCPUusage.

3)MULTI
PROCESSORSYSTEMS
AMul ti
processorsy st
em consistsofseveralprocessorsthatshareacommon
physicalmemor y.Multi
processorsystem provi
deshi ghercomputingpowerand
speed.Inmul ti
processorsystem all
processorsoperateundersingleoperat
ing
system.Mul t
ipli
cit
yofthepr ocessorsandhowt heydoactt oget
heraretr
ansparent
totheothers.

Adv
ant
agesofMul
ti
processorSy
stems
Enhancedper
for
mance

Execut
ionofsev
eralt
asksbydiff
erentpr
ocessorsconcur
rent
ly,i
ncr
easest
he
syst
em'sthr
oughputwit
houtspeedinguptheexecut
ionofasingl
etask.

Ifpossibl
e,sy
stem di
vi
destaskintomanysubtasksandthenthesesubt
askscanbe
executedinparal
l
elindi
ff
erentprocessor
s.Ther
ebyspeedinguptheexecut
ionof
singl
etasks.

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4)DESKTOPSYSTEMS
Earl
ier,CPUsandPCsl ackedt hef eatur esneededt oprotectanoper ati
ngsy st em
fr
om userpr ograms.PCoper ati
ngsy stemst heref orewerenei t
hermul tiusernor
multit
asking.Howev er,
thegoal soft heseoper atingsy st
emshav echangedwi thti
me;
i
nsteadofmaxi mizingCPUandper ipher alutil
ization,t
hesy stemsoptf or
maximi zi
nguserconv enienceandr esponsi veness.Thesesy stemsar ecal l
ed
DesktopSy stemsandi ncludePCsr unni ngMi crosof tWindowsandt heAppl e
Macintosh.Oper at
ingsy stemsf orthesecomput ershav ebenef i
tedinsev eral ways
fr
om thedev elopmentofoper ati
ngsy stemsf ormai nf
rames.Mi crocomput er swer e
i
mmedi at
elyabl et
oadoptsomeoft het echnologydev el
opedf orlargeroper ating
syst
ems.Ont heot herhand, thehar dwar ecostsf ormi cr
ocomput er
sar esuf fi
cientl
y
l
owt hatindividual
shav esol euseoft hecomput er,andCPUut il
i
zationisnol ongera
pri
meconcer n.Thus, someoft hedesi gndeci sionsmadei noper ati
ngsy stemsf or
mainframesmaynotbeappr opr iatef orsmal lersy stems.

5)DI
STRI
BUTEDOPERATI
NGSYSTEM
Themot i
v ati
onbehi nddevelopingdistr
ibut
edoperati
ngsy stemsistheav ail
abil
it
yof
power fulandi nexpensiv
emi croprocessorsandadvancesi ncommuni cation
technology .Theseadv ancement sintechnol
ogyhavemadei tpossi
bletodesi gnand
dev el
opdi stri
but edsy
stemscompr isi
ngofmanycomput ersthatar
eint erconnected
bycommuni cationnetworks.Themai nbenefitofdi
str
ibutedsystemsi sitslow
price/
perfor mancer ati
o.

Adv
ant
agesDi
str
ibut
edOper
ati
ngSy
stem
1)Asther
ear
emulti
plesy
stemsinvol
ved,useratonesit
ecanut
il
izet
her
esour
ces
ofsy
stemsatot
hersi
tesforr
esour
ce-i
ntensi
vetasks.

2)Fastpr
ocessi
ng.

3)Lessl
oadont
heHostMachi
ne.

Ty
pesofDi
str
ibut
edOper
ati
ngSy
stems

Foll
owingar
ethet
wot
ypesofdi
str
ibut
edoper
ati
ngsy
stems
used:
1)Cl
i
ent
-Ser
verSy
stems
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2)Peer
-t
o-PeerSy
stems

CLI
ENT-
SERVERSYSTEMS
Central
i
zedsy st
emstodayactasserv
ersyst
emst osat
isfyrequestsgener
atedby
cl
ientsystems.Thegener
alst
ruct
ureofacli
ent
-serv
ersystem isdepi
ctedinthe
fi
gurebelow:

Ser
verSy
stemscanbebr
oadl
ycat
egor
izedas:
Comput
eSer
ver
sandFi
l
eSer
ver
s.

