vi) Pollutes the water

Acid Rain vii) Causes spotting of leaves

January 27, 2019 viii) Causes corrosion of metal, painted surfaces and even
“The rainwater which contains a large amount of poisonous stone buildings and
acids like sulphuric monuments.
acid, sulphurous acid, nitrous acid and other pollutants is
known as the Acid
Rain.”
Balanced Diet
January 27, 2019
Formation of Acid Rain “The food which contains all essential food nutrients which
As evident from the de_nition, Acid rain is caused by a are necessary and
chemical reaction that essential for healthy growth of the body and proper
begins when compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen functioning of the whole
oxides are released parts of body.”
into the air. These substances can rise very high into the Food is a complex mixture of chemical substances.
atmosphere, where It performs following useful functions when eaten and
they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals absorbed by the body.
to form more acidic i) Produces energy
pollutants, known as acid rain. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen ii) Promote growth
oxides dissolve iii) Repair the tissues
very easily in water and can be carried very far by the wind. iv) Regulate various processes
As a result, the two Nutrients are the chemical components of food capable of
compounds can travel long distances where they become performing above
part of the rain, sleet, functions.
snow, and fog that we experience on certain days. Example: milk is a balanced diet although it does not
Causes: contain iron.
Following are the major components of Balanced Diet and
Human activities are the main cause of acid rain. Over the their source and
past few decades, functions:
humans have released so many di􀃠erent chemicals into
the air that they have
changed the mix of gases in the atmosphere. Power plants
i)Carbohydrates Source : Honey, Sugarcane,
Wheat, Maize, Potatoes.
release the majority
Functions: Provide energy
of sulphur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when
they burn fossil fuels,
such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, the exhaust
ii) Fats:
Source: Butter, Cheese, Soya bean, Mustard etc.
from cars, trucks, Functions: Provide Energy
and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide iii) Proteins:
into the air. These Source: Meat, Eggs, Fish, Milk, Pulses etc.
pollutants cause acid rain. Functions: Essential for growth
OR iv) Vitamins:
The main causes of acid rain are as follows: Source: Fruits and Vegetables.
Natural Sources: Functions: Important for proper physiologic and metabolic
functions of the
Lightning strikes (cause nitrogen molecules to be oxidized)
body.
Combustion of hydrogen sulphide (hydrogen sulphide is
Types:
formed from the
a) Water Soluble Vitamins: B1, B2, B6, B12, C
breakdown of sulphates in organic matter in the absence of
b) Fat Soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K
oxygen- anaerobic
conditions). This reaction forms sulphur dioxide. v) Minerals:
Human Sources: Minerals are those inorganic substances which play a key
role in the
Combustion engines (car, airplanes etc.)
maintenance and building of the body tissues. The most
Burning of fossil fuels and coal
important minerals of
Some mineral ores contain sulphur dioxide, and this is
balanced diet are as under:
released when the
Phosphorus: is necessary for bones and teeth.
minerals are processed.
Iron: is an essential component of blood.
Effect Of Acid Rain: Iodine: is necessary for thyroxin which is secreted from
i) Kills 􀃠ora and fauna thyroid gland.
ii) Damages the buildings Calcium: is necessary for bone development.
iii) Causes skin cancer
iv) Increases the acidity of the soil
vi) Water:
Source: Fruits, Vegetables
v) Kills 􀃠sh and other aquatic animals
Functions: It is constituent of blood, lymph, hormones and A virus consists of two components, a protein coat and a
other secretions of core of nucleic acid
the body. which is either DNA or RNA.
DNA viruses are called adenoviruses and RNA viruses are
called retroviruses.
Biology-I The shape of a virus is due to its protein coat.
January 28, 2019 Viruses are of many shapes i.e. rods, spherical, hexagonal
or icosahedral.
i) Zoology: Zoology is that branch of biology which deals
Sometimes their shape is complicated.
with the study of
Virus replicate inside a living cell and many viruses are
animals.
synthesized along with
ii) Botany: Botany is that branch of biology which deals with
their protein coats and nucleic acid.
the study of
The nucleic acid contains instructions for the shape of the
plants.
virus.
iii) Microbiology: It is the branch of biology which deals with
Diseases Caused By viruses:
the study of
microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria etc.
iv) Morphology: It deals with the shape and structure of i) Polio
living organisms. ii) AIDS
v) Histology: It is the microscopic study of tissues of plants iii) Smallpox
and animals. iv) Measles
vi) Cytology: It deals with the structure of cell and v) Hepatitis
organelles present inside the
cell. Bacteria:
vii) Physiology: It deals with the study of functions of Characteristics Of Bacteria:
di􀃠erent parts of plants Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms which
and animals. generally divide by
viii) Ecology: It is the science of ecosystem and explains the transverse binary _ssion.
relationship They possess rigid cell walls and act as pathogens
between organisms and their environment. Nucleus is not well organised
ix) Taxonomy: It deals with the naming and classi_cation of No de_nite chloroplast, chlorophyll is dissolved in
organisms chromoplasm.
There are three forms of bacteria which are:
x) Genetics: It deals with the study of heredity and i) Round called Cocci
variations. ii) Rod like called Bacilli
xi) Biotechnology: It deals with the application of biological iii) Spiral called Spirrila
processes. Classi_cation Of Bactria According To Mode Of Nutrition:
xii) Haematology: Study of blood and its constituent cells. According to mode of nutrition, there are three types of
xiii) Geology: Study of features and properties of earth and Bactria:
its constituents a) Parasitic:
Devoid of chlorophyll
rocks.
Are heterotrophic and get food from living animals and
Characteristics Of Living plants
b) Saprophytic
Organisms: Lack chlorophyll hence cannot prepare their own food.
Get food from dead organic remains
Following are the main characteristics of living beings which
are not present in c) Autotrophic
non-living organisms. Contain chlorophyll
i) Metabolism Can synthesis food by photosynthesis
ii) Growth Few get their food by chemosynthesis
iii) Irritability Reproduction In Bacteria
iv) Reproduction i) Vegetative: By Binary Fission
v) Movement ii) Asexual: By Formation of Endospores
vi) Nutrition iii) Sexual: By Conjugation
vii) Respiration
viii) Excretion
Cell:
De_nition:
Virus: The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism,
typically microscopic
Viruses are the micro-organisms which are strict or obligate
parasites of and consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a
animals or plant cells. membrane.
Many of the viruses are also parasites on bacteria. OR
A large number of viruses cause diseases in plants and
animals. The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered
Characteristics Of Virus: by Robert Hooke
and is the functional unit of all known living organisms. It is vi) Vacuoles
the smallest unit of – Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste
life that is classi􀃠ed as a living thing, and is often called the removal
building block of life. – Contains water solution
Cell Structure And Functions (Plant & Animal Cell) – Contractile vacuoles for water removal (in unicellular
1. Cell wall organisms)
– Most commonly found in plant cells vii) Chloroplasts
– Controls turgidity – A plastid usually found in plant cells
– Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane – Contain green chlorophyll where photosynthesis takes
– Primary cell wall: extremely elastic place
– Secondary cell wall: forms around primary cell wall after viii) Cytoskeleton
growth is complete – Composed of microtubules
2. Plasma membrane – Supports cell and provides shape
– Outer membrane of cell that controls cellular tra􀃠c – Aids movement of materials in and out of cells
– Contains proteins (left, gray) that span through the ix) Centrioles
membrane and allow – Paired cylindrical organelles near nucleus
passage of materials – Composed of nine tubes, each with three tubules
– Proteins are surrounded by a phospholipid bi-layer. – Involved in cellular division
3. Protoplasm – Lie at right angles to each other
-colourless, semitransparent, viscous granular 􀃠uid present 5. Nucleus:
inside the cell is -Control centre of the cell
called as protoplasm. -Serves as information processing and administrative
-colloidal in nature and considered as physical basis of life. centre of the cell
-exhibits the active streaming movement called cyclosis -Performs the following major functions:
-it consists of water, protein, lipid or fats, carbohydrates, a) stores the cell’s hereditary material, or DNA
enzymes, salts, nucleic b) coordinates the activities of the cell, which includes
acid in a 􀃠xed proportion. growth, metabolism,
-it is divided into Nucleus and Cytoplasm protein synthesis, and reproduction or cell division.
4. Cytoplasm i) Nuclear membrane
-Protoplasm outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm – Surrounds nucleus
-all the organelles are present in the cytoplasm like; – Composed of two layers
i) Endoplasmic reticulum – Numerous openings for nuclear tra􀃠c
– Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane
– Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane ii) Nucleolus
– Stores, separates, and serves as cell’s transport system – Spherical shape
– Smooth type: lacks ribosomes – Visible when cell is not dividing
– Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface – Contains RNA for protein manufacture
ii) Golgi apparatus iii) Chromosomes
– – Composed of numerous layers forming a sac – Usually in the form of chromatin
– Works as the distribution and shipping department of the – Contains genetic information
cell’s chemical – Composed of DNA
product. – Thicken for cellular division
iii) Lysosome – Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human)
– – Digestive ‘plant’ for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
– Transports undigested material to cell membrane for Difference Between Animal And
removal Plant Cell:
1) Cell Wall OR Cell Membrane
Vary in shape depending on process being carried out – The outer boundary of plant cells is known as the cell
– Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes wall, which is mainly
iv) Mitochondria composed of cellulose.
– Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure – It helps the plant cell to maintain its shape.
– Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds called – The cell wall is absent in animal cell.
cristae – In animal cell the outer covering is known as cell
– Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on membrane which is
cristae composed of lipid bilayer, proteins and carbohydrates.
– Controls level of water and other materials in cell 2) Plastids
– Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and – Plants cells also contain organelles which are known as
carbohydrates, and forms urea plastids.
v) Ribosomes – The most common type of plastid is the chloroplast which
– Each cell contains thousands contains
– Miniature ‘protein factories’ chlorophyll.
– Composes 25% of cell’s mass – These organelles or plastids are totally absent in animal
– Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic cell.
reticulum 3) Vacuole
– Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm
– The main di􀃠erence between the vacuole of animal and 2. Cell Replacement: Cells are constantly sloughed o􀃠,
plants is their size. dying and being replaced
– The vacuole of plant cell is much bigger than that of by new ones in the skin and digestive tract. When damaged
animal cells. tissues are
4) Centrosomes repaired, the new cells must be exact copies of the cells
– In animal cells centrosomes are present, which are being replaced so as to
responsible for making retain normal function of cells.
some protein _bres which help in movement of
chromosomes during division 3. Regeneration: Some animals can regenerate parts of the
of cells. body, and
– Centrioles are absent in the plant cells. productions of new cells are achieved by mitosis.
5) Lysosome 4. Vegetative Reproduction: Some plants produce o􀃠spring
– Lysosomes are not evident in plants while they are which are
prominent in animal cells. genetically similar to themselves. These o􀃠spring are
called clones.
Cell Division:
The process in which the cells divide and replicate. This Meiosis:
process is the basis for A type of cell division in a cell divides into four daughter
growth and replication. There are two main types of cell cells with having half
division, which are as number of chromosomes as compared to parent cell.
Characteristics Of Meiosis:
under: Takes place in sexual reproduction at the time of formation
1) Mitosis of male and female
2) Meiosis gametes
In animals it takes place during the formation of sperms and
Mitosis: ova while in plants
during spore formation
A type of cell division in which a cell divides into two
identical daughter cells Diploid cells reduce to haploid cells
each having same number of chromosomes as that of Consists of two consecutive divisions
parent cell. First division is reductional or meiotic and the second is
Stages Of Mitosis: simple mitotic division.
There are four stages of mitosis, which are as under: Stages Of Meiotic Division:
i) Prophase i) Prophase I
ii) Metaphase ii) Metaphase I
iii) Anaphase iii) Anaphase I
iv) Telophase iv) Telophase I
i) Prophase: v) Prophase II
– Prophase is the _rst phase of mitosis. vi) Metaphase II
– Chromatin material condenses and becomes visible vii) Anaphase II
– The nucleolus of the cell disappears viii) Telophase II
– The nuclear membrane also disappears Prophase I:
– Centrioles begin to move opposite ends of the cell Prophase I consists of 5 sub stages, these are:
ii) Metaphase: a. Leptotene
– Metaphase is the second stage of mitosis. – Nucleus increases in size
– Chromosomes line up in the centre of the cell, separate – Chromosomes become long and uncoiled threads
and become a pair of – They become more visible
identical chromosomes. b. Zygotene
– The chromatids become uncoiled and apart from each – Homologue (similar) chromosomes attract each other and
other. form pairs.
iii) Anaphase: – This process is called synapses
– It is the third phase of mitosis. c. Pachytene
– During this phase each set of chromosomes move
towards the opposite end – Chromosomes become condensed due to widening of
of the cell. coils
iv) Telophase: – They form chiasmata i.e. cross each other in double
– The fourth phase of mitosis is known as Telophase. nature or bivalents.
– During this phase spindle _bres disappear. d. Diplotene
– Nuclear membrane appears – Homologous chromosomes go apart from each other
– Cell divides into two daughter cells except at chiasmata
– Nucleolus re-appear – Chromosomes become more short and thicker
– The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible. e. Diakinesis
Signi_cance Of Mitosis: – The bivalents become more apart.
1. Growth: The number of cells within an organism – Chromosomes become deeply stained
increases by mitosis and this – Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear and spindles
is the basis of growth in multicellular organisms. become distinct
Metaphase I: which do not have seed or in other words they are
– Chromosomes now rearrange themselves in an equatorial seedless. Following are the
line main characteristics of these plants:
– Spindles attach to the centrosome of the chromosomes – They reproduce by spores
Anaphase I: – They have long life
– Spindles start to contract – They have no long 􀃠bres
– Split the tetrahedral chromosomes into two chromatids – They cannot grow to greater size
and drag them to – They generally have simple structure, except ferns.
opposite poles Examples: Moses, Ferns, Algae.
– Here the reduction takes place.
Telophase I: Flower & Its Parts:
– Spitted chromosomes reach to opposite poles The 􀃠ower is the reproductive part of the plant. It is mainly
– Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear concerned with
– At the end of Telophase I, prophase II starts. formation of seeds. It is regarded as the modi􀃠ed shoot for
Prophase II: the purpose of
– Chromatin network breaks into bivalent chromosomes reproduction.
– Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear and spindles Parts Of Flower:
start to reappear A typical 􀃠ower consists of a short axis known as the
Metaphase II: thalamus, on which 􀃠oral
– Bivalent chromosomes rearrange themselves at equator leaves are inserted in four distinct whorls, which are as
– Spindles attach to the centrosomes of each chromosome under:
Anaphase II: i) Calyx
– Spindles contract and split the chromosomes ii) Corolla
