An Internet Standard is a normative specification of a technology or methodology applicable to

the Internet. Internet Standards are created and published by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF).

An Internet Standard is documented by a Request for Comments (RFC) or a set of RFCs. A

specification that is to become a Standard or part of a Standard begins as an Internet Draft,
and is later, usually after several revisions, accepted and published by the RFC Editor as an RFC
and labeled a Proposed Standard..

Three organizations under the Internet Society are responsible for the actual work of standards
development and publication:

1. Internet Architecture Board (IAB): Responsible for defining the overall architecture of the
Internet, providing guidance and broad direction to the IETF.

2. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): The protocol engineering and development arm of
the Internet.

3. Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG): Responsible for technical management of IETF
activities and the Internet standards process.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF):

 The Internet Engineering Task Force is a loosely self-organized group of people who
make technical and other contributions to the engineering and evolution of the Internet
and its technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet
standard specifications. Its mission includes:
 Identifying, and proposing solutions to, pressing operational and technical problems in
the Internet;
 Specifying the development or usage of protocols and the near-term architecture to solve
such technical problems for the Internet;
 Making recommendations to the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) regarding
the
 standardization of protocols and protocol usage in the Internet;
 Facilitating technology transfer from the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) to the
wider Internet community;
 Providing a forum for the exchange of information within the Internet community
between vendors, users, researchers, agency contractors and network managers.

Internet RFCs
· RFC 1737 "Functional Requirements for Uniform Resource Names
· RFC 1738 "Uniform Resource Locators (URL
· RFC 1867 "Form-based File Upload in HTML
RFC (Request For Comments)
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) & Internet Society (ISOC) – the principal technical
development and standards-setting bodies for the Internet.

RFC is a type of publication from IETF and ISOC.

RFC is authored by engineers and computer scientists in the form of memorandum describing
methods, behaviours, research, innorvations applicable to the working of the Internet and
Internet connected systems.
RFC have become official documents of Internet specifications, communication protocols,
procedures and events.

Internet Standardized Goal

 High Quality
 Prior Implementation and Testing
 Openness and Fairness
 Timeliness

How does the Internet Work

• A communication protocol is a specification of how communication between two computers
will be carried out
– IP (Internet Protocol): defines the packets that carry blocks of data from one node to
another
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol): the protocols
by which one host sends data to another.
– Other application protocols: DNS (Domain Name Service), SMTP (Simple Mail
Transmission Protocol), and FTP (File Transmission Protocol)

The Internet Protocol (IP)

• A key element of IP is IP address, a 32-bit number
• The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations
• IP is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node
• A packet contains information such as the data to be transferred, the source and destination IP
addresses, etc.
• Packets are sent through different local network through gateways
• A checksum is created to ensure the correctness of the data; corrupted packets are discarded
• IP-based communication is unreliable.

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP is a higher-level protocol that extends IP to provide additional functionality: reliable
communication
• TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is
correctly and completely received.
• Connection
• Acknowledgment.
The Internet, according to RFC 2026 (The Internet Standards Process-Revision 3,
October 1996), is a "loosely-organized international collaboration of autonomous,
interconnected networks that supports host-to-host communication through
voluntary adherence to open protocols and procedures defined by Internet
Standards." The Internet is not controlled by one government or entity, but by its
users and the organizations that have formed to "watch over" and manage the
Internet. These organizations include the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force),
ISOC (Internet Society), and other groups described under "Internet Organizations
and Committees.

Internet Standards Categories: All Internet standards fall into one of two categories: Technical
specification (TS): A TS defines a protocol, service, procedure, convention, or format. The bulk of the
Internet standards are TSs. Applicability statement (AS): An AS specifies how, and under what
circumstances, one or more TSs may be applied to support a particular Internet capability.

How does the Internet Work?

• A communication protocol is a specification of how communication between two computers

will be carried out

– IP (Internet Protocol): defines the packets that carry blocks of data from one node to
another

– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol): the protocols
by which one host sends data to another.

– Other application protocols: DNS (Domain Name Service), SMTP (Simple Mail
Transmission Protocol), and FTP (File Transmission Protocol)

The Internet Protocol (IP)

• A key element of IP is IP address, a 32-bit number

• The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations

• IP is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node

• A packet contains information such as the data to be transferred, the source and destination IP
addresses, etc.

• Packets are sent through different local network through gateways

• A checksum is created to ensure the correctness of the data; corrupted packets are discarded
 • IP-based communication is unreliable

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP is a higher-level protocol that extends IP to provide additional functionality: reliable

communication

• TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is
correctly and completely received.

• Connection

• Acknowledgment.

TCP/IP Protocol Suites

World Wide Web (WWW)

• WWW is a system of interlinked, hypertext documents that runs over the Internet

• Two types of software:

– Client: a system that wishes to access the information provided by servers must run
client software (e.g., web browser)

– Server: an internet-connected computer that wishes to provide information to others

must run server software
 – Client and server applications communicate over the Internet by following a protocol
built on top of TCP/IP – HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) .

