THE NERVOUS SYTEM
Somatic Nervous System
 The nervous sytem controls and
coordinates all the function of the body.
 The master controlling and
communicating system of the body.
 Its signaling device or means of
communicating with body cells is the
electrical impulses, which are rapid,
specific and cause of almost immediate
responses.
Functions of the Nervous System
 Sensory input−gathering information
 to monitor changes occuring inside
and outside the body.
 changes  stimuli
 Integration
 to process and interpret sensory input
and decide if action is needed
 Motor Output
 a response to integrated stimuli
 the response activates muscles or
glands
When you are driving & see a red light just ahead
(sensory input), your nervous system integrates this
information (red light means STOP) and sends motor
output to the muscles of your right leg & foot, your
foot goes for the brake pedal (the response)
Structural Classification of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous Sytem (CNS)
 brain
 spinal cord
 Peripheral Nervous Sytem (PNS)
 nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord: (spinal nerves and cranial nerves)
 connects body to the brain and spinal
cord
 12 pairs of nerves from your brain
(cranial nerves)
 31 pairs from your spinal cord (spinal
nerves)
bundles of sensory and motor
neurons held together by
connective tissue
Funtional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous Sytem
 Sensory (afferent) Division
 nerve fibers that carry information to
the CNS
 Motor (efferent) Division
 nerve fibers that carry impulses from
the CNS
 2 subdivisions:
-voluntary nervous system
-made up of the cranial and
spinal nerves that go from the
CNS to the skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous Sytem
-Involuntary nervous system
Nervous Tissue is made up of just 2 principal
types of cells:  Supporting cells
 Neurons
Supporting Cells
 support cells in the CNS are grouped
together as “neuroglia”/glia/glial cells
 it support, insulate and protect neurons
Support Cells in CNS
 Astrocytes
-abundant star-shaped cells
-brace neurons
-form barrier between capillaries and
neurons
-control the chemical environment of the
brain
 Microglia
-spiderlike phagocytes
-dispose of debris including the dead
brain cells and bacteria
 Ependymal cells
-line the central cavities of the brain and
spinal cord
-circulate cerebrospinal fluid
-forms a protective cushion around the
CNS
 Oligodendrocytes
-wrap around nerve fibers in the CNS
-produce myelin sheaths
Myelin sheaths – fatty insulating covering
Support Cells in PNS
 Satellite cells
-protect neuron cell bodies
 Schwann cells
-form myelin sheath in the PNS
Neurons
 Neurons is the scientific name for nerve
cells
 Cells specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses) from one neuron to
another across a synapse, or spaces in
between the cells
 The “jumping across” the synapse is
facilitated by chemicals called
neurotransmitter
Parts of the Neuron
 Dendrites – branched part of a neuron
that receives impulses, messages from
other neuron and send them to the cell
body
 Cyton – or cell body, contains
cytoplasm and the nucleus. Impulses
pass through here to the axon
 Axon – single long fiber that carries
impulses and sends messages away from
the cell body
  Unipolar neurons – have short single
Major Regions of Neurons
 Cell body
-nucleus and metabolic center of the
body
Nissl substance – specialized
rough endoplasmic reticulum
Neurofibrils – intermediate
cytoskeleton & maintains cell
shape
 Processes
-fibers that extend from the cell body
 Axons end in axonal terminals
 Axonal terminals contain vescles w/
neurotransmitters
 Axonal terminals are separated from the next
neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft – cleft between adjacent
neurons
Synapse – junction between nerves
 Myelin Sheath – whitish, fatty material
covering axons.
 Schwann Cells – produce myelin sheaths in
jelly roll-like fashion
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
along the axon
Neuron Cell Body Location
 most neuron cell bodies are found in the
CNS
Gray matter – cell bodies &
unmyelinated fibers
Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies
within the white matter of the
CNS
Ganglia – collections of cell
bodies outside the CNS
Functional Classification of Neurons
 Sensory (afferent) neurons
carry impulses from the sensory
receptors toward the CNS
cutaneous sense organs
Proprioceptors - detect stretch or
tension
 Motor (efferent) neurons
carry impulses away from the CNS to
viscera, muscles, or glands
 Interneurons (association neurons)
found in neural pathways in the CNS
connects sensory and motor neurons
send information between sensory and
motor neurons
Structural Classification of Neurons
 Multipolar neurons – many extensions
from the body
 Bipolar neurons – one axon & one
dendrite
process leaving the cell body
Functional Properties of Neurons
 Irritability – ability to response to
stimuli
 Conductivity – ability to transmit an
impulse
Nerve Impulses
 Resting neuron
the plasma membrane at rest is
polarized
fewer positive ions are inside the cell
than outside the cell
 Depolarization
a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane
a depolarized membrane allows
(Na+) to flow inside the membrane
the exchange of ions initiates an action
potential in the neuron
 Action Potential
if the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
impulses travel faster when fibers have
a myelin sheath
 Repolarization
potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ion rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
the sodium-potassium pump, using
ATP, restores the original configuration
Transmission of a Signal at Synapses
 Impulses are able to cross the synapse to
another nerve
neurotransmitter is released from a
nerve’s axon terminal
the dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
an action potential/nerve impulse is
started in the dendrite
The Reflex Arc
 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and
involuntary response to a stimulus
occurs over pathways called relex arc
 Stimulus – a change in
the environment
 Response/reaction –
how the body reacts to
stimulus
 Relex arc - direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector.