longitudinally into two iii) Androecium
chromatids iv) Gynaecium
– Each chromatid travel to opposite pole Calyx:
Telophase II: Calyx is the outermost whorl of 􀃠oral leaves called sepals.
– Each chromatid reach to the opposite pole The sepals can be
– Spindles disappear and nuclear membrane and nucleoli
reappear de􀃠ned as the green and leaf like structures which are
– As a result 4 nuclei are formed mainly concerned with
Signi_cance Of Meiosis: the protective function.
– To allow trait inheritance in o􀃠spring Corolla:
– To maintain diploid number in each generation Corolla is the second whorl of 􀃠oral leaves called petals.
– To ensure the production of haploid gametes in sexual The petals are
reproduction beautifully coloured which are responsible for the attraction
– To produce genetic variations among o􀃠spring to the insects
towards them.
Classification Of Plants: Androecium:
The third whorl of the leaves consists of stamens. It is
Plants are those organisms which contain chlorophyll and considered as the male
synthesize their own part of the 􀃠ower.
food through photosynthesis. Plants are divided into: Gynaecium:
1) Flowering Plants OR Phanerogams Gynaecium is the inner most whorl of the 􀃠oral leaves
2) Non-Flowering Plants OR Cryptogams called carpels. It is
Flowering Plants: considered as the female part of the 􀃠ower.
Flowering plants are those plants which contain seed.
These are known as Parts Of Plants:
Phanerogams. They are further subdivided into:
i) Gymnosperms Photosynthesis:
ii) Angiosperms De_nition:
Gymnosperms: Photosynthesis is a process in which plants manufacture
Gymnosperms are those 􀃠owering plants which contain their food (simple
naked and unprotected carbohydrates) in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight
seeds. by the combination
Examples: Pine, Fir, Cedar, Spruce and Cypress etc. of carbon dioxide and water.
Angiosperms: Raw Material For Photosynthesis:
Angiosperms are those 􀃠owering plants whose seeds are i) Carbon dioxide: Taken from air
protected by a fruit or ii) Water: Absorbed by roots from soil
seed pod. iii) Sunlight: From Sun
Examples: Grass, Crops, Vegetables, Fruits and weeds. iv) Chlorophyll: green pigment present in leaves
Non-Flowering Plants: By-Products Of Photosynthesis:
Non-Flowering plants are also known as cryptogams. i) Carbohydrates (simple sugar): used by plants as a food
These are the plants material and excess of
it is converted into starch
ii) Oxygen: Released into air The human blood is composed of:
Importance Of Photosynthesis: 1) Formed Elements
i) Major process of food production in plants Formed elements of blood are:
ii) Utilization of CO2 of the atmosphere and liberation of • RBCs
oxygen • WBCs
iii) Important in reducing CO2 of the atmosphere which is • Platelets
dangerous for the 2) Plasma;
human beings as well as animal health. The _uid portion of blood is known as the plasma. It is
composed of:
Pollination: • Water: 91 to 92%
De_nition: • Solids: 8 to 9%
Pollination is the phenomenon of transfer of pollen from
male reproductive The solids are again classi_ed as inorganic and organic:
organ (anther) to female reproductive organ (stigma) in Inorganic solids include:
􀃠owering plants • Sodium
through biological or physical agency. • Magnesium
Types Of pollination: • Iron
• Potassium
There are two types of Pollination • Phosphorous
i) Self-Pollination: • Copper
In this type of pollination pollens are transferred to the While organic substances are:
stigma in the same i) Proteins:
_ower. Some plants are by nature self-pollinated as wheat • Serum Albumin
and grasses. • Serum Globulin
ii) Cross Pollination: • Prothrombin
In this type the pollen grains are transferred from the anther • Fibrinogen
of one _ower to ii) Non-Protein Nitrogenous Substances:
the stigma of another _ower. The cross pollination is e.g. urea, uric acid, xanthine, creatinine, NH3 and amino
considered and acids etc.
advantageous to the plant as the seeds produced by cross- iii) Fats:
pollination are Like: Natural fats, phospholipids, cholesterol etc.
usually greater in number and the plant germinated from iv) Carbohydrates
them are superior in Like: Glucose
vigour, height and weight. v) Other Substances:
Vehicles For Pollination: These include internal secretions, antibodies, enzymes i.e.
Vehicles for pollination are animals, water, wind and amylase, protease
insects. Therefore cross and lipase etc.
pollination may be: Functions Of Blood:
a) Entomophily-by insects • To transport oxygen and nutrients from the lungs and
b) Anemophily-by wind intestines respectively
c) Hydrophily-by water to all cells in your body.
d) Zoophily-by animals • To _ght pathogens and kill bacteria and other microbes.
Importance Of Pollination: • To keep our core body temperature stable.
• Vital process for reproduction in plants • To help heal and clot wounds.
• Reproduction is carried out by reproductory organs of
plants due to Excretory System:
pollination The excretory system is a system that removes excess,
• It is the process by which seeds are produced. unnecessary or
dangerous materials from an organism, so as to help
maintain homeostasis
Biology-II within the organism and prevent damage to the body
January 28, 2019 Excretory Organs
1) Accessory Excretory Organs:
Blood: i) Lungs: They remove or excrete CO2 as a waste product
Blood is vital connective tissue (_uid) consisting of _uid from the body.
portion i.e. plasma, in ii) Skin: Skin functions in excretion by sweating out waste
which are suspended the formed elements i.e. RBCs, products from the
WBCs, and the platelets, sweat glands
along with other particles. iii) Liver: The liver excretes cholesterol, steroid hormones,
Blood is opaque, alkaline and appears scarlet red when certain vitamins and
taken from arteries and drugs through the bile and also urea, ammonia, amino
purplish from veins. The di􀃠erence in colour is due to its acids etc.
oxygen content. 2) Main Excretory Organ
Composition Of Blood: i) Kidneys: Excretes waste products in the form of urine
Structure & Working Of Kidney: • The 􀃠ltered material called 􀃠ltrate is captured in
External Structure: Bowman’s capsules.
i) Renal Artery: The renal artery enters the kidney and • Filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule.
brings oxygenated • Reabsorption of important molecules and ions from the
blood carrying toxic nitrogenous wastes into the kidneys. 􀃠ltrate into the blood
ii) Renal Vein: The renal vein drains away deoxygenated occurs here.
blood which is free of • These include glucose, amino acids, vitamins, water,
toxic substances sodium, potassium,
iii) Ureter: The ureter, a tube, runs from each kidney chloride and bicarbonates.
downwards into the lower • Filtrate then enters into Loop of Henle which consists of
part of the abdomen connecting each kidney to the urinary descending limb and
bladder. Its function ascending limb.
is to transport the urine from the kidneys to the urinary • In descending limb only water is reabsorbed and in
bladder. ascending limb only salt is
iv) Urinary Bladder: This is a large muscular storage sac reabsorbed.
that collects urine • In distal convoluted tubule secretion occurs. Ammonia,
from both the kidneys through the ureters. hydrogen ions, uric
v) Urethra: This is a short muscular tube that carries urine acid are secreted from blood vessels into the distal tubule.
at intervals from the • As result concentrated 􀃠uid called urine is produced
urinary bladder to the outside. which enters into
Internal Structure collecting.
i) Renal Cortex: This is the outer pale red colored layer. Composition Of Urine:
ii) Renal Medulla: This forms the inner dark red zone The urine is composed of following substances:
iii) Renal Pelvis: This is a large funnel-shaped region 1) i) Water: 95%
behind the renal medulla.
iv) Nephrons: These are structural and functional ii) Dissolved Substances: 5%
microscopic _ltering units of a. Urea: 2%
the kidney. There are more than 1,250,000 nephrons in b. Uric Acid and other ammonium compound: 1%
each kidney. c. Organic and inorganic salts: 2%
Microscopic Structure of a Nephron iii) Inorganic constituents
i) Malpighian Corpuscle: This consists of two parts: iv) Nitrogenous Constituents
a) Bowman’s Capsule: This is a cup – shaped structure v) Other Constituents.
which is double walled Functions Of Kidney:
in the hollow of which is a network of capillaries called the 1) Excretory
glomerulus • Excrete waste products especially nitrogenous
b) Glomerulus: This is a knotted mass of blood capillaries substances
formed by the • Eliminates drugs and toxic substances
1) a􀃠erent arteriole (incoming) and the e􀃠erent 2) Synthetic
arteriole (outgoing) • Synthesis ammonia and Hippuric acid
3) Endocrine
ii) Renal Tubule: This further consists of • Secretes Renin
a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule: This is the region behind 4) Regulatory
the Bowman’s • Maintains
capsule and consists of a coiled tube that descends to form – pH balance
the Henle’s loop. – Sodium ion, potassium ion and electrolyte balance
b) Henle’s loop: This is continuous with the proximal – Osmotic pressure in blood
convoluted tubule and is – Water balance, extra _uid volume
U-shaped having a narrow descending limb and a thick – Blood pressure
ascending limb
c) Distal Convoluted Tubule: This is another coiled and
twisted tubule that Biology-III
continues from the ascending limb of loop of Henle found in January 29, 2019
the renal cortex.
iii) Collecting Tubule: The distal convoluted tubule
continues to form the
Fertilization:
The fusion of male and female gametes is called
collecting tubule.
fertilization.
iv) Collecting Ducts: Several collecting tubules fuse to form
Types Of Fertilization:
large collecting
Following are the major types of fertilization:
ducts which pass downwards from the cortex to the medulla
i) External Fertilization
region.
ii) Internal Fertilization
Working Of The Kidney:
iii) Self-Fertilization
• The nephron is the kidney’s functional unit.
iv) Cross-Fertilization
• In its 􀃠rst section renal corpuscles 􀃠ltration occurs.
External Fertilization:
• As 􀃠uid, small molecules and blood are 􀃠ltered from
• This type of fertilization is generally observed I simple
glomerulus capillaries.
aquatic animals.
• In such animals both ova and sperms are released into Vertebrates have been divided into following _ve major
the water where classes:
fertilization occurs. i) Fishes
• In terms of evolution external fertilization is of primitive ii) Amphibians
type and is not better iii) Reptilian
biologically as compared to internal fertilization. iv) Birds
Internal Fertilization: v) Mammals
• In the internal fertilization the females keep ova inside Some Animals & Their Location
their bodies and males i) Blue whale: Found in all oceans
deposit sperms within the tube of reproductive tacts of ii) Panda: China
females. iii) Dolphin: In seas
• For all land animals internal fertilization is almost must iv) Porpoises:
because sperms are v) Kangaroo: Australia
vi) Snow Leopard: Central Asia
quickly killed by dehydration. vii) Yak: Central Asia
• In terms of evolution internal fertilization is highly evolved viii) Llama: South America
and much better ix) Ibex: Wild mountain goat
biologically as compared to external fertilization. x) Cobra: South Asia
Self-Fertilization: xi) Alligator: N.America
• Self-fertilization occurs within the same animal. xii) Tortoise: Water
• It is that fertilization in which sperms are used by the xiii) Rattle Snake: America
ovaries of same animal xiv) Lizards:
e.g. Tapeworm xv) Crocodiles:
Cross-fertilization: xvi) Ostrich: Deserts Of Africa
• Cross-fertilization is the process in which sperms of one xvii) Penguin: Antarctic Region
animal are xviii) Kiwi: New Zealand
transferred into the body of another animal e.g. Earthworm. xix) Rhea: South America
xx) Emu: Australia
Animals: xxi) Shark: Found in all oceans
xxii) Trout: Fresh water _sh
Types Of Animals:
i) Invertebrates: Animals having no backbone or vertebral xxiii) Cod:
column. Scavenger:
ii) Vertebrates: Animals with backbone or vertebral column. Scavengers are the animals that ‘Clean up’ after the other
Classi_cation Of Invertebrates: animals by
The invertebrates are classi􀃠ed into following categories: consuming their leavings and sometimes prey on sick or
i) Phylum Protozoa dying animals or
ii) Phylum Porifera consume dead bodies. Scavengers are also called detritus
iii) Phylum Coelentrata feeders. Vultures,
iv) Phylum Platyhelminthes coyotes, jackals, hyenas and wild dogs are scavengers
v) Phylum Nematode which eat the left over
vi) Phylum Annelida prey or dead bodies of hunted animals.
vii) Phylum Mollusca Quote: Originally Posted by Roshan wadhwani
viii) Phylum Arthropoda Scavengers are the animals that ‘Clean up’ after the other
ix) Phylum Echinodermata animals by consuming
Following are the most common examples of invertebrate their leavings and sometimes prey on sick or dying animals
animals with or consume dead bodies.
their relative phyla: Scavengers are also called detritus feeders. Vultures,
– Euglena: Phylum Protozoa coyotes, jackals, hyenas and
– Paramecium: Phylum Protozoa wild dogs are scavengers which eat the left over prey or
– Amoeba: Phylum Protozoa dead bodies of hunted
– Sponges: Phylum Porifera animals. Brother Roshan Wadhwani, let me make an
– Hydra: Phylum Coelentrata addition (not a correction)
– Jelly 􀃠sh: Phylum Coelentrata to “Scavangers” here.
– Tapeworm: Phylum Platyhelminthes Environment is made of two components: living
– Ascaris: Phylum Nematode components and non-living
– Hookworm: Phylum Nematode components:
– Filaria: Phylum Nematode
– Snails: Phylum Mollusca Living components include Producers, Consumers and
– Squids: Phylum Mollusca Decomposers.
– Cockroach: Phylum Arthropoda Scavengers and micro-organisms fall into the category of
– Honey bee: Phylum Arthropoda decomposers which
– Mosquito: Phylum Arthropoda feed on dead plants and animals and break them down into
– Butter 􀃠y: Phylum Arthropoda smaller parts.
Your e􀃠ort, anyway, is worthwhile. Keep it up!
Classi_cation Of Vertebrates: __________________
Real richness is that you are so expensive that no one can heterozygous state. Dominant alleles dominate the
buy your character. recessive alleles in
The Baikonur Cosmodrome The Baikonur Cosmodrome , heterozygous state.
also called Recessive:
Tyuratam[1], is the world’s _rst and largest operational Recessive alleles or traits are those which fail to express
space launch facility. It is themselves in
located in the desert steppe of Kazakhstan , heterozygous state. For example r and y are recessive
alleles for wrinkle and
Ecosystem: green seeds.
De_nition: Homozygous:
A natural of habitat or system where living organisms and Homozygous is a condition in which an individual possess
physical components similar alleles for a
of their environment interact with one another and particular trait. For example TT for tallness and tt for
exchange materials so as to dwarfness.
achieve a functional stability is called an ecosystem. Heterozygous:
Characteristics Of Ecosystem: Heterozygous is a condition in which an individual possess
An ecosystem is a basic unit of ecology of living organisms. dissimilar alleles for
An ecosystem may be natural like a pond, lake, stream, a particular trait. For example Tt for tallness.
river, ocean or a forest. Genotype:
It may also be arti_cial like an Aquarian, an arti_cial pond or Genetic make of an organism is called genotype.
an agricultural Phenotype:
_eld. External appearance or expression of genotype is called
A pond is an excellent example of a small ecosystem to phenotype. For
demonstrate example, roundness, wrinkleness of seeds and tall or dwarf
interrelationship between abiotic and biotic component of plants represent
the ecosystem. di_erent phenotype.
Components Of Ecosystem:
i) Abiotic Components Of Ecosystem. Gene:
Following are the abiotic components of ecosystem. De_nition:
a. Light The fundamental unit of heredity, formed as a sequence of
b. Temperature bases in DNA.
c. Water Characteristics Of Genes:
d. Atmosphere and wind Each gene has a de_nite position at the chromosome and
e. Fire may occur as alleles.
f. Soil The name gene was introduced by Johannsen in 1909 and
g. Topography the structure of DNA
h. Gravity was elaborated by Watson and Crick in 1953.
i. Inorganic nutrients
ii) Biotic Factors. Genes determine all the structural and functional characters
Following are the biotic components of ecosystem. of an individual,
a. Producers: Green Plants like eye colour, skin colour, height, weight, blood group,
b. Consumers: Animals and Man hair, intelligence,
c. Decomposers and reducers: Bacteria, fungi temperament and all others.
Types Of Ecosystem: The characters from one generation to other are taken by
There are two main types of ecosystem: genes.
i) Terrestrial Ecosystem: it includes Forest and Desert They sometimes change through the process of mutation.
Ecosystem This gives variety in
characters.
ii) Aquatic Ecosystem: it includes small pool, a pond, The accurate structure of the proteins and enzymes in the
stream, river, lake and an body is determined
oceanic ecosystem by genes.