Basics of the WWW

• Hypertext: a format of information which allows one to move from one part of a document to
another through hyperlinks

• Uniform Resource Locator (URL): unique identifiers used to locate a particular resource on the
network

• Markup language: defines the structure and content of hypertext documents

------------------------------------

Web Client: Browser

• Makes HTTP requests on behalf of the user

– Reformat the URL entered as a valid HTTP request

– Use DNS to convert server’s host name to appropriate IP address

– Establish a TCP connection using the IP address

– Send HTTP request over the connection and wait for server’s response

– Display the document contained in the response

• If the document is not a plain-text document but instead is written in HTML,

this involves rendering the document (positioning text, graphics, creating table
borders, using appropriate fonts, etc.)

Web Servers

• Main functionalities:

– Server waits for connect requests

– When a connection request is received, the server creates a new process to handle
this connection

– The new process establishes the TCP connection and waits for HTTP requests

– The new process invokes software that maps the requested URL to a resource on the
server
 – If the resource is a file, creates an HTTP response that contains the file in the body of
the response message

– If the resource is a program, runs the program, and returns the output

Browser scripting: JavaScript

– Designed to add interactivity to HTML pages

– Usually embedded into HTML pages

– What can a JavaScript Do?

• Put dynamic text into an HTML page

• React to events

• Read and write HTML elements

• Validate data before it is submitted to a server

• Create cookies

Server side programming

• The requests cause the response to be generated

• Server scripting:

– CGI/Perl: Common Gate Way Interface (*.pl, *.cgi)

– PHP: Open source, strong database support (*.php)

– ASP: Microsoft product, uses .Net framework (*.asp)

– Java via JavaServer Pages (*.jsp)

Common Gateway Interface:

– CGI provides a way by which a web server can obtain data from (or send data to)
database, and other programs, and present that data to viewers via the web.

– A CGI program can be written in any programming language, but Perl is one of the
most popular

Web essentials
Why web standards?
Let’s go briefly through the main reasons why it is such a good idea to adopt web standards in your
web development work (these are expanded on in later articles). Using web standards and
associated best practices confers the following benefits:

1. Efficiency of code: A lot of best practice web standards usage is all about reusing code —
writing code once, and then reusing it wherever it is needed.
2. Ease of maintenance: This follows closely on from the last point — if you can write code
only once, and then apply it wherever needed, then if you need to change something at a
later date you can just make the change in one place and it propagates throughout the entire
web site, rather than having to specify that change everywhere that it is needed!
3. Accessibility: The next two points are closely related — one of the big ideals of the Web
is making web sites accessible to everyone, no matter who they are, regardless of
circumstance. This includes making web sites usable by people with impairments such as
blindness/visual impairment and mobility impairment (ie, people who have restricted
movement). By using web standards and best practices, you’ll be able to make your web
sites more accessible to this significant group of the web audience with little or no extra
effort.
4. Device compatibility: This means ensuring that your web sites will work not only across
different platforms — ie Windows, Mac, Linux — but also alternative browsing devices,
including mobile phones, TVs, tablets and games consoles. Using web standards and best
practices, you significantly increase the likelihood of your web sites working across such
devices. There are more web-capable mobile phones in the world than desktop computers,
so can you or your clients afford to miss out on this market?
5. Web crawlers/search engines: By this, we are talking about what is termed search engine
optimization — the practice of making your web sites as visible as possible to the so–called
web crawlers that crawl the web and index web sites, giving you better search rankings on
sites such as Google. There is a science to this (see SEO articles such as Intelligent site
structure for better SEO! and Semantic HTML and Search Engine Optimization) but yet
again, just by using web standards you will make your site a lot more visible on Google,
Yahoo!, etc., which is good for business.

WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the World Wide
Web is : all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an

embodiment of human knowledge.

In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information

between computers on the Internet, tying them together into a vast
collection of interactive multimedia resources.
Internet and Web is not the same thing: Web uses internet to pass over the
information.
Evolution
World Wide Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989
at CERN in Geneva. World Wide Web came into existence as a proposal by
him, to allow researchers to work together effectively and efficiently
at CERN. Eventually it became World Wide Web.

The following diagram briefly defines evolution of World Wide Web:

WWW Architecture
WWW architecture is divided into several layers as shown in the following
diagram:
Identifiers and Character Set
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is used to uniquely identify resources
on the web and UNICODE makes it possible to built web pages that can be
read and write in human languages.

Syntax
XML (Extensible Markup Language) helps to define common syntax in
semantic web.
Data Interchange
Resource Description Framework (RDF) framework helps in defining
core representation of data for web. RDF represents data about resource in
graph form.

Taxonomies
RDF Schema (RDFS) allows more standardized description
of taxonomiesand other ontological constructs.

Ontologies
Web Ontology Language (OWL) offers more constructs over RDFS. It
comes in following three versions:

 OWL Lite for taxonomies and simple constraints.

 OWL DL for full description logic support.