the pathway that an impulse follows to
illicit a response to a stimulus
Types of Reflexes and Regulations
 Somatic Reflexes
activation of skeletal muscles
Ex. When you move your hand away
from a hot stove
 Autonomic Reflexes
a smooth muscle regulation
heart and blood pressure regulation
regulation of glands
digestive system regulation
A patellar, or knee-jerk reflex is an example
of a two-neuron refles arc
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 CNS develops from the embryotic
neural tube
 The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
 The opening of the tube becomes the
ventricles
 4 chambers within the brain
 filled w/ cerebrospinal fluid
Regions of the Brain
 Cerebral hemispheres (Cerebrum)
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
 paired (left & right) superior parts of the
brain
 includes more than half of the brain
mass and the largest part of the brain
 the surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)
 memory is stored and for thinking
 movements are controlled
 impulses from the senses are interpreted
Lobes of the Cerebrum
 fissure (deep grooves) divide the
cerebrum into lobes
 surface lobes of the cerebrum
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital
lobe and temporal lobe
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum
 Primary Somatic Sensory Area
receives impulses from the body’s
sensory receptors
located in parietal lobe
 Primary Motor Area
sends impulses to the skeletal muscles
located in frontal lobe
 Broca’s Area
involved in our ability to speak
Cerebral Areas Involved in Special Senses
 Gustatory area - taste
 Visual area - sight
 Auditory area - hear
 Olfactory area - smell
Interpretation Areas of the Cerebrum
 Speech/laguage region
 Language comprehension region
 General interpretation area
Layers of the Cerebrum
 Gray matter – outer layer in the cerebral
cortex composed mostly of neuron cell
bodies
 White matter – fiber tracts deep to the
gray matter
Corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
Basal nuclei – islands of gray
matter burried within the white
matter
Cerebrum’s Specialization
 Regions specialized for differents
functions
 Lobes:
frontal (speech, control of emotion)
temporal (smell, hearing)
occipital (vision)
parietal (speech, taste, reading)
Diencephalon
 sits on top of the brain stem
 enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
Three Parts of Diencephalon
 Thalamus
surrounds the 3rd ventricle
the relay station for sensory impulses
transfer impulses to the correct part of
the cortex for localization and
interpretation
receives messages from sensory
recptors; relays information to proper
regions of cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
under the thalamus
Cerebellum
important autonomic nervous system
center
-helps regulate body temperature
-contrals water balance
-regulates metabolism
an important part of the limbic system
(emotions)
the pituitary gland is attached to
Protection of the Central Nervous System
hypothalamus
regulates hunger, thirst, fatigue and
anger, etc.
control of pituitary for endocrine
function
 Epithalamus
forms the roof of the 3rd ventricle
Meninges
houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem
 Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the Brain Stem
 Midbrain
mostly composed of tracts of a nerve
fibers
has 2 bulging fiber tracts – cerebral
peduncles
has 4 rounded protrusions – corpora
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
quadrigemina: a reflex centers for vision
and hearing
 Pons
the bulging center part of the brain
stem
mostly composed of fiber tracts
includes nuclei involved in the control
of breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
the lowest part of the brain stem
merges into the spinal cord
includes important fiber tracts
contains important contral centers
-heart rate control
-blood pressure regulation
-breathing, swallowing, and vomiting
center of heartbeat, respiration, and
other involuntary action
Reticular formation
diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
involved in motor control of visceral oragans
Reticulating Activating System (RAS) plays a role
in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
 Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces
 Provide involuntary coordination of the
body movements
 Responsible for the coordination of
muscles and is the center of balance
 Scalp and Skin
 Skull and Vertebral Column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
 Blood Brain Barrier
 Dura mater
double-layered external covering
Periosteum - attached inner
surface of the skull
Meningeal layer – outer
covering of the brain
folds inward in several areas
 Arachnoid layer
middle layer
web-like
 Pia mater
internal layer
clings to the surface of the brain
 Similar to blood plasma composition
 Formed by a choroid plexus
 Forms a watery cushion to protect brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
cord
Hydrocephalus – CSF accumulates and exerts pressure
on the brain if not alloowed to drain
 1) CSF is produces by the choroid plexus of
each ventricles
2) CSF flows through the ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the median and
lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through
the central canal of the spinal cord.
3) CSF flows through subarachnoid space.