Heredity: Chromosomes:
Terminology Of Genetics: A chromosome is a rod-like portion of the chromatin of a
Gene: cell nucleus,
The basic unit of hereditary material which is responsible performing an important part in meiotic cell division, and in
for development of a the transmission of
trait. heredity characteristics. Normally they are constant in
Alleles: number for any species;
Alternatives forms of genes are called alleles, e.g. tall there are 22 pairs of chromosomes and two sex
versus dwarf. chromosomes in the human.
Dominant: Types Of Chromosomes: in higher animals and plants,
The dominant alleles are those traits which show complete there are two
expression even in fundamental types of chromosomes, which are classi_ed on
the basis of sex
determination these are: iii) To introduce plants resistant to disease and insect pests
i) Autosomes iv) To introduce verities suited to particular climates and
ii) Sex Chromosomes: soils.
Autosomes: v) To introduce verities resistant to lodging
These are paired somatic chromosomes that play no part in vi) To improve nutritional value of crops
sex determination vii) To save rare varieties of plants by rapid clonal
of organisms. These chromosomes are similar in males and propagation for breeders to
females. use in future.
Sex Chromosomes:
The chromosomes that determine sex in organisms are Teeth:
called sex The humans have two sets of teeth one replaced by the
chromosomes. There are two types of sex chromosomes. second. The primary set
a) X- chromosome or milk or deciduous teeth are 20 in number while there are
b) Y- Chromosome 32 permanent
teeth in adults.
Genetic Engineering: 1. In children there are 20 deciduous or milk teeth. These
The deliberate modi_cation of the characteristics of an are
organism by Incisor: 2 pair × 2= 8
manipulating its genetic material. Canine: 1 pair × 2= 4
OR Premolars: 2 pair× 2=8
Scienti_c alteration of the structure of genetic material in a
living organism. It 2. In adults there are 32 permanent teeth. In each jaw on
involves the production and use of recombinant DNA and each side there
has been employed are:
to create bacteria that synthesize insulin and other human Incisors: 2 pair × 2=8
proteins. Canines: 1 pair × 2=4
Signi_cance Of Genetic Engineering: Premolars: 2 pair × 2=8
i) To Cure the genetic disorders Molars: 3 pair × 2= 12
Heredity diseases can possibly be treated by this technique Incisors:
by transplanting The central front teeth are called incisors. There are four in
normal genes in the place of abnormal or diseased genes upper jaw and four
in lower jaw.
ii) To Prepare Better Crops Canines:
Crops with desired characteristics could possibly be The pointed, dark colored teeth on either side of the
produced by introducing incisors are canines. 2 in
desired genes. upper jaw and 2 in lower jaw.
iii) To Get Better Breeds Of Animals Premolars:
Like plants better breeds of animals can also be produced These are bi-cusped teeth after the canines. There are 8
by the introduction premolars. 4 in the
of recombinant DNA. upper jaw and 4 in the lower.
iv) Interferon Molars:
Interferons are e􀃠ectively used in the treatment of Hepatitis There are 12 molars, 6 in the upper jaw and 6 in the lower
of A & B. jaw.
v) Insulin Structure Of Teeth:
Human insulin is being produced by genetic engineering to Each tooth consists of a crown which is the visible part and
treat diabetes the root, which
vi) Vaccines anchors it in sockets in the jaw. A tooth consists mainly of
Genetic engineering has also helped in the production of dentine. The crown is
vaccines which are coated with even harder enamel, while the root is covered
used for controlling and treating viral diseases. with cementurn to
help another it in the jaw. Inside each tooth, there is a cavity
Biotechnology: full of pulp,
The exploitation of biological processes for industrial and carrying nerves and the tooth’s blood and eats through the
other purposes, esp. dentine to the pulp
the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the when the decay reaches the pulp, pain and in􀃠ammation
production of antibiotics, follows and tooth may
hormones, etc. die.
OR A nerve, an artery, a vein and lymph duct enters the pulp
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms (especially cavity through the
microorganisms) in root canal. The nerves give sensation of hot and cold.
industrial, agricultural, medical and other technological
applications. Antibody:
Importance Of Biotechnology: Antibody is a protein produced by white blood cells that
i) To increases production help to destroy
ii) To introduce improved quality of seeds and plants
bacteria. Antibodies react with the antigens and inactivate – Re_ex actions are the responsed to environmental
or destroy them. A changes both internal and
large number of antibodies are produced in blood which are external and are immediate or automatic and are without
targeted against intervention of will.
various types of antigens. Antigens are foreign molecules, – These re_exes amy be simple or conditioned e.g.
cells, bacteria, viruses watering of mouth on seeing
or fungi which enter the body usually a disease causing or smelling of food.
microorganisms. – Simple re_exes are inborn, inherited or unlearnt
Antibodies are the integral part of the defence mechanism responses to stimuli.
of human body. – The structural and functional basis of simple re_ex is
They are also involved in immunity against disease. called re_ex arc.
– Impulses are carried from receprtors to sensory neurons
Hemophilia: to CNS from where
It is a disease in which the peron have prolonged blood they are passed on via motor neurons to the e􀃠ectors for
clotting time resulting in necessary response.
excessive bleeding fron injury.
It is due to the de􀃠ciency of vitamin K Thermoplastics:
Substances (esp. synthetic resins) that become plastic on
It is a semilethal disease controlled by recessive gene. heating and harden
It is less common in women than in men. on cooling and are able to repeat these processes
OR
Important Facts About Human A type of plastic that can be softened by heat, hardened by
cooling, and then
Physiology: softened by heat over and over again.
The largest gland of the body: Liver Properties of Thermoplastics:
The largest organ of the body: Skin Thermoplastics have wide ranging properties.
The longest bone of the body: Femur – They can be very much like rubber, or as strong as
The total number of bones in the body: 206 aluminium.
The hardest bone of the body: Tooth – are light in weight,
The smallest bone of the body: Stapes – Can withstand temperature extremes of up to 600 F, while
Total number of muscles in the body: 600 others retain their
The _lter of the body: Kidney properties at -100 F. Some
The pump of the Body: Heart – Thermoplastic materials have no known solvents at room
Total number of bones in vertebral column: 33 temperature.
The normal body temperature: 98.4 F (37 C) – Most thermoplastic materials are excellent insulators,
The normal respiratory rate of the Body: 16-18 per min both electrical and
The total volume of blood in body: 4-5 litres thermal.
Total number of bones in face: 14 – Are recyclable materials that are used frequently today to
Vascular connection between foetus and uterus: Placenta create objects such
as foam cups, polyethylene squeeze bottles, acrylic lenses
Brain: and safety helmets.
Human brain is contained in skull. It has three major parts. – In general the combination of light weight, high strength,
i) The Cereberum ot bigger brain and low processing
ii) The Cerebellum or Smaller brain costs make thermoplastics well suited to many applications.
iii) Medulla Oblongata or hind brain Uses:
The cereberum constitutes the major volume of brain. It – They are useful for a variety of applications, including
consists of two large consumer goods,
masses of nervous material known as cereberal machine parts, medical equipment and packaging and
hemispheres. Human storage materials.
consciousness, thought, emotions, sight, will, hearing, Examples:
sensation of pain, • PVC/Vinyl
memory and speech are centere in the creberum. Some • Polystyrene
parts of it also control • Polyethylene
motor nerves, operating the arms and legs. • Cellulose Acetate
• PTFE/Te_on
The cerebellum or the smaller brain is related with the
coordination of action of • Nylon/Polyamide
nerves and muscles. In this way movements of body are • Polyester
manged. Medulla or
hind brain contains the centres for re_ex actions in addition Synthetic Polymers:
to automatic Polymers are composed of very large molecules
movements such as breathing and walking. (macromolecules) formed by
linking together many smaller, more simple units called
Re_ex Action: monomers. There can
be as few as _ve or as many as several thousand
monomers units in a polymer. 1) Input Devices
There are a large number of synthetic polymers prepared The input devices are those devices which send data or
and in use. Some of information to the
these are polyamides(nylon), polyethylene, propylene, Central Processing Unit. The main input devices are:
polyvinylchloride, i) KEYBOARD: It is used to enter text. It contains
synthetic rubber, cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate and alphabetic, numeric and other
silicones. keys for entering data.
ii) MOUSE:It is a pointing device. It controls the pointer on
the screen.
Computer iii) MICROPHONE: It is used to enter voice into the
January 27, 2019 computer.
“The word Computer is derived from compute which means iv) SCANNER: It reads printed text and graphics and then
to calculate. translates the result
In simple and technical term it is an automatic electronic into digital form.
calculating v) DIGITAL CAMERA:It is used to take photos.
vi) PC CAMERA: It is used to create movie and to take
machine that processes or manipulates a given data
according to a photos on the computer.
program or set of instructions and gives a desired output.”
Parts Of A Computer: 2) OUT PUT DEVICES:
The computer is composed of two parts: A hardware component used to display information to the
1) Hardware user output device.
2) Software i) MONITER: It is used to display text, graphics and video
output.
1) Hardware: ii) PRINTER: It is used to display printed output on paper.
All physical components of computer, which can be iii) SPEAKER:It is used to hear sound to hear sound music
touched, measured, have and voice outputs.
weight and occupy space, are collectively called computer
hardware viz; 3) STORAGE DEVICE:
i) Keyboard The hardware components used to store data, instructions
ii) Mouse and information
iii) Joy stick permanently are called storage devices. For example
iv) Scanners 􀃠oppy disk drive, zip drive,
v) Monitor hard disk drive, CD-ROM drives etc.
vi) Printer 4) COMMUNICATION DEVICES:
vii) Central Processing unit etc. It is used to communicate and exchange data, instructions
and information with
2) Software: other computers. For example Modem.
Software can be de􀃠ned as a set of instructions or codes UNITS OF CPU:
written in a de􀃠ned
manner. In other words softwares are prewritten programs, ALU(ARTHMETIC AND LOGICAL
which control the
operations of computer.
UNIT)
ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of instructions takes
OR place in this part. All
arithmetic and logical operations are performed in ALU. It
All programs and data stored on 􀃠oppy disk, Hard disk, consists of two units:
CD-ROM are collectively 1. Arithmetic Unit
called softwares. Examples are; It performs basic arithmetic functions such as addition,
i) DOS subtraction, division.
ii) Window 2. Logical Unit
iii) UNIX It performs logical operations like comparing two data items
iv) XENIX to 􀃠nd which data
v) Linus item is greater than, equal to, or less than the other.
vi) Java
vii) MS O􀃠ce CONTROL UNIT
Devices OR Components Of A It acts like a supervisor of the computer. It does not execute
program
Computer: instruction by itself. It controls and coordinates all activities
The computer is a combination of many parts, each of of computer
which performs speci􀃠c system.
task independently. The major devices of a computer are as
under.
Memory Unit (MU)
It is responsible for storage of data and information. The i) Address Register
memory unit consists ii) Instructions Register
of two types of memory which are RAM and ROM. iii) Storage Register
iv) Accumulator Register
Soft Copy:
Some Important Definitions And It displays the data on screen of monitor. It can be carried in
Short Notes: a _oppy disk. A
change can be made in a soft copy.
RAM:
Hard Copy:
RAM stands for random access memory. It is that part of
The data is printed on paper card etc. with the help of
CPU where temporary
printer. It cannot be
information is stored.
carried in a _oppy disk. No change can be made in hard
Byte:
A group of 8 bits is called a byte. copy.
Icons:
Pictorial objects on the desktop or screen are called Icons.
Mouse: Earth
It is an input device, normally called a “Pointing device”. January 27, 2019