 OWL for more syntactic freedom of RDF

Rules
RIF and SWRL offers rules beyond the constructs that are available
from RDFs and OWL. Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language
(SPARQL) is SQL like language used for querying RDF data and OWL
Ontologies.

Proof
All semantic and rules that are executed at layers below Proof and their
result will be used to prove deductions.

Cryptography
Cryptography means such as digital signature for verification of the origin
of sources is used.

User Interface and Applications

On the top of layer User interface and Applications layer is built for user
interaction.
WWW Operation
WWW works on client- server approach. Following steps explains how the
web works:

1. User enters the URL (say, http://www.tutorialspoint.com) of the web page

in the address bar of web browser.

2. Then browser requests the Domain Name Server for the IP address
corresponding to www.tutorialspoint.com.

3. After receiving IP address, browser sends the request for web page to the web
server using HTTP protocol which specifies the way the browser and web server
communicates.

4. Then web server receives request using HTTP protocol and checks its search for
the requested web page. If found it returns it back to the web browser and
close the HTTP connection.

5. Now the web browser receives the web page, It interprets it and display the
contents of web page in web browser’s window.

Evolution
World Wide Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989
at CERN in Geneva. World Wide Web came into existence as a proposal by
him, to allow researchers to work together effectively and efficiently
at CERN. Eventually it became World Wide Web.

The following diagram briefly defines evolution of World Wide Web:

Web Page
web page is a document available on world wide web. Web Pages are
stored on web server and can be viewed using a web browser.

A web page can cotain huge information including text, graphics, audio,
video and hyper links. These hyper links are the link to other web pages.

Collection of linked web pages on a web server is known as website.

Static Web page

Static web pages are also known as flat or stationary web page. They are
loaded on the client’s browser as exactly they are stored on the web server.
Such web pages contain only static information. User can only read the
information but can’t do any modification or interact with the information.

Static web pages are created using only HTML. Static web pages are only
used when the information is no more required to be modified.
Dynamic Web page
Dynamic web page shows different information at different point of time.
It is possible to change a portaion of a web page without loading the entire
web page. It has been made possible using Ajax technology.

SERVER-SIDE DYNAMIC WEB PAGE

It is created by using server-side scripting. There are server-side scripting
parameters that determine how to assemble a new web page which also
include setting up of more client-side processing.

CLIENT-SIDE DYNAMIC WEB PAGE

It is processed using client side scripting such as JavaScript. And then
passed in to Document Object Model (DOM).

Scripting Laguages
Scripting languages are like programming languages that allow us to write
programs in form of script. These scripts are interpreted not compiled and
executed line by line.
Scripting language is used to create dynamic web pages.
Client-side Scripting
Client-side scripting refers to the programs that are executed on client-
side. Client-side scripts contains the instruction for the browser to be
executed in response to certain user’s action.
Client-side scripting programs can be embedded into HTML files or also can be kept as
separate files.

Following table describes commonly used Client-Side scripting languages:

S.N. Scripting Language Description

1. JavaScript
It is a prototype based scripting language. It inherits its naming
 conventions from java. All java script files are stored in file
having .jsextension.

2. ActionScriptIt is an object oriented programming language used for the

development of websites and software targeting Adobe flash player.

3. Dart
It is an open source web programming language developed by Google. It
relies on source-to-source compiler to JavaScript.

4. VBScript
It is an open source web programming language developed by Microsoft. It
is superset of JavaScript and adds optional static typing class-based object
oriented programming.

Server-side Scripting
Sever-side scripting acts as an interface for the client and also limit the
user access the resources on web server. It can also collects the user’s
characteristics in order to customize response.
Following table describes commonly used Server-Side scripting languages:

S.N. Scripting Language Description

1. ASP
Active Server Pages (ASP)is server-side script engine to create dynamic
web pages. It supports Component Object Model (COM) which enables
ASP web sites to access functionality of libraries such as DLL.

2. ActiveVFP
It is similar to PHP and also used for creating dynamic web pages. It uses
native Visual Foxpro language and database.

3. ASP.net
It is used to develop dynamic websites, web applications, and web services.
4. Java
Java Server Pages are used for creating dynamic web applications. The Java
code is compiled into byte code and run by Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

5. Python
It supports multiple programming paradigms such as object-oriented, and
functional programming. It can also be used as non-scripting language
using third party tools such as Py2exe or Pyinstaller.

6. WebDNA
It is also a server-side scripting language with an embedded database
system.

Web Browser
web Browser is an application software that allows us to view and explore
information on the web. User can request for any web page by just entering
a URL into address bar.

Web browser can show text, audio, video, animation and more. It is the
responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and commands contained in
the web page.

Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days graphical-based
or voice-based web browsers are also available. Following are the most
common web browser available today:

Browser Vendor

Internet Explorer Microsoft

Google Chrome Google

Mozilla Firefox Mozilla

Netscape Navigator Netscape Communications Corp.