Comput
eSer
versy
stems,
prov
ideani
nter
facet
owhi
chcl
i
ent
scansend
request
stoperf
orm anact
ion,
inr
esponset
owhi
cht
heyexecut
etheact
ionand
sendbackresul
tst
ot hecl
i
ent.

Fi
l
eSer
versy
stems,
prov
ideaf
il
e-sy
stem i
nter
facewher
ecl
i
ent
scancr
eat
e,
updat
e,r
ead,
anddel
etef
il
es.

PEER-
TO-
PEERSYSTEMS
Thegr owthofcomputernetwor ks-especiallyt
heI nternetandWor ldWideWeb
(WWW)–hashadapr ofoundi nfl
uenceont herecentdev el
opmentofoperati
ng
systems.WhenPCswer eint
roducedi nthe1970s, theywer edesignedforpersonal
useandwer egeneral
l
yconsi deredst andalonecomput ers.Withthebegi
nningof
widespreadpubli
cuseoftheI nternetinthe1990sf orelectroni
cmailandFTP, many
PCsbecameconnect edtocomput ernetworks.

Incont rastt ot
heTi ghtl
yCoupl edsystems,thecomputernetworksusedi nthese
applicationsconsi stofacollecti
onofprocessorsthatdonotshar ememor yora
clock.Inst ead,eachprocessorhasi tsownlocalmemor y.Theprocessors
communi catewithoneanot herthroughvari
ouscommuni cat
ionli
nes,suchashigh-
speedbusesort elephoneli
nes.Thesesy stemsareusuallyrefer
redtoasloosely
coupl edsy stems( ordist
ri
but edsystems)
.

6)CLUSTEREDSYSTEMS
Likeparall
elsyst
ems, cluster
edsy stemsgat hertogethermul t
ipl
eCPUst o
accompl i
shcomput ationalwork.Clusteredsystemsdi ff
erfrom paral
lelsyst
ems,
however, i
nthattheyar ecomposedoft woormor eindi
vidualsystemscoupled
toget
her.Thedef init
ionoft heterm cluster
edisnotconcr ete;thegeneralaccepted
defi
nit
ioni st
hatcl usteredcomput erssharest or
ageandar ecloselyl
i
nkedv iaLAN
networking.

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7)REALTI
MEOPERATI
NGSYSTEM
Itisdefinedasanoper ati
ngsy stem knownt ogivemaxi mum ti
mef oreachoft he
crit
icaloper ati
onst hatitperf
orms, li
keOScal lsandinterr
upthandl
ing.TheReal -
TimeOper ati
ngsy stemswhi chguar anteesthemaximum t imeforcri
ticaloperat
ions
andcompl etethem ont imearer efer
redt oasHardReal -
TimeOperatingSy stems.
Whi l
et her eal-
timeoper ati
ngsy stemsthatcanonl yguaranteeamaxi mum oft he
time, i
.
e.t hecr i
ticalt
askwi l
lgetpr i
ori
tyov erot
hertasks,butnoassurityof
compl etingitinadef i
nedtime.Thesesy stemsarereferr
edt oasSoftReal -
Time
Oper ati
ngSy stems.

8)HANDHELDSYSTEMS
Handheldsystemsi ncl
udePer sonalDi
gitalAssi
stants(PDAs),suchasPal m-Pi
lot
s
orCell
ularTelephoneswi t
hconnectivi
tytoanetwor ksuchast heInter
net.Theyare
usual
lyofli
mi tedsizeduetowhi chmosthandhelddev iceshaveasmal lamountof
memor y,i
ncludeslowpr ocessors,
andf eat
uresmal ldi
splayscreens.Manyhandheld
devi
ceshav ebet ween512KBand8MBofmemor y
.

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