This device is used for

pointing anything on monitor through a blinking cursor.
Features Of Earth:
Software: i) The earth is the _fth largest planet of the solar system,
A set of instructions or codes written in a de_ned manner or where life exists.
prewritten ii) Its equatorial diameter is 7,927 miles.
programs which control the operations of computer. iii) Its polar diameter is 7900 miles.
Control Unit: iv) The earth has average density of 5 ½ g/cc.
A unit of CPU which is responsible for all automatic v) the rotation period of the earth is 23 hours, 56 minutes
operations carried out by and 4 seconds.
the digital computers is called CU. The CU directs and vi) the revolution period of the earth is 365 days.
coordinates all activities vii) The total mass of the earth is 6*1021 tons.
of a computer. viii) The earth is composed of shells or layers, which are,
LAN: the crust, mantle
LAN stands for local area network. It is privately owned and core.
communication network ix) It is surrounded by a blanket of gases, which is
that serves users within a con_rmed geographical area. known as the
The range is usually
atmosphere, mainly composed of Nitrogen and Oxygen.
within a mile-perhaps one o􀃠ce, one building or a group of
x) The surface of the earth is rich in oxygen, silicon, iron,
buildings.
WAN: magnesium,
It stands for wide area network. It is a communication sodium etc.
network that covers a
wide geographical area. The range is usually a state or a
Structure Of The Earth:
country. Examples are The earth comprises of the following layers:
Telenet, Uninet etc. a) The crust
Modem:
Modem is abbreviation of Modulate-de-Modulate. b) Moho discontinuity
Modulation is a process that c) The mantle
converts digital signals into Analog form and Demodulation d) The Core
is a process that
converts Analog signals into digital form. The device which a) The Crust:
performs i) It is the outermost layer of the earth.
modulation and demodulation is called a MODEM. In simple ii) It extends to about 25 miles (40kms) and comprises of
words it is a device rocks.
that converts the digital signals into Analog and then back iii) The crust is divided into the oceanic and the
from Analog to digital continental crust.
form. iv) Out of these the oceanic crust is 808 meter thick and
ALU:
consists of
A unit of CPU that performs arithmetic and logical
sedimentary mud.
operations is called ALU.
Register:
v) The continental crust is divided into upper continental
Registers are high-speed staging areas that temporarily and lower
continental crust
store data during

processing and provide working areas for computation.