Opera Opera Software

Safari Apple

Architecture
There are a lot of web browser available in the market. All of them interpret
and display information on the screen however their capabilities and
structure varies depending upon implementation. But the most basic
component that all web browser must exhibit are listed below:

 Controller/Dispatcher

 Interpreter

 Client Programs

Controller works as a control unit in CPU. It takes input from the keyboard
or mouse, interpret it and make other services to work on the basis of input
it receives.

Interpreter receives the information from the controller and execute the
instruction line by line. Some interpreter are mandatory while some are
optional For example, HTML interpreter program is mandatory and java
interpreter is optional.

Client Program describes the specific protocol that will be used to access a
particular service. Following are the client programs tat are commonly
used:

 HTTP

 SMTP

 FTP

 NNTP

 POP
Navigation
A web page may contain hyperlinks. When we click on these links other
web page is opened. These hyperlinks can be in form of text or image.
When we take the mouse over an hyperlink, pointer change its shape to
hand.

Proxy server is an intermediary server between client and the internet.

Proxy servers offers the following basic functionalities:

 Firewall and network data filtering.

 Network connection sharing

 Data caching
Proxy servers allow to hide, conceal and make your network id anonymous by hiding
your IP address.

Purpose of Proxy Servers

Following are the reasons to use proxy servers:

 Monitoring and Filtering

  Improving performance

 Translation

 Accessing services anonymously

 Security

Monitoring and Filtering

Proxy servers allow us to do several kind of filtering such as:

 Content Filtering

 Filtering encrypted data

 Bypass filters

 Logging and eavesdropping

Improving performance
It fasten the service by process of retrieving content from the cache which
was saved when previous request was made by the client.

Translation
It helps to customize the source site for local users by excluding source
content or substituting source content with original local content. In this the
traffic from the global users is routed to the source website through
Translation proxy.

Accessing services anonymously

In this the destination server receives the request from the anonymzing
proxy server and thus does not receive information about the end user.

Security
Since the proxy server hides the identity of the user hence it protects from
spam and the hacker attacks.

Type of Proxies
Following table briefly describes the type of proxies:
Forward Proxies
In this the client requests its internal network server to forward to the
internet.

Open Proxies
Open Proxies helps the clients to conceal their IP address while browsing
the web.

Reverse Proxies
In this the requests are forwarded to one or more proxy servers and the
response from the proxy server is retrieved as if it came directly from the
original Server.
Architecture
The proxy server architecture is divided into several modules as shown in
the following diagram:
Proxy user interface
This module controls and manages the user interface and provides an easy
to use graphical interface, window and a menu to the end user. This menu
offers the following functionalities:

 Start proxy

 Stop proxy

 Exit

 Blocking URL

 Blocking client

 Manage log

 Manage cache

 Modify configuration

Proxy server listener

It is the port where new request from the client browser is listened. This
module also performs blocking of clients from the list given by the user.

Connection Manager
It contains the main functionality of the proxy server. It performs the
following functions:

 It contains the main functionality of the proxy server. It performs the following
functions:

 Read request from header of the client.

 Parse the URL and determine whether the URL is blocked or not.

 Generate connection to the web server.

 Read the reply from the web server.

 If no copy of page is found in the cache then download the page from web
server else will check its last modified date from the reply header and
accordingly will read from the cache or server from the web.
  Then it will also check whether caching is allowed or not and accordingly will
cache the page.

Cache Manager
This module is responsible for storing, deleting, clearing and searching of
web pages in the cache.

Log Manager
This module is responsible for viewing, clearing and updating the logs.

Configuration
This module helps to create configuration settings which in turn let other
modules to perform desired configurations such as caching.

Search Engine refers to a huge database of internet resources such as

web pages, newsgroups, programs, images etc. It helps to locate
information on World Wide Web.

User can search for any information by passing query in form of keywords
or phrase. It then searches for relevant information in its database and
return to the user.
Search Engine Components
Generally there are three basic components of a search engine as listed
below:

1. Web Crawler

2. Database

3. Search Interfaces

Web crawler
It is also known as spider or bots. It is a software component that
traverses the web to gather information.
Database
All the information on the web is stored in database. It consists of huge web
resources.

Search Interfaces
This component is an interface between user and the database. It helps the
user to search through the database.

Search Engine Working:

 The search engine looks for the keyword in the index for predefined database
instead of going directly to the web to search for the keyword.

 It then uses software to search for the information in the database. This
software component is known as web crawler.

 Once web crawler finds the pages, the search engine then shows the relevant
web pages as a result. These retrieved web pages generally include title of
page, size of text portion, first several sentences etc.

Search Description
Engine

Google It was originally called BackRub. It is the most popular search

engine globally.

Bing It was launched in 2009 by Microsoft. It is the latest web-based

search engine that also delivers Yahoo’s results.

Ask It was launched in 1996 and was originally known as Ask

Jeeves. It includes support for match, dictionary, and
conversation question.

AltaVista It was launched by Digital Equipment Corporation in 1995.

Since 2003, it is powered by Yahoo technology.

