3AB1B2 Print May16 X

Basic Maintenance Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals
Training Manual Contents
3.1 Electron Theory Voltage Produced by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Magnetism and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Composition of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
Electrons, Protons and Neutrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Bohr Model of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Difference between Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Electrical Output of a Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Balanced Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Photocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Freeing Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Lead Acid Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Lead Acid Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Hydrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
s
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction Alkaline Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Nickel Cadmium Cell Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ic
Electrical Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Thermal Runaway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Laws of Electrical Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
n
Nickel Cadmium Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laws of Electrical Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Emergency Lighting Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
ch
Capacity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Electrical Terminology Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Potential Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Te
Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Hazards Associated With Industrial Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Hydrogen Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Acid Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Electrical Hazard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
SR
Factors Affecting Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Electrical Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Fire and Explosion Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conventional Current Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Handling Battery Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Electron Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Requirements for Electrolyte Handling . . . . . 17
Safety Eye Wash & Shower Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Generation of Electricity
Primary Methods of Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3.6 DC Circuits
Voltage Produced by Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Ohms Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Action of Electrostatic Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Kirchoff's Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Voltage Produced by Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Internal Resistance of a Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Voltage Produced by Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Voltage Produced by Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
May16/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - I
3.7 Resistance/Resistor 3.10 Magnetism

Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Multiples/Sub-Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Factors affecting Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Resistor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Lines of Force - Flux Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Power Rating of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Theory of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Resistor Colour Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Current Flow and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Total Resistance in a Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The Electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Series Connected Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Hysteresis Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Parallel Connected Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Magnetic Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Series Parallel Resistive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Magnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
s
Potentiometers and Rheostats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Electromagnetic Induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Factors Determining the Magnitude of an Induced Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . 13
ic
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule for Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
n
3.8 Power The AC Generator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ch
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.11 Inductance/Inductor
Te
Power in Resistor Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Power Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Measurement of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Induction Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
SR
3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor Self-Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Factors Determining the Magnitude of an Induced Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Inductors and Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Relationship Between Voltage and Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Electromagnetic Induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Factors Affecting Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dielectric Constant (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Factors Affecting Inductance of an Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Safe Working Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Inductance in DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Growth and Decay of Current in a Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Capacitors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Unit of Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Capacitors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Inductors in Series and Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Time Constant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Mutual Inductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Types of Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inductive Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
How to Test & Check a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - II
3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems . . . . . . . 16
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Delta Connected Systems . . . . . . 17
DC Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Summary of Relationships between Currents and Voltages in Star and Delta
DC Generator Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
'Balanced' Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Generator Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Self-Excited Shunt-Wound Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Spark Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.14 RLC Circuits
DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Resistance in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Principles of DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Current and Voltage in Resistive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Basic DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Power in AC Resistive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
DC Motor Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Comparing Power Used in AC and DC Resistive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Counter EMF and Net EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Comparing Power Used in AC and DC Resistive Circuits Cont.. . . . . . . . . 4
Types of Direct Current Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 AC Inductive Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
s
Characteristics of DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Practical DC Motor Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Effects of Frequency on Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
ic
Reversible DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Phase Relationship Voltage and Current - AC Inductive Circuits . . . . . . . . 6
n
Starter Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Power in AC Resistive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
True and Apparent Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
ch
3.13 AC Theory Effect of Phase Angle on True Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Measurement of True Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
AC Theory Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Te
The Elementary Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Phase Relationship - Current and Voltage in Capacitive Circuits . . . . . . . 14
Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
AC Power in Capacitive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Series AC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Series R and L Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
SR
Frequency Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Power Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Max or Peak Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Series R C Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Peak to Peak Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
LC Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Effective or RMS Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Series R, L and C Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