b) Moho discontinuity:
Registers are contained in control unit and arithmetic Logic
i) The sharp boundary between the crust and mantle is
Unit. Following are called Moho
the major types of registers: Discontinuity.
 has its night.
c) The Mantle: Longer And Shorter Days:
i) The layer of the earth lying below the crust and above
the core is known
as the mantle. The circular areas near the North and South Pole of the
ii) It is almost 2900 kms (1800 miles) thick and Earth are called
comprises about 80% of the Arctic and Antarctic circles, respectively.
volume of the earth. These are situated at 66 ½0 North and 66 ½0 South of
iii) The chemical composition of the entire mantle is fairly the equator,
homogenous. respectively and form limits of polar region.
iv) However, temperature and pressure increases with On June, the earth is in position A. north pole is inclined
depth. towards the sun
v) The behaviour of the earthquake waves as they travel and south pole is away from it.
through the Obviously any place in Northern Hemisphere will have
mantle further tells us that it consists of several layers longer days
and they are: because it remains in light for more than half the time of
a) Lithosphere earth’s rotation.
b) Asthenosphere Places on equator remains in light for half the time
c) Mesosphere making days and nights
equal in this region.
d) The Core: The southern hemisphere remains in light for less time
than half the
i) The innermost part of the earth is known as the core. rotation of earth so the days are shorter here.
ii) It extends from the base of the mantle to the centre of Positions of days and nights in the northern and
the earth. southern hemisphere are
reversed on 22nd December, when the earth completes
This portion consists of melted iron and nickel that is its half revolution
why it is known as around the sun, so days are longer in southern
Nife. hemisphere than those in
vii) The density of this molten mass of the core is 345 the north
pounds per cubic
feet Change Of Season:
Types Of Movements Of Atmosphere:
The layer of the gases which surrounds the earth is
Earth: known as the
atmosphere.
There are two types of motions of the earth.
One is around its own axis which is called Rotation. One OR
rotation The atmosphere is a thin layer of the gases held to the
completes in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds. earth by the
The other motion of earth is round the sun, and is called gravitational attraction.
revolution of the OR
earth. Atmosphere is the huge blanket of gas that circles the
One revolution completes in 365 days. entire earth.
Northern end of the earth’s axis is called the North Pole
and the Southern
Composition Of The
end is called South Pole. Atmosphere:
An imaginary line drawn round the earth midway The atmosphere consists of:
between the poles is i) Nitrogen: 78.03%
called equator. ii) Oxygen: 20.99%
The path which the earth takes round the sun is called iii) Argon: 0.94%
earth’s orbit iv) CO2: 0.03%
EFFects Of These v) Hydrogen: 0.01%
vi) Neon: 0.0018%
Movements: vii) Helium: 0.0005%
viii) Krypton: 0.0001%
Rotation of earth round its axis cause days and nights. ix) Ozone: 0.000001%
That portion of earth, which is within the circle of
illumination caused by
the rays of sun, has its day.
Layers Of The
The other side earth, which is away from sun, remains
dark and therefore Atmosphere:
The atmosphere of the earth is divided into following northern hemisphere and the Aurora Auralis in the
layers. southern hemisphere
i) Troposphere occur when streams of electrically charged particles from
ii) Stratosphere the sun (solar
wind) ionize the atmosphere gases.
iii) Ionosphere
iv) Exosphere 4) Exosphere:
Ionosphere is sub-divided into: i) The uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending
i) Mesosphere beyond Ionosphere is
ii) Thermosphere called exosphere.

1) Troposphere: ii) Beyond 300 miles is the very rare _eld exosphere
which consists only of
i) Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. scattered atmosphere of O, H and He.
ii) It extends roughly to a height of 8 kms near the poles
and 16-18 kms at Latitude:
the equator.
iii) It is troposphere where the people, plants, animals
and insects live.
De_nition:
It is the distance on the surface of the earth measured in
iv) It is the layer where all weather occurs that’s why it is
degrees north
also referred as
and south of the equator.
“The weather Zone”.
The equator is at zero degree where the poles are at 90
v) In the Troposphere temperature gradually falls with
degree. The
increasing altitude.
latitude of the north pole is 900 North and that of south
vi) There is a thin bu􀃠er zone between the troposphere
pole is 900 South.
and stratosphere
is called tropopause.
Characteristics OF Lines
2) Stratosphere And Of
Ozone Layer: Latitudes:
i) The second layer of the atmosphere is known as the
stratosphere. i) All lines of latitudes are parallel to the equator as well
ii) The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to as parallel to one
about 30-31 mile another.
above ground level. ii) Parallels in the north of the equator are north latitudes
iii) The important ozone layer is found in this region while those in
where heat is the south of equator are known as south latitudes.
generated by absorption of UV. iii) They are drawn on the globe as circles running in
iv) Here the temperature either remains constant or east to west direction.
increases with iv) The length of the equator is the maxim um and it
altitude. goes on reducing till
the pole is only a point.
Stratopause: Longitude
It is the upper boundary of the stratosphere which occurs
beyond 52 kms.
Here the temperature remains constant with increase in Definition:
height. The distance on the earth’s surface measures in
degrees east and west of a
3) Ionosphere: line joining the geographical north and south poles and
passing through
i) The third major layer of the atmosphere is the
ionosphere. Greenwich in England. Greenwich is at zero degrees
ii) It lies above the stratosphere. longitude.
iii) It lies between about 30 and 90 miles above the The sun rays have highest altitude simultaneously on all
surface of the earth the places at a
particular line of longitude as a result of which these are
iv) It is divided into mesosphere and thermosphere. also called as
v) The ionosphere is bombarded by cosmic radiation and
solar x-rays, Meridians (Meridian is a Latin word which means Mid-
which causes the gases in the ionosphere to ionize. way). Among the
vi) Brilliant displays of colored lights in the sky called latitude, equator is the longest and is taken as reference
Aurora Borealis in the line. But all the
lines of longitude are of the same length and selecting a There are three types of volcanoes on the basis of
longitude as lines volcanic activity, which
of reference is a serious problem. are as under.

Earthquake: i) Active Volcanoes:

Earthquakes are those movements of the earth crust
which make the
ground vibrated and shake backwards and forwards or in
simple words an
earthquake is trembling in the earth.
The shocks waves are generated at a point within the
crust called the
focus, and the point on the earth’s surface vertically
above the focus is
called the epicentre of the earthquake. The shock waves
travel in all
directions from the focus. On the earth’s surface, the
shaking is the
strongest near the epicentre. These waves are detected
by seismograph.
Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently
erupt or at least
when they have erupted within recent time.
ii) Dormant Volcanoes:
The volcanoes that have been known to erupt and show
signs of possible
eruption in the future are describes as dormant
volcanoes.
iii) Extinct Volcanoes:
The volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic
times but retain the
features of volcanoes are termed as extinct volcanoes.

Occurrence Of Causes of The

Earthquake: volcanoes
i) Earthquakes occur when rocks subjected to great
stress suddenly break,
Eruptions:
releasing the accumulated energy, which shakes the i) Sea􀃠oor spreading
ground. Vibrations ii) Convergence of lithospheric plates
spread out from the epicentre like ripples in water. iii) Percolation of cold water
ii) It may also be caused by movements of the plates, iv) Orogenic Movements
resulting from v) High temperature in the interior of the Earth Rocks:
convection currents in the hot mantle of the earth.
iii) Earthquakes are also associated with volcanic Igneous Rocks:
activity-eruption of The word igneous means the 􀃠res and the rocks formed
magma. Collapse of mines can also produce small by solidi􀃠cation of
earthquakes. molten rock material known as magma are known as
igneous rocks.
Volcanoes: The 􀃠rst minerals to crystalize out of the melt are high-
temperature
An opening in the earth’s crust through which molten
lava, ash, and gases minerals-the olivines and pyroxenes, which are silicates
are ejected. of magnesium and
iron.
Occurrence Of They tend to be denser than magma and so they sink,
leaving the
Volcanoes: remaining 􀃠uid de􀃠cient in magnesium and iron.
The next group of minerals to solidify are the feldspars
i) Rocks below the Earth have a very high temperature. (silicates minerals
ii) The great pressure upon these keeps them in a semi- of potassium, sodium, calcium and aluminium); the
solid state. magma thus loses its
iii) If the pressure weakens, then some of rocks become metallic constituents 􀃠rst.
liquid. Finally, any remaining silica crystalizes out as quartz.
iv) This liquid is called magma. The entire solidi􀃠cation process therefore results in
v) The magma forces its way into cracks of the crust and dense iron-and
may either reach magnesium-rich rocks and less dense silica rich rocks
the surface of the earth where it forms lava and _ow out. from the same
original 􀃠uid.
Types Of Volcanoes On In this way, di􀃠erent types of rocks can be seen in the
same rock mass
The Basis
The most important igneous rocks are: a) Granite rocks
Of Activity: b) Gabboro rocks c)
Basalt rocks ii) Water pollution
iii) Land pollution
Sedimentary Rocks: iv) Noise pollution
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the deposition and v) Industrial pollution
compaction or vi) Commercial or domestic sector pollution
lithi_cation of rocks and mineral grains derived from vii) Chemical pollution
other rocks. viii) Radioactive pollution (contamination)
These grains broke away from existing rocks by the
action of water, wind
Causes of Pollution
The ultimate cause of pollution is human activity itself.
and ice. Pollution is a human
Many sedimentary rocks begin their existence as loose contribution to nature. Science has evolved technologies
deposits of sand or
and technologies have
gravel at the bottom of a sea or lake, on beach, or in a
desert. helped the human welfare. In the process, the pollution has
Later the sediment is lithi_ed i.e. compressed into a been a part of
rock. technology and therefore a part of human miseries.
Following are the major classes of sedimentary rocks:
i) Calcareous sedimentary rocks Human activities mainly include:
ii) Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks Industries for various human needs – directly and indirectly
iii) Siliceous sedimentary rocks Agriculture for food production and industrial needs
iv) Ferruginous sedimentary rocks Health care for health of human beings and animals
v) Arenaceous sedimentary rocks Transport for mobility of human beings
Dwelling for settlement in city or villages
vi) Argillaceous sedimentary rocks
Energy for various direct human needs and industrial
vii) Rudaceous sedimentary rocks
needs.
Metamorphic Rocks: Pollutants:
The word metamorphic has been derived from two Pollutants are those substances which alter the natural
Greek words Meta composition of the
means change and Morpha means shape. atmosphere or destroy it to harmful level.
Thus metamorphic rocks include those rocks that have
been changed Types Of Pollutants:
either in form or composition without disintegration.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous as well as
1. Primary Pollutants
Primary pollutants are those substances which are directly
sedimentary rocks produced by a
but are di_erent from them. process. These are:

Example: ix) Sulphur oxides

x) Nitrogen oxides
i) Sandstone, made of quartz grains and silica cement, xi) Carbon monoxide (CO)
becomes quartzite, xii) Carbon dioxide
a very hard metaphoric rock that resist weathering. xiii) Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as
ii) Limestone is converted into much denser and harder hydrocarbon fuel vapours and
marble. solvents
iii) Mica, an igneous rock, is converted into schist after xiv) Particulate matter (PM), such as smoke and dust.
metamorphosis. xv) Metal oxides, especially those of lead.
xvi) Chloro_uorocarbons (CFCs)
iv) Sedimentary rock slate is converted into a slightly
xvii) Ammonia (NH3)
higher grade
xviii) Garbage, sewage and industrial wastes.
metamorphic rock phyllite
2. Secondary Pollutants
Environmental Pollution Secondary pollutants are those pollutants which are not
emitted. Rather, they
January 27, 2019 form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact.
“Destabilization of the balance of the atmospheric These are:
composition. i) Ground level ozone (O3)
OR ii) Nitrogen dioxide
“It is an unstable change in the composition of the iii) Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
environment due to its
physical, chemical and biological changes, which is harmful Effects Of Pollution:
for human life and 1) Air Pollution: Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat,
other animals living on the earth.” Increased
respiratory disease, Cancer, Reduced lung functioning,
Types Of Pollution: Premature death. Acid
i) Air pollution rain, Ozone,
2) Water Pollution: Waterborne diseases such as; Typhoid, animal excreta. Wastes from power plants contain
Hepatitis, radioactive materials, hot
diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches, death of aquatic water and minerals which also pollute the water. Soaps,
animals, May disrupt detergents, human
photosynthesis in aquatic plants excreta, animal faeces, wastes from slaughter houses,
3) Soil Pollution: Causes cancers including leukaemia, disease causing microorganisms
developmental damage from patients and chemicals etc. are drained into water
to the brain, kidney damage; depression of the central which
nervous system, Also causes massive water pollution.
causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin Two Important Industries Of Pakistan
rash, Contamination
of crops, reduce crop yields. Causing Water Pollution:
1) One of the biggest sources of water pollution is the
Water Pollution: tanning and leather
De_nition: industry. The industry uses toxic chromium metal and many
“The presence of undesirable substances into fresh and other toxic
natural water which substances/chemicals. These toxins are released in natural
cause harmful diseases in human beings as well as aquatic waters. E􀃠uent of
life is called water this industry has polluted ground water and water of nearby
pollution.” rivers. This
Types Of Water Pollution: industry is frequent in Kasur and Sialkot area.
Following are the major types of water pollution. 2) Pesticide industry in Kala Shah Kaku near Lahore
i) Sea-water Pollution releases huge quantity of
ii) River water Pollution acids, pesticides and other dangerous wastes. These
iii) Land Water Pollution wastes are getting entry
into a stream 􀃠owing nearby. The water of the stream is
Causes Of Water Pollution: dangerously polluted.
1) Pollution Through Domestic Activities: This water ultimately goes to the rivers.
Domestic activities pollute the water when following kinds of
wastes are added. Effects:
i) Soap and detergents i) Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms are carried in
ii) Chemicals used in the houses polluted water. The
iii) Waste from slaughter house diseases caused by them are as under:
iv) Waste from hospitals a) Bacteria: Typhoid, cholera, Dysentery, enteritis.
v) Waste from bakeries b) Viruses: Hepatitis, Polio, Viral enteritis.
vi) Human and animal faeces c) Protozoa: Amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea.
vii) Waste food d) Parasitic worms: Schistostomiasis
2) Pollution Through Industrial Activities: ii) It causes death of aquatic animals.
Industrial sector is a great source of pollution of water and iii) It decreases the fertility of the soil and results in low
air. Many industrial production.
units produce waste materials in the shape of solids, liquids
and gases. The
Methods To Control Water Pollution:
industrial wastes are. Di􀃠erent methods can be used to control water pollution.
i) Poisonous gases i) The whole sewage waste should be dumped after any
ii) Acids, bases and harmful salts treatment.
iii) Pesticides and plastics ii) Sewage treatment plants should be installed in cities.
iv) Radioactive wastes iii) The sewage waste must not be drained in river to save
v) Toxic wastes from fertilizer factories water from pollution.
vi) Wastes from chemical factories iv) Industrial waste should be treated before reaching
natural water.
Water Pollution In Pakistan: v) Industries should be established away from cities and
In Pakistan people do not take pain to dispose the waste rivers.
materials in a proper vi) Nuclear dumping in oceans should be banned.
way. Instead of dumping wastes in the drums and places vii) Modern scienti􀃠c methods should be used in agriculture
meant for them they
Deforestation:
freely throw these into the water drains. It is the process of destruction of the forests.
Water pollution is very prominent and widespread as a Causes Of Deforestation:
result of urban and A number of agents are responsible for removal of forests.
industrial activity. Sewage waste from cities and industrial These are 􀃠res.
waste are the main Droughts or animals. The principle agent of deforestation is
factors of water pollution. Many other kinds of wastes which man himself.
pollute water are Humans are cutting forests to colonize the forest areas or to
from agricultural lands which contain pesticides, waste prepare more
foods, fertilizers and agricultural lands or for getting food.
E_ects Of Deforestation: ii) De_ciency: Skin problems, Nervous system disorders,
i) Deforestation has many bad e􀃠ects on human life. With Muscle spasms,
destruction of the Sleeplessness.
forest the process of cleaning of air and production of iii) Source: Meat, _sh, poultry, vegetables, fruits etc.
oxygen is badly a􀃠ected. 6. Vitamin B12 (Cynocobalamin)
ii) Forests are major agents of evaporation and rainfall. With
i) Role: it is important for carbohydrate and fat metabolism,
deforestation
growth of child and
rainfall is decreased.
formation of blood.
iii) With cutting of forests, pollution is increasing as the
ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes “anaemia”
hazardous gases are not
iii) Source: Meat, poultry, _sh, seafood, eggs, milk.
completely absorbed by plants.
iv) With deforestation carbon dioxide is increasing which is 7. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
causing global i) Role: It is essential for protection of bones and for healthy
warming. teeth and gums.
v) With reduction in area of forest, soil erosion is taking ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes “Scurvy”
place resulting in 􀃠oods iii) Source: Citrus fruit, guava, pineapple, tomatoes,
which destroy crops and human life. spinach, turnips,
vi) Deforestation has badly damaged wild life and reduced strawberry.
recreation sites
8. Vitamin D:
i) Role: It is very important for the growth of children.
Functions Of Vitamins ii) De_ciency: Its de_ciency causes “Rickets” in children
January 27, 2019 and Osteoporosis in
adults.
1. Vitamin A iii) Source: Egg yolk, liver, _sh, milk
i) Role: Vitamin A plays an important role in growth and
body repair, keeps the
skin smooth and essential for vision. 9. Vitamin E:
ii) De_ciency: it de_ciency causes “Night Blindness”. i) Role: it plays an important role in wound healing,
iii) Source: Forti_ed milk, butter, eggs, cream, leafy prevention of sterility,
vegetables, carrot. breaking blood clots and prevents damage of cells due to
aging.
2. Vitamin B1 ii) Source: Leafy green vegetables, soya bean, cotton seed,
i) Role: it is an energy building vitamin, help in the digestion liver, egg yolk, nuts
of carbohydrates, etc.
keep the heart and muscle stable and necessary for nerves. iii) De_ciency: its de_ciency slows down the formation of
ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes Beri Beri, muscular RBCs.
weakness, cramps and
heart swelling. 10. Vitamin K:
iii) Source: Pork, cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds. i) Role: essential for blood clotting.
ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes “Blood clotting Disorder”
3. Vitamin B2 (Ribo_avin) iii) Source: Leafy green vegetables, milk, _sh, liver, alfalfa
i) Role: It is important in forming RBCs, protection of mouth
and mucous
membrane and skin. Greenhouse Effect
ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes “Pellagra” January 27, 2019
iii) Source: Milk, leafy green vegetables, cereals etc. The heating that occurs when gases such as carbon
dioxide trap heat escaping
4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) from the Earth and radiate it back to the surface; so-called
because the gases
i) Role: Helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates, fats are transparent to sunlight but not to heat and thus act like
and proteins, very the glass in a
essential for the DNA synthesis, used to lower elevated greenhouse.
LDL cholesterol and OR
triglyceride levels in the blood, boosts the level of HDL, the The overall warming of the earth’s lower atmosphere
‘good’ cholesterol, in primarily due to carbon
the body, essential for the proper digestion of the food etc. dioxide and water vapour which permit the sun’s rays to
ii) De_ciency: its de_ciency causes Loss of appetite, heat the earth, but
Indigestion, Skin lesions, then restrict some heat-energy from escaping back into
Mental imbalance etc. space.
iii) Source: Meat, poultry, _sh, cereals, vegetables, peanuts,
butter etc. Greenhouse Gases:
i) Carbon dioxide CO2
5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) ii) Methane
i) Role: it is essential for the production of antibodies, for iii) Water Vapour
the CNS and help in iv) Chloro Fluoro-Carbon (CFC)
protein metabolism in the body.
v) Nitrous oxide The main causes of global warming, in order of the
magnitude of their impact,
Mechanism OF Greenhouse Effects: are:
Our Earth receives most of its energy, called radiation, from 1. Carbon Dioxide from:
the Sun. A. Fossil Fuel
This energy is electromagnetic radiation in the form of B. Deforestation
Visible light, with small C. Failing Sinks
amounts of Infrared (IR) and Ultraviolet (UV).
The incoming Visible solar energy has a very short
2. Methane from:
wavelength and passes right A. Cattle and Rice Paddies
B. the Arctic Tundra
through the atmosphere. C. Clathrates
The Earth’s surface absorbs the solar energy and releases 3. Nitrogen Oxides from Farming
it back to the 4. Other Gases
atmosphere as Infrared (IR) radiation, some of which goes
right back into space. Effects OF Global Warming:
But some of the IR radiation emitted by the Earth is When it comes to global warming, harmful e􀃠ects like
absorbed by greenhouse melting polar ice caps,
gases in the atmosphere and sent back towards the Earth’s weather changes, and an increase in diseases are
surface. changing the world and will
That warms the Earth’s surface. Three main gases in our ultimately a􀃠ect your life. Below is the list of e􀃠ects that
atmosphere that global warming is
contribute to the greenhouse e􀃠ect are carbon dioxide, having on environment, climate and human kind.
methane, and water. 1. Melting of glaciers:
These gases absorb the infrared radiation emitted by the The melting of glaciers will create plethora of problems for
Earth and re-radiate human kind and the
the energy as heat back towards the Earth, causing a animals living in the earth. Due to increased global
warming known as the warming, the level of the sea
greenhouse e􀃠ect. will rise which will lead to _ooding and this will in turn create
The warming due to greenhouse gases is expected to havoc in human
increase as humans add life. Apart from raising the sea levels, it will also endanger
more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. several species of
Sources Of Greenhouse Gases: animals and thus will hamper the balance of the ecosystem.
Moreover these
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colourless gas that’s a by-
large glaciers re_ect light back into the space and with
product of the combustion
meltdown of these
of organic matter. Today human activities are pumping
glaciers, earth will be further warmed.
huge amounts of CO2
into the atmosphere, resulting in an overall increase in 2. Climate Change:
carbon dioxide Irregular weather patterns have already started showing
concentrations. results. Increased
Methane occurs naturally when organic material precipitation in the form of rain has already been noticed in
decomposes. Man-made polar and sub Polar
processes produce methane in several ways: Regions. More global warming will lead to more evaporation
By extracting it from coal which will cause
From large herds of livestock (i.e., digestive gases) more rains. Animals and plants cannot easily adapt to
From the bacteria in rice paddies increase rainfall. Plants
Decomposition of garbage in land_lls may die due to it and animals may migrate to other areas,
Importance Of Greenhouse Effect: which can cause
entire ecosystem out of balance.
Following is the importance of greenhouse e􀃠ect.
i) Without greenhouse e􀃠ect, the Earth would not be warm 3. Droughts:
enough for humans Large scale evaporation will be the major cause of droughts
to live. in many places
ii) Without greenhouse gases, heat would escape back into particularly Africa. Although, it is reeling under the huge
space and Earth’s pressure of water
average temperature would be about 600 F colder. crisis, increased global warming would further make the
Global Warming: situation worse and
A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s will cause malnutrition.
atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse e􀃠ect caused by
4. Diseases:
As the temperature becomes warmer, it will have an e􀃠ect
increased levels of on the health of
carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants humans and the diseases they are exposed to. With the
Causes Of Global Warming: increase in the rainfall,
water borne diseases are likely to spread specially malaria. ii) Source: Eggs, leafy vegetables, 􀃠sh, milk and dairy
The earth will products.
become warmer and as a result heat waves are likely to iii) De_ciency: Anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, muscle
increase that will cause problem, nausea,
a major blow to the people particularly in Europe premenstrual problem.
4. Phosphorus:
5. Hurricanes frequency: i) Role: it is important for healthy bone tissues.
As the temperature of the oceans rises, hurricanes and ii) Source: Dairy products, fruits, meat, pulses, leafy
other storms are likely vegetables.
to become stronger. With the increase in the global iii) De_ciency: Anaemia, demineralization of bones,
warming the water in the nerve disorder,
ocean warms up and it heats up the surrounding air, respirator problem, weakness, weight loss.
creating hurricanes. More
water evaporation means more hurricanes.
5. Potassium:
i) Role: it is essential for intracellular 􀃠uid, maintenance
6. Agriculture: of electrical
Global warming will a􀃠ect agriculture. Although the results potential of the nervous system and functioning of
are not visible yet, muscle and nerve
but it may show its colours in years to come. As the global tissues.
temperature will ii) Source: Cereals, co􀃠ee, fresh fruits, meat,
increase plants will 􀃠nd it harder to survive and will die. vegetables, whole-grains,
Plants are the major 􀃠our.
source of food for human beings and as a result food iii) De_ciency: General muscle paralysis and metabolic
shortage will occur. The disorder.
shortage of the food may lead to war and con􀃠icts in some
countries. 6. Sodium:
Steps To Control Global Warming: i) Role: it is necessary for the control of the volume of
i) Use Public Transport: extra cellular 􀃠uid in
ii) Use Renewable Energy Like Wind Power: the body maintenance of pH of the body, and electrical
iii) Burn Methane: potentials of the
iv) Use Smart Cooler, Heater & Air Conditioner nervous system.
v) Tune up and maintain vehicles properly ii) Source: Bakery products, Table salts
vi) Reduce electricity usage to the maximum iii) De_ciency: Low blood pressure, general muscle
vii) Prefer recycling weakness, respiratory
problems.
Minerals
January 27, 2019
Ozone Depletion
1. Calcium: January 27, 2019