AOL.Search It is powered by Google.

LYCOS It is top 5 internet portal and 13th largest online property
according to Media Matrix.

Alexa It is subsidiary of Amazon and used for providing website traffic

information.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending
and receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability
to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two
other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server
mailbox and download them periodically from the server. In other words, users
typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3
or IMAP for receiving e-mail. On Unix-based systems, sendmail is the most
widely-used SMTP server for e-mail. A commercial package, Sendmail,
includes a POP3 server. Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and
can also be set up to include POP3 support.

SMTP usually is implemented to operate over Internet port 25. An alternative

to SMTP that is widely used in Europe is X.400. Many mail servers now
support Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (ESMTP), which allows
multimedia files to be delivered as e-mail.

SMTP Commands

The SMTP standard defines a set of commands - names of specific types of messages
that mail clients to the mail server when requesting information. The most commonly
used commands are:

 HELO and EHLO - commands that initiate a new protocol session between client and
server. The EHLO command requests them to respond with any
optional SMTP extensions it supports
 MAIL - command to initiate sending an email message
  RCPT - command to provide one email address for a recipient of the current message
being prepared
 DATA - command indicating the start of transmission of the email message. This
command initiates a series of one or more follow-on messages each containing a piece
of the message. The last message in the sequence is empty (containing only a period (.)
as a termination character) to signify the end of the email.
 RSET - while in the process of sending an email (after issuing the MAIL command),
either end of the SMTP connection can reset the connection if it encounters an error
 NOOP - an empty ("no operation") message designed as a kind of ping to check for
responsiveness of the other end of the session
 QUIT - terminates the protocol session

POP3

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the most recent version of a standard

protocol for receiving e-mail. POP3 is a client/server protocol in which e-mail
is received and held for you by your Internet server. Periodically, you (or your
client e-mail receiver) check your mail-box on the server and download any
mail, probably using POP3. This standard protocol is built into most popular e-
mail products, such as Eudora and Outlook Express. It's also built into the
Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers.

POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has
downloaded it. However, some implementations allow users or an
administrator to specify that mail be saved for some period of time. POP can
be thought of as a "store-and-forward" service.

An alternative protocol is Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). IMAP

provides the user more capabilities for retaining e-mail on the server and for
organizing it in folders on the server. IMAP can be thought of as a remote file
server.

POP and IMAP deal with the receiving of e-mail and are not to be confused
with the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), a protocol for transferring e-
mail across the Internet. You send e-mail with SMTP and a mail handler
 receives it on your recipient's behalf. Then the mail is read using POP or
IMAP.

The conventional port number for POP3 is 110

POP3, sometimes referred to as just "POP," is a simple, standardized

method of delivering e-mail messages. A POP3 mail server receives e-
mails and filters them into the appropriate user folders. When a user
connects to the mail server to retrieve his mail, the messages are
downloaded from mail server to the user's hard disk.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the commonly used protocol for exchanging files over
the Internet. FTP uses the Internet's TCP/IPprotocols to enable data transfer. FTP uses a client-
server architecture, often secured with SSL. FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers
with reliable and efficient data transfer..

How FTP Works

FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's
browser and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these
technologies.
FTP uses a client-server architecture. Users provide authentication using a sign-in protocol,
usually a username and password, however some FTP servers may be configured to
accept anonymous FTP logins where you don't need to identify yourself before accessing files.
Most often, FTP is secured with SSL/TLS.
How to FTP
Files can be transferred between two computers using FTP software. The user's computer is
called the local host machine and is connected to the Internet. The second machine, called the
remote host, is also running FTP software and connected to the Internet.
 The local host machine connects to the remote host's IP address.
 The user would enter a username/password (or use anonymous).
 FTP software may have a GUI, allowing users to drag and drop files between the remote and
local host. If not, a series of FTP commands are used to log in to the remote host and transfer
files between the machines.

Common Uses of FTP

FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g.,

uploading a web page file to a Web server)..

 FTP host stores files

Client logs into host

Client program sends command to get a file

FTP host downloads the file with error correction

User can also upload a file to the FTP Server, WWW cannot do this.

• Must Log into FTP Host Before Transfers

• Traditional FTP
– You log into a specific account with a password
– You can transfer to and from directories accessible to that account
• Anonymous FTP
– You log in as “anonymous”
– Give your e-mail address as password (usually optional)
– Host gives you access to public directories
– Usually for downloading only
– Not truly anonymous: your internet address is known
FTP Archiving

• Many FTP files are archived

– Two-step process
– First, several files are combined into one archive to avoid having to make multiple
downloads
– Second, the combined files are compressed to reduce download times
– Receiver must dearchive the files to read them
– Unfortunately, many archiving standards
– Zip is the most common
– UNIX users tend to use others (tar)
– Some dearchiving programs handle only one archiving standards, others several

cd Changes directory.

close Exits from FTP.

delete Deletes a file.

debug Sets debugging on or off.