AC Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Series Resonance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Parallel AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Average Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Vector Diagram - Parallel AC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Types of AC Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Phase Relationships Parallel RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Wattmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
RL Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Three Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
RC Parallel Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Generation of a Three Phase Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
LC Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Sum of the Instantaneous EMF's is Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
RLC Parallel Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Star and Delta Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - III
Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Generator Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Generator Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.15 Transformers Aircraft AC Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Generator Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Transformers - Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
AC Generator (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Transformer Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
AC Generator (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Producing Three Phase Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Phase Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Relationship between Primary and Secondary Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Transformer Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Transformer Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.18 AC Motors
Magnetic Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 AC Motors-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Types of AC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
s
Eddy Current Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Induction Motors-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Copper Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Three - Phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
ic
Effect of Frequency on Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Single - Phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
n
Transformer with no Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Resistive Start Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Transformer with Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Capacitive Start Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ch
The Power Supply Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Shaded Pole Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Autotransformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Synchronous Motors-General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Variac. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Te
Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Study Questions
Servicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.1 Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SR
3.3 Electrical Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.16 Filters 3.4 Generation of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Filters General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3.5 DC Sources of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.6 DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
High-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.7 Resistance/Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Band Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.8 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Band Stop Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.10 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.17 AC Generators 3.11 Inductance/Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Generating AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.13 AC Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Electromagnetic Induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.14 RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Magnitude of Induced Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.15 Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - IV
3.16 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.17 AC Generators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.18 AC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - V
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3. Contents - VI
Training Manual 3.1 Electron Theory
3.1 Electron Theory
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3.1 - 1
Composition of Matter so small that it can not be divided further and still be water. This smallest particle
of water that still retains the characteristics of water is called a molecule.
Controlling the behaviour of electrons is what electronics is all about.Therefore, an The water molecule can be broken into still smaller pieces but the pieces will not
understanding of the electron is vitally important to an understanding of electronic be water. Thus, if you break up the water molecule, you find that the pieces are the
fundamentals. Electrons are tiny particles which carry the energy to light our elements hydrogen and oxygen.
homes, cook our food and do much of our work. To understand what an electron
is, we must investigate the make-up of matter.
Matter is generally described as anything which has weight and occupies space.
Thus, the earth and everything on it are classified as matter. Matter exists in three
different states - solid, liquid and gas.
Examples of solid matter are gold, sand and wood.
Some liquid examples are water, milk and gasoline.
Helium, hydrogen and oxygen are examples of gaseous forms of matter.
s
Elements and Compounds
ic
Elements are the basic building materials from which all matter is constructed.
Some examples of elements are iron, carbon, hydrogen and gold. Just over one
n
hundred elements are presently known.
Of these, only 92 occur in nature. These are called natural elements.
ch
Figure 1 on page 3 lists the names of the 92 natural elements.
In addition, there are about a dozen man-made elements that are listed in Figure 1
on page 3.
Te
As you look around, it becomes obvious that there are many more types of matter
than there are elements. For example, substances like salt, steel, water and pro-
tein do not appear in the list of elements.
SR
The reason for this is that these substances are not elements but compounds. A
compound is composed of two or more elements.
Just as the letters of the alphabet can be arranged in various combinations to form
millions of different words, the elements can be arranged in various combinations
to form millions of different compounds.
For example, water is a compound that is made up of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen. On the other hand, sugar is composed of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
and salt is composed of sodium and chlorine.
To better understand how the compound is related to its elements, let us investi-
gate the structure of a compound with which you are familiar - water. Suppose -
you divide a drop of water into two parts.
Next, suppose you divide each part again and again. After a few dozen divisions,
you have a drop so small that it can be seen only with a microscope. If you divide
it even further into smaller and smaller particles, you will eventually get a particle
Figure 1: Periodic Table of the Elements
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Atoms The center of the atom, which is composed of protons and neutrons, is called the
nucleus. Depending on the type of atom, the nucleus will contain from one to about
The smallest particle to which an element can be reduced is called an atom. Mol- 100 protons. Also, in all atoms except hydrogen, the nucleus contains neutrons.
ecules are made up of atoms that are bound together.
The neutrons and protons have approximately the same weight and size. Because
The water molecule is shown in figure below as three atoms. they are much heavier than electrons, the overall weight of the atom is determined
The two smaller atoms represent hydrogen while the larger one represents oxy- primarily by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Rotating around
gen. Therefore, a molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen (H) and one
the nucleus are the electrons.
atom of oxygen (O). Notice that the helium atom has two electrons. The electrons are extremely light
This is why the chemical formula for water is H2O. and they travel at fantastic speeds.
Figure 2: H2O The atom can be compared to the solar system with the nucleus representing the
sun and the electrons representing the planets.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in much the same way that the planets orbit the
sun.
s
The figure below is a very simple model of the atom based on these assumptions.
Today, much more complex models of the atom have been proposed. However,
ic
all these models have several things in common.
They all assume that the basic structure is that of electrons orbiting a nucleus that
n
is composed largely of protons and neutrons.
ch
This model of the atom is called the Bohr model after the man who proposed it.
Figure 3: Bohr Model
Te
SR
Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
As small as the atom is, it can be broken up into even smaller particles.
If you investigate the structure of the atom, you will find that it contains three dis-
tinct types of particles; electrons, protons and neutrons. These are the three basic
building blocks that make up all atoms and, therefore, all matter. Electrons, pro-
tons and neutrons have very different characteristics. However, as far as is known,
all electrons are exactly alike. By the same token, all protons are exactly alike and,
in the same manner all neutrons are identical.
BOHR Model of the Atom