4) CSF id absorbed into the dural venous
sinuses via arachnoid villi
Blood- Brain Barrier
 Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body
 Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
 Useless as a barrier against some
substances
fats and fat soluble molecules
respiratory gases
alcohol
nicotine
anesthesia
Tight Junction: Impermeable Junctions prevent
molecules from passing through the intercellular
space
Traumatic Brain Injuries
 Concussion
 slight brain injury
 no permanent brain damage
 Contusion
 nervous tissue distruction occurs
 nervous tissue does not regenerate
 Cerebral Edema
swelling from the inflammatory
response
 may compress and kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
 Commonly called a stroke
 The result of a ruptured blood vessel
suppling a region of the brain
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
that blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may
result
Alzheimer’s Disease
 Progressive degenerative brain disease
 Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
begin in middle age
 Stuctural changes in the brain may
include abnormal protein deposits and
twisted fibers within neuron
 Victims experience memory loss,
irritability, confusion, and ultimately,
hallucinations and death
Spinal Cord
 Extends from the foramen magnum of
the skull to the first or second lumbar
vertebra
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
spinal cord
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal
nerves at the inferior end.
 The extension of the brain stem
 Bundles of neuron that carry impulses
from all parts of the body to the brain
and from the brain to all parts of your
body
 Spinal nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
Dorsal root
associated with the dorsal root
ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the CNS
Ventral root
contains axons
 Internal gray matter – is mostly cell
bodies
dorsal (posterior) horns
anterior (ventral) horns
gray matter surrounds the central canal
central canal is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
 Exterior white matter – conduction
tracts
dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
 Meninges – cover the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
 Neuron fibers are bundles by connective
tissue
PNS: Structure of a Nerve
 Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
 Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles
by perineurium
 Fascicles are bound together by the
epineurium
PNS: Classification of Nerves
 Mixed nerves
both sensory and motor fibers
 Sensory (afferent) nerves
carry impulses toward the CNS
 Motor (efferent) nerves
Carry impulses away from the CNS
PNS: Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the
head and neck
 Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are
sensory only
 I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
 II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
 III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to
eye muscles
 IV Trochlear nerve – motor fiber to eye
muscles
 V Trigeminal nerve - sensory for the
face; motor fibers for chewing muscles
 VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye
muscles
 VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste;
motor fibers to the face
 VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory
for balance and hearing
 IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory
for taste: motor fibers to the pharynx
 X Vagus nerves - sensory and motor
fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
 XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to
neck and upper back
 XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to
tongue
PNS: Spinal Nerves
 There is a pair of spinal nerves at the
level of each vertebrae for a total of 31
pairs
 Formed by the combination of the
ventral and dorsal nroots of the spinal
cord
 Named for the region from which they
arise
PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving
the spinal cord
 Dorsi rami – serve the skin and
muscles of the porterior trunk
 Ventral rami – form a complex of
networks (plexus)for the anterior
PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
 Motor subdivision of the PNS
consists only of motor nerves
 Also known as the involuntary nervous
sytem
regulates activities of cardiac and
smooth muscles and glands
 2 subdivision:
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
PNS: Difference Between Somatic and
Autonomic Nervous System
 Nerves
Somatic: one motor neuron
Autonomic: preganglionic nad
postganglionic nerves
 Effector organs
Somatic: skeletal muscle
Autonomic: smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands
 Neurotransmitters
Somatic: always use acetycholine
Autonomic: use acetycholine,
epinephrine, or norepinephrine
PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
 Originates from T1 through L2
 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk
(near the spinal cord)
 Short pre-ganlionic neuron and long
post-ganglionic neuron transmit
impulse from CNS to the effector
 Noripinephrine and epineohrine are the
neurotransmitters to the effector organs
PNS: Anatomy of Parasympathetic Division
 Originates from the brain stem and S1
through S4
 Terminal ganglia are at the effector
organs
 Always uses acetycholine as a
neurotransmitter
PNS: Autonomic Functioning
 Sympathetic – “fight or flight”
response to unusual stimulus
takes over to increase activity
remember as the “E” division
(exercise, excitement, emergency, &
emergency)
 Parasympathetic – “housekeeping”
conserves energy
maintains daily necessary body
functions
remember as the “D” division
(digestion, defecation, & diuresis)
Development Aspect of the Nervous System
 The nervous system is formed
during the first month of embryonic
development
 Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
 The hypothalamus is on of the last
areas of the brain to develop
  No more neurons are formed after
birth, but growth and maturation
continues for several years
 The brain reaches maximum weight
as a young adult
What protects the CNS?
1. Skull and Vertebrae
2. 3 protective layer called meninges
3. Dura mater (outer layer): consists of
connective tissue, blood vessels, and
nerves
4. Arachnoid layer (middle layer):
elastic and weblike
5. Pia mater (inner layer): contains
nerves and blood vessels
6. Cerebrospinal fluid
a clear watery liquid
separates the middle and inner
layers
acts as shock absorber
excahnge of nutriens between
blood and nervous sytem
The Brain
 Coordinates body activities
 Made up of approximately 100
billion neurons
 Uses 20% of body’s oxygen and
energy
 Divided into 3 major parts
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Barin Stem (medulla
oblongata, pons)
Gray Matter vs. White Matter
 Gray matter – absence of myelin in
masses of neurons accounts for the gray
matter of the brain – Cerebral Cortex
 White matter – myelinated neurons
gives neurons a white appearance –
inner layer of cerebrum