Lists files, if connected.

dir -C = lists the files in wide format.
dir -1 = Lists the files in bare format in alphabetic order.
dir
dir -r = Lists directory in reverse alphabetic order.
dir -R = Lists all files in current directory and sub directories.
dir -S = Lists files in bare format in alphabetic order.

disconnect Exits from FTP.

get Get file from the remote computer.

Accesses the Help screen and displays information about the command if the command is
help
typed after help.
lcd Displays local directory if typed alone or if path typed after lcd will change the local directory

ls Lists files of the remotely connected computer.

mdelete Multiple delete.

mdir Lists contents of multiple remote directories.

mget Get multiple files.

mkdir Make directory.

mls Lists contents of multiple remote directories.

mput Send multiple files.

open Opens address.

prompt Enables or disables the prompt.

put Send one file.

pwd Print working directory.

quit Exits from FTP.

rename Renames a file.

rmdir Removes a directory on the remote computer.

send Send single file.

status Shows status of currently enabled and disabled options.

trace Toggles packet tracing.

Type Set file transfer type.

user Send new user information.

verbose Sets verbose on or off.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is application-level protocol for collaborative,
distributed, hypermedia information systems. It is the data communication protocol used to
establish communication between client and server.

HTTP is TCP/IP based communication protocol, which is used to deliver the data like image
files, query results, HTML files etc on the World Wide Web (WWW) with the default port is
TCP 80. It provides the standardized way for computers to communicate with each other.

The Basic Characteristics of HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):

o It is the protocol that allows web servers and browsers to exchange data over the
web.

o It is a request response protocol.

o It uses the reliable TCP connections by default on TCP port 80.

o It is stateless means each request is considered as the new request. In other words,
server doesn't recognize the user by default.

The Basic Features of HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):

There are three fundamental features that make the HTTP a simple and powerful protocol
used for communication:

o HTTP is media independent: It specifies that any type of media content can be
sent by HTTP as long as both the server and the client can handle the data content.

o HTTP is connectionless: It is a connectionless approach in which HTTP client i.e., a

browser initiates the HTTP request and after the request is sent the client
disconnects from server and waits for the response.

o HTTP is stateless: The client and server are aware of each other during a current
request only. Afterwards, both of them forget each other. Due to the stateless nature
 of protocol, neither the client nor the server can retain the information about
different request across the web pages.

The Basic Architecture of HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):

The below diagram represents the basic architecture of web application and depicts where
HTTP stands:

HTTP is request/response protocol which is based on client/server based architecture. In

this protocol, web browser, search engines, etc. behave as HTTP clients and the Web server
like Servlet behaves as a server

HTTP Requests
The request sent by the computer to a web server, contains all sorts of potentially
interesting information; it is known as HTTP requests.

The HTTP client sends the request to the server in the form of request message which
includes following information:

o The Request-line

o The analysis of source IP address, proxy and port

o The analysis of destination IP address, protocol, port and host

o The Requested URI (Uniform Resource Identifier)

o The Request method and Content

o The User-Agent header

o The Connection control header

o The Cache control header

The HTTP request method indicates the method to be performed on the resource identified
by the Requested URI (Uniform Resource Identifier). This method is case-sensitive
and should be used in uppercase.

The HTTP request methods are:

HTTP Description
Request

GET Asks to get the resource at the requested URL.

 POST Asks the server to accept the body info attached. It is like GET request with extra info
request.

HEAD Asks for only the header part of whatever a GET would return. Just like GET but with

TRACE Asks for the loopback of the request message, for testing or troubleshooting.

PUT Says to put the enclosed info (the body) at the requested URL.

DELETE Says to delete the resource at the requested URL.

OPTIONS Asks for a list of the HTTP methods to which the thing at the request URL can respon

Get vs. Post

There are many differences between the Get and Post request. Let's see these differences:

GET POST

1) In case of Get request, only limited amount of data can be In case of post request, large amo
sent because data is sent in header. be sent because data is sent in bod

2) Get request is not secured because data is exposed in URL Post request is secured because d
bar. in URL bar.

3) Get request can be bookmarked. Post request cannot be bookmark

4) Get request is idempotent . It means second request will be Post request is non-idempotent.
ignored until response of first request is delivered

5) Get request is more efficient and used more than Post. Post request is less efficient and u

GET and POST

Two common methods for the request-response between a server and client are:

o GET- It requests the data from a specified resource

o POST- It submits the processed data to a specified resource

 Anatomy of Get Request
The query string (name/value pairs) is sent inside the URL of a GET request:

1. GET /RegisterDao.jsp?name1=value1&name2=value2

As we know that data is sent in request header in case of get request. It is the default
request type. Let's see what information is sent to the server.

Some other features of GET requests are:

o It remains in the browser history

o It can be bookmarked

o It can be cached

o It have length restrictions

o It should never be used when dealing with sensitive data

o It should only be used for retrieving the data

Understanding HTML, XHTML, and HTML5
HTML is an acronym for Hypertext Markup Language, which is the language we have used to
create webpages since the first webpages arrived on the web.