The Figure below shows how electrons, protons and neutrons are combined to
form an atom. This particular one is a helium atom.
Two protons and two neutrons are bunched together near the center of the atom.
The Difference between Elements Figure 5: Carbon

At present there are 104 known elements although only 92 of these commonly oc-
cur in nature. The difference between these elements is their atomic structure.
Each is made up of atoms that contain a unique number of protons, electrons and,
with the exception of hydrogen, neutrons. Look at the figure below to see exactly
what we mean.
The simplest of all elements, hydrogen, is shown in figure below.
It consists of a single electron orbiting a single proton. This is the only atom that
contains no neutrons. Because it is made up of the fewest number of particles, hy-
drogen is the lightest element.
See figure which represents the carbon atom. Notice, this atom is made up of 6
electrons that orbit a nucleus of 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
s
The heaviest element shown in figure below is copper.
It consists of 29 electrons, 29 protons and 35 neutrons.
ic
However, the most complex atom commonly found in nature is the uranium atom.
Figure 6: Copper
n
It has 92 electrons, 92 protons and 146 neutrons.
ch
Figure 4: Hydrogen
Te
SR
The Balanced Atom

In the examples shown, you may have noticed that the number of electrons is al-
ways equal to the number of protons. This normally true of any atom. When this is
the case, the atom is said to be in its normal balanced, or neutral state. As you will
see later, this state can be upset by an external force. However, normally the atom
is considered to contain equal numbers of electrons and protons.
The Ion
Atoms are affected by many outside forces such as heat, light electrostatic fields
and magnetic fields. The balanced state of the atom can be upset by one of these
forces. As a result an atom can lose or gain one or more electrons. When this hap-
pens, the number of negative charges is no longer exactly offset by the number of
positive charges.
s
Thus the atom ends up with a net charge. An atom that is no longer in its neutral
ic
state is called an ion. The process of changing an atom to an ion is called ionisa-
tion.
n
Figure 7: The Ion
ch
Te
SR
Freeing Electrons The first four shells are illustrated in figure below. Although not shown, there are
also additional shells in the heavier atoms.
Electrons revolve around the atom’s nucleus at very high speeds. Two forces hold
the electrons in a precarious balance. Of particular importance in the study electronics is the outer electron shell of atom.
The centrifugal force of the electron that thrusts it away from the nucleus is exactly Hydrogen has one electron in its outer shell while helium has two. In this case, the
offset by the attraction of the protons in the nucleus. This balance condition can be outer shell is the first and only shell.
upset very easily so that the electron is dislodged from its orbit.
Not all electrons can be freed from the atom with the same ease. Some are dis- For atoms that have three to ten electrons, outer shell is the second shell.
lodged more easily than others. To see why, you must study the concept of orbital Regardless of which shell it happens to be, the outer shell is called the valence
shells. It has been proven that electrons orbit the atoms nucleus according to a shell and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.
certain pattern.
Electrons are arranged in such a way that the valence shell never has more than
For example, in all atoms that have two or more electrons, two of the electrons or-
eight electrons.
bit relatively close to the nucleus. The area in which these electrons travel is called
shell. The valence electrons are extremely important in electronics.
s
These are the electrons that can be easily freed and used to perform work. To un-
The shell closest to the nucleus contains two electrons. This area can support only
derstand why the valence electrons are easy to free, consider the structure of an
ic
two electrons and all other electrons must orbit in shells further from the nucleus.
atom of copper.
A second shell somewhat further from the nucleus can hold up to eight electrons. The figure below shows how the electrons are distributed in the various shells in
n
There is a third shell that can contain up to 18 electrons and a fourth shell that can the copper atom. Notice that the valence shell contains only one electron. This
ch
hold up to 32 electrons. electron is further from the nucleus than any of the other electrons.
From Coulombs Law you know that the force of attraction between charged parti-
Shell Subshell Max electrons Max electrons in shell cles decreases dramatically as the distance between the particles increases.
Te
in subshell Therefore, valence electrons experience less attraction from the nucleus. For this
reason, these electrons can be easily separated from the atom.
K 1s 2 2 Other figures below illustrate one way in which a valence electron can be freed.
L 2s 2 2+6=8
SR
Figure 8: .Valence Electron
2p 6
M 3s 2 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
3p 6
3d 10
N 4s 2 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
4p 6
4d 10
4f 14
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors Silicon and germanium are examples of elements whose valence shell is half filled.
Elements of this type are neither good conductors nor good insulators
Both the electrical and chemical characteristics of the elements depend on the ac-
tion of the valence electrons. An element’s electrical and chemical stability are de-
termined to a great extent by the number of electrons in the valence shell. You RESISTANCE
have seen that the valence shell can contain up to eight electrons. Those elements
that have valence shells that are filled or nearly filled tend to be stable. That is, they INSULATORS
tend to maintain their atomic structure rather than give up or accept electrons. Air or Vacuum
For example, the elements neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon have 8 elec-
trons in their valence shell. The valence shell is completely filled and, as a result, Fiber
these elements are so stable that they resist any sort of chemical activity. They will Bakelite
not even combine with other elements to form compounds. Furthermore, atoms of
these elements are very reluctant to give up electrons. Because they do not react Rubber High
with other elements, these elements are called inert gases.
s
Paper
Elements that have their valence shells almost filled also tend to be stable, al-
ic
though they are not as stable as those whose valence shells are completely filled. Shellac
These elements strive to fill their valence shell by capturing free electrons. Conse-
n
quently, elements of this type have very few free electrons in their atomic structure. Glass
ch
Substances that have very few free electrons in their atomic structure are called Mica
insulators. In addition to certain elements that act as insulators, there are many
compounds that exhibit the same characteristic. SEMICONDUCTORS
Te
Thus, they also act as insulators. By opposing the production of free electrons,
Germanium Medium
these substances resist certain electrical actions.
Insulators are important in electrical and electronics work for this reason. The plas- Silicon
tic material on electrical wires is an insulator that protects you from electrical
SR
CONDUCTORS
shock. Elements in which the valence shell is almost empty behave quite different-
ly than insulators. Elements that have only one or two electrons tend to give them Silver
up very easily.
For example, copper, silver and gold each have one valence electron. Copper
In these elements, the valence electrons are easily removed. Consequently, a bar Gold Low
of any one of these elements has a great number of free electrons. Substances
that have a large number of free electrons are called conductors. In addition to sil- Aluminium
ver, copper and gold, some other good conductors are iron, nickel and aluminium.
Notice that all of these elements are metals. Most metals are good conductors. Nickel
Conductors are important because they act as current paths and allow electrical Iron
current to move from one place to another.
Some elements have four electrons in their valence shell.
Training Manual 3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Electrical Charge To explain this force, science has adopted the concept of an electrostatic field.
Every charged particle is assumed to be surrounded by an electrostatic field that
Electrostatics deals with electrical charges at rest. On the other hand, electronics extends for a distance outside the particle itself. It is the interaction of the fields
deals with moving electrical charges. surrounding the charged particles that cause electron and proton to attract each
We have examined the structure of the atom and learned about some of the char- other.
acteristics of the electron, proton, and neutron.
An important characteristic of an atom is its electrical charge. Figure 1: Electrical Charge
The electrical charge is a property associated with the electron and the proton. It
is this electrical charge that makes the electron useful in electrical and electronic
work.
The electrical charge is difficult to visualise because it is not an object, like a mol-
ecule or an atom. Rather, it is a property or characteristic that electrons and pro-
tons have that causes these particles to behave in certain predictable ways.
s
There are two distinct types of electrical charges. Because these two types of
charges have opposite characteristics, they have been given the names positive
ic
and negative. The electrical charge associated with the electron has been arbitrar-
ily given the name negative.
n
The electrical charge associated with the proton is considered to be positive.
ch
The neutron has no electrical charge. It is electrically neutral and, therefore, plays
no known role in electricity or electronics.
The electron revolves around the nucleus of the atom in much the same way that
Te
the earth orbits the sun. You can compare this action to that of a ball that is at-
tached to the end of a string and twirled in a circle. If the string breaks, the ball flies
off in a straight line.
Thus, it is the restraining action of the string that holds the path of the ball to a cir-
SR
cle. In the case of the earth rotating around the sun, it is the gravitational attraction
of the sun that prevents the earth from flying off into space. The gravitational at-
traction of the sun exactly balances the centrifugal force of each planet. Therefore
the planets travel in more or less circular paths around the sun.
Electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom at a fantastic speed.
What force keeps them from flying off into space? It is not gravity because the
gravitational force exerted by the nucleus is much too weak. Instead, the force at
work here results from the charge on the electron in orbit and the charge on the
proton in the nucleus.
The negative charge of the electron is attracted by the positive charge of the pro-
ton.
This is called the force of attraction an electrostatic force.
Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 2:

There is a basic law that describes the action of electrical charges.
It is called Coulomb's Law after Charles A. de Coulomb, who discovered it.
Quite simply, Coulomb's Law states:
1. Like charges repel.
2. Unlike charges attract.
s
Because like charges repel, two electrons will repel each other.
In a like manner, two protons will also repel each other.
ic
Figure 2 illustrates how the lines of force interact between two electrons.
The direction of the lines of force are such that the two fields cannot interconnect.
n
The net effect that the electrons attempt to move apart. That is, they repel each
ch
other.
Figure 3 shows that the same is true of two protons. Figure 3:
Te
Figure 1 where an electron and a proton are shown.
Here, the two fields do interconnect. As a result, the two charges attract and tend
to move together.
These examples show only individual charged particles.
SR
However, Coulomb's Law holds true for concentrations of charges as well.
In fact, it holds true for any two charged bodies. An important part of Coulomb's
Law is the equation that allows you to determine the force of attraction or repulsion
between charged bodies.
Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 4:

The equation states that:
Q1 × Q2
F = k ⋅ ----------------------
2
d
where:
F = the force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of repulsion

between like charges.
Q1 = the charge on one body.
s
Q2 = the charge on the second body.
d2 = the square of the distance between the two bodies.
ic
k = Coulomb's constant
n
9
8.99 × 10
ch
An atom that is no longer in its neutral state is called an ion. Changing atoms to
ions is an easy thing to do and everything you see around you contains ions as
Te
well as atoms. The material around you also contains a large number of free or
stray electrons. These are electrons that have escaped from atoms leaving behind
positive ions.
The electrical characteristics of different types of material are determined largely
SR
by the number of free electrons and ions within the material.
Training Manual 3.3 Electrical Terminology
3.3 Electrical Terminology
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Potential Difference Figure 1:

The unit of potential difference is the volt. It is the difference of potential between
two points of a conducting wire carrying a current of 1 ampere, when the power
dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt.
The potential for producing current flow exists even though no current is flowing.
Potential meaning the possibility of doing work.
The potential to move electrons exists between any two unlike charges, that is,
when two charges are different, electrons will flow from one charge to the other if A B
given the chance.
Figure 2:
Charges can differ in two ways. First, they can be of opposite polarity. That is one
is positive and the other is negative as shown in Figure 1.
Secondly, they can have different magnitudes. Figure 2 shows two charges that
s
have the same polarity but different magnitudes.
ic
Charge A is more negative because it has more excess electrons than Charge B.
Figure 3 shows five terminals at various levels of charge.
n
Since no two are of the same magnitude and polarity a difference of potential ex-
ists between any two terminals. Consequently, if a conductor is placed between
ch
any two terminals, electrons will flow until those two charges are balanced.
Remember that electrons always flow from the more negative to the more positive
Te
terminal. A B
SR Figure 3:
A B C D E
Electromotive Force Figure 4:

The unit of Electromotive Force is the volt.
An electromotive force (EMF) is a force that tends to produce an electric current in
a circuit. That is, it is the force or pressure that sets electrons in motion.
The main sources of EMF are:
1. when electrodes of dissimilar materials are immersed in an electrolyte, as in

primary and secondary cells.
2. the relative movement of a conductor and a magnetic flux such as electric
generators and transformers.
s
3. the difference of temperature between junctions of dissimilar metals, as in
ic
thermocouples.
n
In Figure 4, the EMF causes electrons to flow in a closed circuit. Figure 5:
ch
In Figure 5, there is no current flow, as the switch is open, but the potential for cur-
Te
rent flow exists.
SR
Voltage Resistance
Voltage is the measure of EMF or Potential Difference. The unit of electric resistance is the OHM.
One volt is the magnitude of EMF that will cause one unit of energy to move one It can be defined as the resistance between two points of a conductor when a po-
coulomb of charge from one point to another. tential difference of one volt, applied between these points produces a current of
If a potential difference exists between two bodies a current will flow when they are one ampere.
joined by a conductor.
While that current is flowing HEAT energy is being generated. or,
We know that anything that has energy has the ability to do work but in electricity
we are usually more concerned with the rate at which work is done, which is called
POWER. The resistance of a circuit in which a current of one ampere generates heat of one
watt.
The unit of power is the WATT.
A volt is the difference in electrical potential between two points on a conductor Figure 6:
s
carrying a current of one ampere, when energy is dissipated between these two
ic
points at the rate of one watt.
n
Current
ch
Current is a flow of electrons but the electron itself is too small to be of use as the
unit of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit consisting of many mil-
lions of electrons has been chosen.
Te
It is called the Coulomb. One Coulomb = 6.28 x 10 18 electrons.
Note that this is a quantity of electricity not a measure of current, but it is used to
define the unit of electrical current, the AMPERE.
SR
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, one coulomb of electrons
pass any point in the conductor every second.
The size of an electrical current is dependant on the rate of flow of electrons, not
a number of electrons.
We can write this in equation form:
I = Q / t (Amperes)
One ampere of current flowing in a conductor for one hour is equivalent to 3600
coulombs and this is called an ampere-hour.
Factors Affecting Resistance Figure 7:

The most important factor in determining resistance is its resistivity.
However, other factors also contribute to a substance's resistance such as length,
cross-sectional area and temperature.
Length
A 60 feet length of number 22 insulated copper wire has a resistance of about 1
ohm.
A 120 feet length of the same wire has a resistance of approximately 2 ohms.
If you double the length of wire the resistance doubles.
Cross sectional Area

All other things being equal, the resistance of a substance is inversely proportional
s
to it's cross sectional area. If the cross sectional area doubles, the resistance
ic
drops to half it's former value.
Temperature
n
With most materials, the resistance changes with temperature changes. With
ch
changes in Length and Cross-sectional area the affects of changes are a known
value, however with changes in temperature materials react differently. In most
materials an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance.
Te
Materials that respond in this way are said to have a positive temperature co-effi-
cient.
Some substances, such as carbon have a negative temperature coefficient. This
means that as their resistance decreases as temperature increases. There are
SR
also materials whose resistance does not change with temperature change and
are said to have a zero or constant temperature co-efficient.
mils = 1/1000 inch
Conductance Figure 8:
Conductance is the opposite of resistance.
It is defined as the ease with which a substance allows a current to flow.
Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
This means that conductance is equal to the number 1 divided by the resistance.
Conductance = 1 / Resistance.
The letter G is used to represent conductance, so the equation can be written:
s
G=1/R
ic
The unit of conductance is the Siemens.
n
Mho is an alternate name of the ohm. Mho is derived from spelling ohm back-
ch
wards.
Conventional Current Flow
Te
Before the discovery of the true nature of electricity it was assumed that electric
current flowed from positive to negative, although we know now that electrons be-
ing negatively charged are repelled away from negative and attracted to positive.
The original concept of current flowing from positive to negative is called Conven-
SR
tional Current Flow.
Most electrical laws are based on this convention.
Electron Flow
A conductor is a substance that contains a large number of free electrons. These
free electrons do not stand still, they drift about in random motion. The drift of free
electrons can be influenced in such a way so as all or most of the electrons move
in the same direction through the conductor. This is done by placing electrical
charges at opposite ends of the conductor.
When a negative charge is placed at one end of a conductor and a positive charge
is placed at the other end, the negative charge repels the free electrons while the
positive one attracts them.
As a result, the free electrons move or drift in the same direction.
The direction of electron flow is from the negative to positive charge.
This is known as Electron Flow.
s
Figure 9:
n ic
ch
Te
SR
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.4 Generation of Electricity
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Primary Methods of Generation Voltage Produced by Friction