i) Role:
a) It is essential constituent of bones and teeth.
Ozone:
Ozone is a highly reactive and unstable gas, which is formed by the
b) It is vital for metabolic process such as nerve function, recombination of oxygen (O2)
muscle atoms in the presence of intense radiation. Its symbol is O3.
contraction, and blood clotting. Ozone Layer:
ii) Source: Dairy Products The ozone layer is a naturally occurring zone found in the
iii) De_ciency: Osteomalacia (softening of bones), stratosphere, situated between 10-15 kms
Osteoporosis, Rickets, above the surface of the Earth. The main function of the ozone
Tetany. layer is to act as a shield against
ultraviolet (UV) radiations from the Sun because these rays are
2. Iron: harmful to life.
i) Role: It is the key constituent of haemoglobin which
helps in transfer of
Ozone Depletion:
oxygen. Destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer which
ii) Source: Eggs, Green Vegetables, Forti􀃠ed foods, shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation
Cereals, White 􀃠our, harmful to life. …
Liver, Meat, Nuts, Peas. Causes Of Ozone Layer Depletion:
iii) De_ciency: Anaemia, Increased susceptibility to The Main Ozone-Depleting Substances
infection.
3. Magnesium (ODS)
Chloro􀃠uorocarbons (CFCs)
The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total
i) Role: it is essential for healthy bones; muscles and stratospheric ozone depletion.
nervous tissues. It is Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners
in buildings and cars manufactured
needed for functioning of approx. 90 enzymes.
before 1995. Uranus and Neptune.
Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital All the planets revolve around the sun in their orbits.
sterilants. Meteorite analysis shows that the age of solar system is
Also used in foam products — such as soft-foam padding (e.g. about 4530 million
cushions and mattresses) and rigid years.
foam (e.g. home insulation). The sun is not the largest star of the Milky Way; rather it is
Halons an average sized
Used in some 􀃠re extinguishers, in cases where materials and star.
equipment would be destroyed by
It is not at the centre of the galaxy but shifted towards a
water or other 􀃠re extinguisher chemicals. In B.C., halons
cause greater damage to the ozone layer
side.
than do CFCs from automobile air conditioners. The diameter of the sun is 1, 392, 140 km and its mass is 2
Methyl Chloroform * 1027 tonnes.
Used mainly in industry — for vapour degreasing, some The outermost layer of the sun is called photosphere, has
aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives and an average
chemical processing. temperature of 5570 0C.
The photosphere rotates at a rate of 25.38 days per turn.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Used in solvents and some 􀃠re extinguishers. At the centre of the sun hydrogen is undergoing nuclear
Hydro 􀃠uorocarbons (HCFCs) fusion reaction which
HCFCs have become major, “transitional” substitutes for provides energy for the heat and light so sun.
CFCs. They are much less harmful to The planets of the solar system as well as the moons get
stratospheric ozone than CFCs are. But HCFCs they still cause light and sometimes
some ozone destruction and are heat from the sun.
potent greenhouse gases. The four inner planets of the solar system are called
OR terrestrial plants because
of their rocky nature.
The cause of ozone depletion is the increase in the level of
The outer planets are called gaseous planets because they
free radicals such as hydroxyl radicals,
don’t have solid
nitric oxide radicals and atomic chlorine and bromine. The
most important compound, which
surface and are composed of gases.
accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion of ozone in the Planets And Their Characteristics:
stratosphere are chloro􀃠uorocarbons
(CFC). These compounds are very stable in the lower 1. Mercury
atmosphere of the Earth, but in the Its distance from Sun is 58 million kms.
stratosphere, they break down to release a free chlorine atom Its revolution period is 88 days.
due to ultraviolet radiation. A free Its rotation period is 58 days, 15 hours and 30 minutes.
chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3) and forms It has no moon.
chlorine monoxide (ClO) and a It is the nearest planet to the sun.
molecule of oxygen. Now chlorine monoxide reacts with an It is also the smallest planet of the solar system.
ozone molecule to form a chlorine atom It is the fastest planet.
and two molecules of oxygen. The free chlorine molecule again Its radius is 2,433 kms and diameter is 4,878 kms.
reacts with ozone to form chlorine It is covered with holes called Craters.
monoxide. The process continues and the result is the
It has no atmosphere.
reduction or depletion of ozone in the
The temperature on mercury vary between 420 0C (7900F)
stratosphere.
in the day and -180
Effects Of Ozone Depletion 0C (-2900F) at nights.
Following are the major e􀃠ects of ozone layer depletion.
i) It will increase the risk of skin cancer 2. Venus
ii) It has resulted in melanomas, a kind of tumour. Apart from the moon, Venus is the brightest object in the
iii) It greatly a􀃠ects eyes and produces disease of vision. sky. Venus can be
iv) It suppresses immunity system of human beings. seen with naked eye in the morning or in the evening.
v) UV rays damage various crops. Following are the main
vi) It kills plankton and 􀃠sh larvae. characteristics of the Venus.
vii) It causes sunburn in human beings. Its distance from the Sun is 108 million kms.
viii) It causes spotting of leaves in plants and trees, thus Its revolution period is 224.7/225 days.
decreases productivity of the plants. Its rotation period is 243 days and 14 hours (longest day)
It has no moon.
It is the nearest neighbour of the earth in the solar system.
Solar System It is the brightest planet.
January 27, 2019 It is also the hottest planet.
The solar system is the family of the sun, planets revolving Its diameter is 12,102 kms.
around it, the It is wrapped in thick clouds of CO2 gas.
satellites of the planets and the asteroids or meteoroids and It rotates from east to west as opposite to most other
comets etc. planets.
There are eight planets in the solar system.
Starting from the sun there are Mercury, Venus, Earth, 3. Earth
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
The earth is the largest and the densest of the four The planet was discovered by William Herschel in March
terrestrial planets. It is the 1787.
most wonderful planet of the solar system. Following are Its distance from Sun is 2869.9 million kms.
the features of the Revolution period is 84 years.
Rotation period is 16h, and 10 mins.
Earth. It has 27 moons.
Its distance from the Sun is 150 million kms. Titania is the largest moon of Uranus.
Its revolution period is 365 ¼ days. It has an atmosphere which is dominated by hydrogen and
Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 40 seconds. helium.
It has one moon. Its diameter is 52, 400 km.
It is the densest planet. 8. Neptune
It is also the watery and bios planet. Neptune was discovered by the German astronomer
Its diameter is 12756 km (7927 miles equatorial and 7900 Johann Galle.
miles polar diameter) Distance from Sun 4496, 6 million kms.
It has atmosphere which contains 78% Nitrogen, and 21% Revolution period 165 years (largest year)
Oxygen. Rotation period 18 hours.
Its two-thirds surface is covered with oceans. Neptune has 13 moons that we know of. The largest moon
The earth’s surface is rich in Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, is Triton.
Iron, Calcium, Sodium It is the coldest planet.
etc. It is the slowest to move around the sun.
4. Mars Its diameter is 49,100 kms.
It is known as the twin of Uranus due to their similarity of
Distance form sun 228 million kms.
size, mass and
Revolution period 687 days.
composition.
Rotation period 24 h, 37 min and 22 sec.
It has two moons Phobos and Deimos. Short Note (Solar System)
Its diameter is 6794 kms. Lunar Eclipse:
Mars is covered with red dust. The partial or complete obscuration of light of moon for an
It has an atmosphere composed almost entirely of CO2. observer on the
Its average temperature is -53 0C. earth is called lunar eclipse.
5. Jupiter Lunar eclipse takes place when the earth comes in position
between the sun
Its distance from sun is 778 million kms. and the moon. In this way, the shadow of the earth is cast
Revolution period 12 years. on the moon and the
Rotation period 9h, 50min, and 30 sec. (smallest day) moon does not get sunlight in this position.
It has 63 moons.
It is the largest planet of the solar system.
Lunar eclipse occurs only when there is full moon. But this
It has the largest number of satellites.
does not happen on
Its diameter is 1, 24,800 kms.
every full moon because of inclination of the axis of earth to
Its diameter is eleven times greater than the earth’s
its orbit.
diameter.
It has a dense, cloudy atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. Solar Eclipse:
It has a rock-iron-ice core about 15, 000 km (9,000 miles) Solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes in between the
thick. Sun and the earth
Jupiter radiates 67% more heat than it receives from the and its shadow is cast across the face of the earth.
sun. this is mainly due The solar eclipse occurs when the moon moves to a
to dissipation of the primordial heat of the planet. position between the Sun
and the Earth. During this process it throws shadow on the
earth. This shadow
6. Saturn is categorized in umbral and penumbra. The people who
In 1610, Galileo became the _rst person to look at Saturn are in the umbral
through telescope. region are unable to see the sun at all. This condition is
Distance from Sun 1427 million kms. known as the total
Revolution period 30 years. eclipse of the sun. While the people in penumbra region
Rotation period 10h, 14 mins. can see the sun partly
It has 62 moons. this is known as the partial eclipse of the sun.
The largest moon of Saturn is the Titan and it is the second- This happens with the new moon when the moon is in
largest moon in the conjunction with the sun.
solar system. Titan is larger than the planet Mercury. this does not happen at every new moon because of the
It is the second largest planet. inclination of the orbit
It has a magni_cent system of rings. of the moon to the orbit of earth around the sun.
Its diameter is 1, 20, 000 km.
Asteroids:
7. Uranus Asteroids are also known as planetoids. These are small,
When sky is very dark and very clear Uranus can be seen irregularly shaped
with the naked eyes.
rocky objects which orbit the Sun between the orbits of Black Hole is a hypothetical region in space which has a big
Mars and Jupiter. gravitational pull for
Asteroids are also known as the minor planets. which no matter or radiation can escape from it. Even it is
Basically the word Asteroid means “Starlike”. Ceres believed that light
asteroid was the _rst to be cannot escape from it. Black Hole usually likes at the centre
discovered. of galaxy.
Meteorites: Super Nova:
Meteorites are small chunks of iron and rock thought to be A Super Nova is an exploding star. At the end of its phase
resulted from as a Red Giant, a
collisions between asteroids. They also may be formed heavy star explodes as a Supernova shining brie􀃠y as
when comets brightly as a thousand
disintegrate into fragments. Meteorites enter the earth’s million stars. Recent Supernova was observed on the night
atmosphere and of Feb 23, 1987. This
become a meteor. A meteor is a “falling star” that is usually occurred in Large Magellanic Cloud.
seen in the sky at
night. A meteor will burn up from frictional heating as it Nebula:
enters the atmosphere. Nebula is derived from a Greek word which means “Cloud”.
Most of the meteors burn up before they reach the earth. If In the sky there are
they do not reach clouds like objects, which are classi􀃠ed as Nebulae. There
the ground they become meteorites. Meteorites can be are both luminous
seen at a distance of 70 di􀃠use nebulae and dark obscuring nebulae over the Milky
miles from the earth. Meteorites are heavy objects which Way. They are made
weigh about 60 tons. up of dust and gases.
Comets: Aurora:
Comets are those bodies which revolve round the sun. they Aurora or Kutub-i-Raushani is a luminous meteoric
are mainly phenomenon of electrical
composed of ice and dust. Most comets have three parts character seen in Polar Regions with a tremulous motion
which are as under. and giving forth
i) A solid centre. streams of eight Aurora. It is generally believed that the
ii) A head or round coma, that surrounds the centre and aurora is actually
consists of dust caused by radiation from the Sun-spots.
particles mixed with frozen water, frozen methane and
frozen water, frozen
Solar Wind:
methane and frozen ammonia.
iii) A long tail of dust and gases that escape from the head. Solar wind is the stream of electrically charged particles
Most comets stay especially protons and
near the solar system. electrons, which are emitted by the Sun, predominantly
Other characteristics of comets are as under: during solar 􀃠ares and
Comet is usually about 10 km or 6 miles across sunspots activity. Some of these particles become trapped
in the Earth’s
Comets are usually made up of ice and dust. magnetic 􀃠eld forming the outer Van Allen radiation belt,
Millions of comets are present in the solar system. but some penetrate
Halley’s comet is the famous example. into the upper atmosphere where they congregate in narrow
Comets usually move around the sun in the elliptical orbits. zones in the
region of the Earth’s magnetic poles producing aurora
Light Year: displays.
The distance travelled by light at speed of 186,000 miles
per seconds in one
Cosmic Rays:
year is known as a light year. One light year is Cosmic Rays are charged particles moving as fast as the
approximately 9461,000 million speed of light. Most of
kilometres or 5875000 miles. Light year is also used to the particles are protons, while some are alpha particles
measure the distance and electrons. They
between the galaxies. travel throughout our galaxy, including the solar system and
some strike the
Astronomical Unit: earth’s atmosphere. They can be detected by instruments
The distance between the Sun and the Earth is called as on the Earth. Nobody
Astronomical Unit. This knows how cosmic rays are formed. Some of them are
unit is also used in the measurement of distances between formed by exploding
the heavenly bodies stars or supernova and some come from outside our
within the solar system. The earth is one A.U away from the Galaxy
Sun and the Pluto is
39 A.U away from the Earth.
Space related Important Definitions
Black hole: January 27, 2019