One interesting aspect of HTML and its relationship with browsers was that browsers were
designed to be backward compatible and forward compatible.
Creating a browser that is backward compatible is relatively easy because the problem domain is
known, but how is forward compatibility accomplished? Browsers were created to ignore tags
that they didn’t recognize. For example, if a browser came across a <xyz> tag that it didn’t
recognize, it would skip over the tag as though it didn’t exist.

XML looks a lot like HTML because both languages use tags. However, there are several big
differences. First, XML always requires matching end tags for every tag, although you can
Use a shortcut notation to denote a starting tag and ending tag together.
XML doesn’t have a defined set of tag names, so you create your own tag names, and the tags
can represent anything. XML tags are typically metadata tags: tags that describe the data that is
within the tag.

The World Wide Web Consortium, also known as W3C (ht tp: //ww.w3c.org), is responsible for
developing open standards for the web.
The W3C introduced XHTML to solve the problems in HTML, which was up to version 4.
XHTML is an XML-based specification that tightened the HTML specification to make HTML
adhere to the XML rules that describe a well-formed document, such as having a matching end
tag for each starting tag. This meant that XHTML documents could be validated by using XSD
files and could be edited by using XML tools.

Although XHTML solved some problems, other problems still needed a solution. There was
a need for an increasing amount of multimedia on the web.
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) provided support for adding styles such
as colors and fonts consistently across a website, but companies wanted more. They wanted
their webpages to be highly interactive, with video and animations. Browsers added
programmable support by providing JavaScript.

The browsers became extensible by providing an application programming

interface (API) that would allow third parties to create plug-ins that could run in the browser’s
environment..
Flash provides a development environment that can be used to create a rich user experience.
Although thirdparty plug-ins solved the immediate need for technology to create flashy websites,
there
was still a need for tighter integration of multimedia with the browser, especially on small
devices.
HTML5 does not originate from XHTML; HTML5 originates from HTML 4.01.
HTML5 represents a reinvented HTML, CSS, and JavaScript in a way that solves the need
for rich, interactive websites that can play audio and video and support animations from
within the browser without the need for plug-ins. HTML5 contains most of the tags from
HTML 4.01, but many of the tags have been redefined to be semantic tags.

Working with elements

An element is composed of a beginning tag, an ending tag, and the content between the
tags. Consider the following HTML fragment.
<div>
The quick brown <b>fox</b> jumps over the lazy dog
</div>

In this sample, the <div> tag is just the beginning tag on the first line. The <div> element
is the complete sample, which includes content that also contains a <b> element. The <b>
element consists of the beginning <b> tag, the content, which is the word “fox,” and the ending
</b> tag.
W3C recommends lowercase tag names in HTML 4.01 and requires lowercase tag names in
XHTML. Although HTML5 does not mandate lowercase tag names, lowercase tag names are
recommended.

HTML5 has more than 100 defined elements that you can use to create rich webpages and
applications..
Adding attributes to elements
The begin tag can contain additional data in the form of an attribute. An attribute is a
name=”value” pair in which name is unique within the tag and value is always enclosed within
either single quotes or double quotes. You can add many attributes to the begin tag..

Working with Boolean attributes

Some attributes are Boolean attributes, which means that the mere presence of the attribute
indicates that an option is set. Some examples of Boolean attributes are as follows.
Another way to indicate a Boolean attribute is to use quoted form, in which you provide
either an empty value or the name of the attribute as its value. Here are examples of both.
<input type="checkbox" name="fruit" value="Apple" checked='' />
<input type="checkbox" name="fruit" value="Apple" checked='checked' />

HTML5 global attribute reference

HTML5 defines a set of named attributes that can be applied to any HTML5 element. These
elements are called global attributes, and each has a ver y specific meaning, as follows..
Working with self-closing tags
You can represent any element that contains no content as a self-closing tag. A self-closing
tag is a beginning tag and an ending tag in one. You end the starting tag with a space, slash,
and greater-than symbol. For example, the <br> element cannot have any content, so here is
the beginning and ending tag in one: <br />.

Working with void elements

Elements are not required to have content, but some elements cannot have content.
These are called void elements. For example, the <br> tag represents a line break and cannot
have any content..
With CSS, you can change how text, images, and links appear quickly and easily, on a single web page or
across and entire site.

Multiple Selectors

‘
CSS rules can be located in one of three places: an external style sheet, embedded in the
<head> of a document, or inline with the affected tag.