Presently, there are six commonly used methods of producing electromotive force This is the least used method of producing voltage. As a rule, friction electricity (of-
(EMF). Some of these methods are much more widely used than others. The fol- ten referred to as static electricity) is a nuisance.
lowing is a list of the six most common methods of producing electromotive force. For instance, a flying aircraft accumulates electric charges from the friction be-
tween it's skin and the passing air.
1. Friction These charges often interfere with radio communication, and under some circum-
Voltage produced by rubbing two materials together. stances can even cause physical damage to the aircraft.
2. Pressure Most individuals are familiar with static electricity and have probably received un-
(Piezoelectricity) - voltage produced by squeezing crystals of certain sub- pleasant shocks from friction electricity when sliding across dry seat covers or
stances. walking across dry carpets, and then coming in contact with some other object.
3. Heat Figure 1:
(Thermoelectricity) - voltage produced by heating the joint where two dissim-
s
ilar metals are joined.
ic
4. Light
(Photoelectricity) - voltage produced by light striking photosensitive substanc-
n
es.
ch
5. Chemical Action
voltage produced by chemical reaction in a battery cell.
6. Magnetism
Te
voltage produced in a conductor when the conductor moves through a mag-
netic field, or a magnetic field moves through the conductor in such a manner
as to cut the magnetic lines of force of the field. SR
Action of Electrostatic Charges Figure 2 shows a negatively charged comb placed close to an aluminium rod. The
excess electrons in the comb repel the free electrons in the rod.
The effects of an electrostatic charge can be spectacular. One effect is lightning.
Less spectacular examples are evident when removing clothes from a dryer, Consequently, the free electrons gather at the end of the rod away from the
combing hair, or touching a metal object after scuffing feet on a rug. In each of charged comb. This causes that end of the rod to acquire a negative charge. The
these cases, two different bodies receive opposite electrical charges. This occurs other end of the rod acquires a positive charge because of the deficiency of elec-
when one of the bodies gives up a large number of electrons to the other. The body trons.
that gives up the electrons becomes positively charged while the body receiving If the negative end of the rod is touched with a neutral body, some of the electrons
the electrons becomes negatively charged. leave the rod and enter the neutral body.
When hair is combed vigorously with a hard rubber comb, the hair gives up elec- This leaves the rod with a net positive charge. Thus, a positive charge is induced
trons to the comb. This causes the comb to become negatively charged while the into the rod without touching it with the charged body.
hair becomes positively charged.
Figure 2:
That is, the comb collects a large number of free electrons from the hair. This is an
example of charging by friction.
s
There are other ways in which an object can become charged.
ic
For example, the charge on the comb can be partially transferred to another body
simply by touching the comb to the uncharged body.
n
When the charged comb comes into contact with the uncharged object, many of
ch
the excess electrons leave the comb and collect on the other object. If the comb is
now removed, the object will have a charge of it's own. This is called charging by
contact.
Te
An object can also be charged by induction or electrostatic induction.
This method uses the electrostatic field which exists in the space surrounding a
charged body. In this way, an object can be charged without actually touching it
with a charged body.
SR
It is also possible to neutralise electrical charges. When a glass rod is rubbed with Figure 3:
a silk cloth, the glass gives up electrons to the silk.
As a result, the glass becomes positively charged while the silk becomes negative-
ly charged. This is shown in Figure 3 (A).
If the rod is now brought back into contact with the cloth, the negative electrons in
the silk are attracted by the positive charge in the glass. The force of this attraction
pulls the electrons back out of the silk so that the charge is neutralised as shown
in Figure 3 (B).
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Voltage Produced by Pressure Figure 4:

This action is referred to as piezoelectricity. It is produced by compressing or de-
compressing crystals of certain substances.
To study this form of electricity, the meaning of the word "crystal" must first be un-
derstood.
In a crystal, the molecules are arranged in an orderly and uniform manner. A sub-
stance in its crystallised state and its non-crystallised state is shown in the figure.
For the sake of simplicity, assume that the molecules of this particular substance
are spherical (ball-shaped). In the non crystallised state, in (A), note that the mol-
ecules are arranged irregularly.
In the crystallised state, (B) the molecules are arranged in a regular and uniform
manner.
s
This illustrates the major physical difference between crystal and non-crystal A B
ic
forms of matter.
Figure 5:
Natural crystalline matter is rare; an example of matter that is crystalline in its nat-
n
ural form is diamond, which is crystalline carbon.
ch
Most crystals are manufactured. Crystals of certain substances, such as Rochelle
salt or quartz, exhibit peculiar electrical characteristics.
These characteristics, or effects, are referred to as "piezoelectric".
Te
For instance, when a crystal of quartz is compressed, electrons tend to move
through the crystal as shown. This tendency creates an electric difference of po-
tential between the two opposite faces of the crystal.
SR
If an external wire is connected while the pressure and EMF are present, electrons
will flow. If the pressure is held constant, the electron flow will continue until the
charges are equalised. When the force is removed, the crystal is decompressed,
and immediately causes an electric force in the opposite direction.
Thus, the crystal is able to convert mechanical force, either pressure or tension, to
electrical force. The power capacity of a crystal is extremely small.
However, they are useful because of their extreme sensitivity to changes of me-
chanical force or changes in temperature.
Voltage Produced by Heat Figure 6: Thermocouples