Cosmology:
Cosmology is the science of the cosmos or universe. Definition Of Energy:
OR “Energy is an agent which is responsible to do work.”
Cosmology is the branch of physical science which deals OR
with the Universe. “The capacity or ability of doing some work is known as energy.”
Universe: Kinds OR Types Of Energy:
The universe is the sum total of all that exists, or has i) Kinetic energy: The energy due to motion of a body is called
existed, both in space and Kinetic Energy.
time. Example: i) Moving ball can break a glass window ii) A striking
Galaxy: hammer can drive a nail.
A galaxy is a system of many thousands of millions of stars ii) Potential Energy: the energy which is possessed by a body
together with interstellar by means of its position is known as
gas and dust. potential energy.
OR iii) Mechanical Energy: Energy of an object due to its motion or
Galaxy is a fundamental unit of the universe. It is composed position
of hundreds of OR
thousands of stars together with intra-stellar gas and dust. A combination of kinetic and potential energy resulting from the
Star: force of gravity or the movement or
release of a machine component, such as a spring, clamp, or
Those heavenly bodies which are luminous and produce
wheel.
their own energy by
iv) Chemical energy: energy in a substance that can be
nuclear reactions are called stars. released by a chemical reaction. For
• Proximal Centauri second nearest after Sun to the Earth. example: coal, petroleum are the source of chemical energy.
• Antares is one of the largest stars known.
Solar system: v) Electrical energy: energy made available by the 􀃠ow of
A tiny system of our galaxy which consists of the /sun, a electric charge through a conductor.
planet and their vi) Heat energy: a form of energy that is transferred by a
satellites, thousands of miniature planets called asteroids, di􀃠erence in temperature.
meteoroids, comets, vii) Solar energy: Radiant energy emitted by the sun.
viii) Hydropower energy: The energy in 􀃠owing water is called
interplanetary dust and plasma. Hydropower Energy.
Satellite: ix) Nuclear energy: The energy released by a nuclear reaction,
Those heavenly bodies which revolve round the planets are especially by 􀃠ssion or fusion.
called satellites. Energy Resources:
Eclipse: Energy resources can be divided into two categories.
In astronomy, the term eclipse simply means the obscuring 1) Renewable Resources Of energy
of one heavenly 2) Non-Renewable Resources Of energy
body by another, particularly that of the sun or a planetary Renewable Resources Of Energy:
satellite. Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural
Lunar Eclipse: sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and
A condition when the earth comes in between the sun and can be generated again and again as and when required. They
the moon and are available in plenty and by far
throws its shadow on the moon is called lunar eclipse. most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet.
Solar Eclipse: For e.g.: Energy that we receive from
A condition when the moon comes in between the sun and the sun can be used to generate electricity. Similarly, energy
the moon and from wind, geothermal, biomass from
throws its shadow on the moon is called Solar Eclipse. plants, tides can be used this form of energy to another form.
Astrology: OR
The resources of energy which can be used again and again
Astrology is the interpretation of the in_uence of planets
are known as renewable resources.
and stars on human These are:
lives. i) Solar energy: Solar energy is the energy derived from the
Asteroids: sun through the form of solar radiation.
Small, irregular shaped rocky objects which orbit the sun ii) Wind energy: Wind power is the conversion of wind energy
between the orbits of into a useful form of energy, such as
Mars and Jupiter are called Asteroids. using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills…
Meteorites: iii) Hydropower energy: Energy in water can be harnessed and
Tiny chunk of material _oating in space which can also used. Since water is about 800
enter the earth’s times denser than air, even a slow 􀃠owing stream of water, or
atmosphere and become meteor are known as meteorites. moderate sea swell, can yield
Comets: considerable amounts of energy.
The bodies mainly composed of ice and dust which revolve iv) Tidal energy: Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form
round the sun are of hydropower that converts the
called comets. energy of tides into useful forms of power – mainly electricity.
v) Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy is power extracted
from heat stored under the earth’s
Energy crust. This power source is generally cost e􀃠ective, usually
January 27, 2019 reliable, mostly sustainable, and generally
environmentally friendly.

Non-Renewable Resources Of Energy:
Non-Renewable energy is energy which is taken from the
sources that are available on the earth in
limited quantity and will vanish 􀃠fty-sixty years from now. Non-
renewable sources are not
environmental friendly and can have serious e􀃠ect on our
health. They are called non-renewable
because they can not be re-generated within a short span of
time. Non-renewable sources exist in
the form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal.
OR
The resources of energy which can be used for a particular
period of time, after that they may not be
available for the use of man. These include:
i) Coal: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black
sedimentary rock formed from fossilized
plants. Coal consists of amorphous carbon with various
organic and some inorganic compounds and
is normally occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal
beds.
ii) Gas: Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon
gases that occurs with petroleum
deposits consisting primarily of methane. It is found with other
fossil fuels and in coal beds and is
created by the decay of methanogenic organisms in marshes,
bogs, and land_lls. Lower
temperatures are likely to produce more petroleum, and higher
temperatures are likely to produce
more natural gas.
iii) Oil: Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a naturally
occurring toxic combustible liquid primarily
made up of hydrocarbons. Petroleum is the result of partial
decay of living organisms occurring in
the rock strata of certain geological formations.
iv) Nuclear fuels: Nuclear power is produced by controlled
nuclear _ssion (splitting atoms). In most
cases nuclear power plants use nuclear _ssion reactions to
heat water, using the steam to produce
electricity. Uranium, speci_cally, uranium -235, is one of the
few elements easily _ssioned.
v) Wood: Wood and wood products used as fuel, including
round wood (cord wood), limb wood,
wood chips, bark, sawdust, forest residues, charcoal, pulp
waste, and spent pulping liquor.
Short Notes (Energy)
Non-Conventional Sources Of Energy:
Non-conventional sources of energy are those sources of
energy which are not in common use at
this time but are being considered or explored to bring to
routine use in the future. With the
exhaustion of conventional sources of energy the search for
non-conventional sources of energy
have been intensi_ed.
Conventional sources of energy are coal, gas, oil, wood and
nuclear fuels. These sources are in
routine use nowadays.
Non-conventional sources of energy are solar energy,
geothermal energy. Wind energy, tidal energy
and ocean thermal gradient.
Solar Energy:
The energy of the sun is called solar energy. It has been
estimated that on the average 180,000
kilowatts solar energy is falling per square kilometre of the
earth. Solar energy is utilized in two
ways.
A solar furnace contains thousands of mirrors to focus the sun
rays. In this solar heater produces
heat used in industry or houses. The heaters heat up water or
air. Solar energy can also be used
indirectly. Solar cells made up of panels of semi-conductors
(usually silicon) are used which when
illuminated by sun generate electricity. These kinds of cells
have frequently been used in space
probe. They have not become popular in domestic side due to
high cost.
Wind Energy:
Energy obtained from wind by using wind mills is called wind
energy. The wind rotates generated
which produce electricity.
Previously wind mills were used for grinding grains. The
rotating wings of a wind mill can be
attached to a magnet which gives an electric current with
rotation. Low power, high cost and
uncertainties of weather had not made power generation
through wind power.
Geothermal energy:
Heat energy obtained from the hot molten metals inside the
earth crust serves as the source of
thermal energy. This type of energy is present in the form of
hot water and steam. Geothermal
electricity plants change the geothermal energy into electricity.
Hot water of springs is being used for
power generation particularly in USA, Italy, and Japan etc.
furthermore; hot springs are used as
geysers for heating the houses.
Nuclear Energy:
The most concentrated form of energy is in the atomic nuclei.
This energy can be released by the
processes of 􀃠ssion or fusion.
Fusion reactions have been producing electricity in commercial
quantities for about 30 years. In
Pakistan we have got only one 􀃠ssion nuclear reactor located
at Karachi which generates 137
megawatt of power to meet ur future domestic and industrial
needs, we will have to generate
electricity from nuclear plants using (Uranium U-235) and
plutonium s fuel
Tidal Energy:
Energy which is obtained through the tidal waves of the sea is
called tidal energy. Tidal waves of sea
strike the shore constantly. These waves are used to run
electric generators which produce
electricity. The kinetic energy of the tides is also used to
produce other forms of mechanical work.
Tidal power station traps high tides behind a barrage. The
water 􀃠ows through turbines.