External style sheets

External style sheets are used to provide a consistent look-and-feel to any number of related
pages, up to and including an entire website. An external style sheet is connected to an HTML
page in one of two ways: either with a <link> tag, or with an @import directive within a <style>
tag.
<link href=”styles/main.css” type=”text/css” rel=”stylesheet” />

Embedded styles
CSS rules can also be included in an HTML page, typically in the <head> section of the document. This
technique is known as embedding. CSS rules are embedded through use of the
<style> tag, like this:
<style type=”text/css”>
body {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
 background-color: white;
}
h1, h2, h3, h4 {
color: red;
margin: 0;
padding: 5px;
}
</style>

Inline styles
The final method for styling HTML tags is called inline styles. An inline style is applied by use of the style attribute
within an HTML tag..
<h1 style=”color:red;”>Important Message Ahead</h1>

Ids
To define an ID selector, use a leading number sign symbol, like this:
#header {
width: 960px;
}

An ID is applied to an HTML tag with the ID attribute:

<div id=”header”>

classes
The class selector is similar to the ID, except it may be used multiple times on a single page.
.legalNotice {
font-size: small;
}

<div class=”legalNotice”>
JSON

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a text-based, language independent, open

standard for data interchange. One of its advanages is that it is human-
readable.
<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<title>Create Object from JSON String</title>

<body>

<h2>Create Object from JSON String</h2>

<p id="ShowHere"></p>
<script>

var text = ’{"employees":[’ +

’{"firstName":"Michael","lastName":"Gorby" },’ +

’{"firstName":"Caroline","lastName":"Swan" },’ +

’{"firstName":"David","lastName":"Abbot" },’ +

’{"firstName":"Monalisa","lastName":"Cage" }]}’;

obj = JSON.parse(text);

document.getElementById("ShowHere").innerHTML =

obj.employees[2].firstName + " " + obj.employees[2].lastName;

</script>

</body>

</html>

What is a markup language?

A markup language is a collection of tags that are written in a structured.
HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. HTML is very simple and very
easy to learn. It is used for building web pages.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<title>Write The Page Title Here</title>

</head>

<body>

<h1>This is a Heading H1</h1>

<p>This is a paragraph text.</p>

</body>

</html>

 <DOCTYPE> - this tag declares the document type and HTML version
 <html> and </html> - all HTML document codes are written between this
tag
 <head> and </head> - all information about the document are written
between this tag
 <title> and </title> - The title of a Document is written between this tag
 <body> and </body> - all visible page contents are written between this
tag
 <h1> and </h1> - write the heading h1 between this tag
 <p> and </p> - always write your paragraph text between between this
tag

HTML Tags
HTML markup tags are usually called HTML tags. HTML tags are keywords
(TagNames) written between angle brackets < TagName >.

HTML Histories
Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from
commercial software vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard (ISO/IEC
15445:2000). HTML 4.01 was published in late 1999, with further errata
published through 2001. In 2004 development began on HTML5 and released on
2012.
HTML5 features
New features in HTML5 are:

 The DOCTYPE declaration for HTML5 is very simple, <!DOCTYPE html>

 The character encoding (charset) declaration is also very simple,<meta
charset="UTF-8">
 New Functions for embedding audio (<audio>), video (<video>),
and graphics ( <svg> and<canvas>)
 Client-side data storage
 Interactive documents
 New structural
elements <article>, <header>, <footer>, <nav>, <section>,
and <figure>
 New form controls calendar, date, time, email, url, search
 JavaScript enhancements
 New HTML5 API’s (Application Programming Interfaces). The most
interesting new API’s are: HTML Geolocation, HTML Drag and Drop, HTML
Local Storage, HTML Application Cash, HTML Web Workers, HTML SSE
 HTML5 also includes new elements for better structure, drawing, media
content, and better form handling.

HTML5 Browser Support

he latest versions of Apple Safari, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, and
Microsoft Internet Explorer 9.0 all support many of the new HTML5 features.

In addition, the mobile web browsers that come pre-installed on iPhones, iPads,
and Android phones all have excellent support for HTML5.

Specific browsers supporting HTML5 are:

 IE 9+ (Windows)
 Firefox 3.0+ (all operating systems)
 Safari 3.0+ (Windows, OS X, and iPhone OS 1.0+ operating systems)
 Chrome 3.0.195+ (Windows), 5.0.375+ (all operating systems)
 Opera 9.5+ (all operating systems)

HTML Structural

The basic structural elements for HTML include headings, paragraphs, links, etc.
New elements in HTML5 improve upon this structure.

An HTML document is structured into three parts:

Required Tags
All HTML documents need to have the <html>, <head>, and <body> tags,
along with the <!DOCTYPE>identifier as the first line.
HTML5 added new elements to improve the structure of web pages.

Structural Elements
The following table lists the structural HTML tags:
 UTF-8 (U from Universal Character Set + Transformation Format—8-bit) is a character
encoding capable of encoding all possible characters.

With just HTML you can make a website.

With HTML Canvas you can make animations.

A web browser can read HTML files and compose them into visible web pages.
The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to interpret the
content of the page.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<meta charset="UTF-8">

<title>Title of the document goes here..</title>

</head>

<body>

Content of the document goes here..

</body>

</html>

HTML Editor
To write a HTML script you can use any of Text Software Editor like Notepad
from Microsoft or notepad++, jEdit, Crimson Editor, Edit Pad Lite and WYSIWYG
Editor like Dreamweaver.