When a length of metal, such as copper, is heated at one end, electrons tend to
move away from the hot end toward the cooler end.
This is true of most metals. However, in some metals, such as iron, the opposite
takes place and electrons tend to move toward the hot end.
The negative charges (electrons) are moving through the copper away from the
heat and through the iron toward the heat. They cross from the iron to the copper
at the hot junction, and from the copper through the current meter to the iron at the
cold junction.
This device is generally referred to as a thermocouple.
Thermocouples
s
Thermocouples have somewhat greater power capacities than crystals, but their
capacity is still very small if compared to some other sources.
ic
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple depends mainly on the difference in
n
temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
ch
Consequently, they are widely used to measure temperature, and as heat sensing
devices in automatic temperature control equipment.
Thermocouples generally can be subjected to much greater temperatures than or-
Te
dinary thermometers, such as the mercury or alcohol types.
Thermocouples are used on aircraft to measure exhaust gas temperature and cyl-
inder head temperature. The most popular thermocouple combinations used on
aircraft are:
SR
1. Chromel and Alumel
2. Copper and Constantan
Voltage Produced by Light Figure 7:
Photocells
When light strikes the surface of a substance, it may dislodge electrons from their
orbits around the surface atoms of the substance. This occurs because light has
energy, the same as any moving force.
Some substances, mostly metallic ones, are far more sensitive to light than others.
That is, more electrons will be dislodged and emitted from the surface of a highly
sensitive metal, with a given amount of light, than will be emitted from a less sen-
sitive substance.
Upon losing electrons, the photosensitive (light sensitive) metal becomes positive-
ly charged, and an electric force is created.
s
Voltage produced in this manner is referred to as "a photoelectric voltage".
The photosensitive materials most commonly used to produce a photoelectric volt-
ic
age are various compounds of silver oxide or copper oxide.
n
A complete device which operates on a photoelectric principle is referred to as a
"photoelectric cell".
ch
There are many sizes and types of photoelectric cells in use, each of which serves
the special purpose for which it was designed.
Te
A photocell's power capacity is very small. However, it reacts to light-intensity var-
iations in an extremely short time.
This characteristic makes the photocell very useful in detecting or accurately con-
trolling a great number of processes or operations.
SR
For instance, the photoelectric cell, or some form of the photoelectric principle, is
used in television cameras, automatic manufacturing process controls, door open-
ers, burglar alarms, and so forth.
Voltage Produced by Chemical Action Because current flow is always in the same direction, the current flow is called di-
rect current or DC and the EMF supplied by the battery is referred to as a DC volt-
Electrons may be removed from their parent atoms and set in motion by energy age or volts DC.
derived from a source of friction, pressure, heat, or light.
In general, these forms of energy do not alter the molecules of the substance being Figure 8:
acted upon. That is, molecules are not usually added, taken away, or split-up when
subjected to these four forms of energy. Only electrons are involved.
When the molecules of a substance are altered, the action is referred to as chem-
ical. For instance, if the molecules of a substance combines with atoms of another
substance, or gives up atoms of its own, the action is chemical
Such action always changes the chemical name and characteristics for the sub-
stance affected. For instance, when atoms of oxygen from the air come in contact
with bare iron, they merge with the molecules of iron. This iron is "oxidised".
s
ic
It has changed chemically from iron to iron oxide, or rust.
It's molecules have been altered by chemical action. In some cases, when atoms
n
are added to or taken away from the molecules of a substance, the chemical
change will cause the substance to take on an electric charge. The process of pro-
ch
ducing a voltage by chemical action is used in batteries.
Figure 8 illustrates how a basic battery or cell is made.
Te
A glass beaker is filled with a solution of sulphuric acid and water.
This solution is called the electrolyte.
In the electrolyte, the sulphuric acid breaks down into hydrogen and sulphate. Be-
cause of the chemical action involved, the hydrogen atoms give up electrons to the
SR
molecules of sulphate.
Thus, the hydrogen atoms exist as positive ions while the sulphate molecules act
as negative ions. Even so, the solution has no net charge since there are the same
number of negative and positive charges.
Next, two bars called electrodes are placed in the solution. One bar is copper while
the other is zinc. The positive hydrogen ions attract the free electrons in the cop-
per. This causes the copper bar to give up electrons to the electrolyte. Thus the
copper bar is left with a net positive charge.
The zinc reacts with the sulphate in much the same way.
The sulphate molecules have a negative charge. Thus the positive zinc ions are
pulled from the bar. This leaves the zinc bar with a surplus of electrons and a net
negative charge. If a conductor is connected between the zinc and copper bars,
electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal.
Magnetism and Motion Figure 9:

This is the most widely used method of producing electrical power.
At present, it is the only practical method that can produce enough electrical power
to run an entire city. Well over 99 percent of all electrical power available today is
produced by this method.
The method for producing an EMF with magnetism is quite simple.
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an EMF is produced.
This is called magneto-electricity.
The force of the magnetic field and the movement of the conductor provide the en-
ergy necessary to free electrons in the conductor.
If the conductor forms a closed loop, then the electrons will flow through the con-
ductor. If the conductor does not form a closed loop, a potential difference is still
s
present.
ic
The basic requirements for producing an EMF using this method are a magnetic
field, a conductor, and a relative motion between the two.
n
Figure 9 illustrates how this is done. Here, the magnetic field is produced by a per-
ch
manent magnet.
The field is represented by the lines drawn from the north to the south poles of the
magnet.
Te
If a conductor is moved up so that it moves across the field as shown in Figure A,
electrons flow in the direction indicated.
The same effect can be obtained if the conductor is held still and the magnet is
SR
moved down. All that is required is relative motion between the magnetic field and
the conductor.
Figure B shows that electrons flow in the opposite direction.
If the relative motion is reversed when the conductor is moved up and down the
magnetic field, the direction of the electron flow changes each time the motion re-
verses.
In generators, a reciprocal motion like this occurs.
Thus, the current produced alternately flows in one direction then the other. This
is known as alternating current or simply AC.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Introduction Figure 1: Electrical Cell

Each and every one of us is familiar with batteries in some form or the other,
whether it is in everyday use or on aircraft. To maintain an aircraft battery we must
have some understanding of how a cell functions, and the basic construction of a
battery.
Cells
There are various types of cell, each will have:
1. A different use
2. Different voltages
3. Different capacities
s
4. Different sizes and weights.
At this point we do not need to know too much about the chemical action that takes
ic
place inside the cell, only how this will affect the operation of the cell. i.e. gassing
and relative density.
n
Each battery consists of cells connected in series.
ch
We will first discuss the difference between the PRIMARY and SECONDARY cell.
The Electrical-Cell
Te
Let us first define what we mean by a CELL.
It consists of two dissimilar elements, known as plates, immersed in a solution,
known as an electrolyte.
SR
The cell stores chemical energy and converts this to electrical energy when con-
nected to an external circuit.
Primary Cell Figure 3: Secondary Cell

The electrolyte is in paste form.
During discharge, one plate is involved in a chemical reaction and the electrolyte
becomes weaker.
This type of cell cannot be recharged.
An example of its use is in a torch battery.
Secondary Cell
The chemical process which occur during discharge can be reversed by passing
current in the opposite direction to that current which flowed during discharge.
This is known as charging.
These types of cell are found in the main aircraft battery.
s
ic
Figure 2: Primary Cell
n
ch
Te
SR
Electrical Output of a Cell Cells - Series and Parallel

Connecting cells in series will INCREASE BATTERY VOLTAGE.
Cell Voltage
The terminal voltage of each cell is added together to obtain the battery terminal
The terminal voltage of a cell depends on the material of the plates and the elec- voltage.
trolyte used. The nominal voltage of a new cell, the type generally used in a torch,
is 1.5 volts. Note, the capacity does not increase.
This is a PRIMARY cell. Connecting cells or batteries in parallel will INCREASE THE CAPACITY.
The nominal voltage of a LEAD/ACID cell is 2 volts. The capacity of each cell or battery is added together to obtain the total capacity.
The nominal voltage of a NICKEL/CADMIUM cell is 1.2 volts.
Note, the voltage does not increase.
Cell Capacity
This will depend on the actual size, i.e. the area of the plates. Cell Internal Resistance
s
The larger the area of the plate the higher the capacity, that is the amount of cur- The reason for this is the INTERNAL RESISTANCE of the cell or battery.
rent the cell is capable of supplying.
ic
The EMF developed by the cell is NOT affected by internal resistance, only the
The two cells in the diagram below have identical material and electrolyte. TERMINAL VOLTAGE decreases when a current is flowing.
n
Therefore they have the same voltage, but a different capacity. The TERMINAL VOLTAGE is reduced by:
ch
Figure 4:
1. INCREASE in CURRENT
Te
2. INCREASE in INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
SR
Figure 5: 12V Batteries Connected in Series Figure 6: 12V Batteries Connected in Parallel
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Thermocouples Figure 8:
Thermocouples have somewhat greater power capacities than crystals, but their
capacity is still very small if compared to some other sources.
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple depends mainly on the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
Consequently, they are widely used to measure temperature, and as heat sensing
devices in automatic temperature control equipment.
Thermocouples generally can be subjected to much greater temperatures than or-
dinary thermometers, such as the mercury or alcohol types.
Thermocouples are used on aircraft to measure exhaust gas temperature and cyl-
inder head temperature. The most popular thermocouple combinations used on
aircraft are:
s
ic
1. Chromel and Alumel
n
2. Copper and Constantan.
ch
Figure 7: Thermocouple
Te
SR
Photocells Figure 9: Photocell

When light strikes the surface of a substance, it may dislodge electrons from their
orbits around the surface atoms of the substance. This occurs because light has
energy, the same as any moving force.
Some substances, mostly metallic ones, are far more sensitive to light than others.
That is, more electrons will be dislodged and emitted from the surface of a highly
sensitive metal, with a given amount of light, than will be emitted from a less sen-
sitive substance.
Upon losing electrons, the photosensitive (light sensitive) metal becomes positive-
ly charged, and an electric force is created.
Voltage produced in this manner is referred to as "a photoelectric voltage".
The photosensitive materials most commonly used to produce a photoelectric volt-
s
age are various compounds of silver oxide or copper oxide.
ic
A complete device which operates on a photoelectric principle is referred to as a
"photoelectric cell".
n
There are many sizes and types of photoelectric cells in use, each of which serves
ch
the special purpose for which it was designed.
A photocell's power capacity is very small. However, it reacts to light-intensity var-
iations in an extremely short time.
Te
This characteristic makes the photocell very useful in detecting or accurately con-
trolling a great number of processes or operations.
For instance, the photoelectric cell, or some form of the photoelectric principle, is
used in television cameras, automatic manufacturing process controls, door open-
SR
ers, burglar alarms, and so forth.
Lead Acid Cell Voltage:

Charged: 2.2 volt (approx.) 2.0 volt (nominal)
Construction of an Individual Cell
Discharged: 1.8 volt.
Plates Electrolyte:
These consist of grids made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. Charged: 1.260 ref. manufacturer's specification.
Electrolyte Discharged: 1.150
This is a solution of SULPHURIC ACID diluted with distilled water. Terminal Voltage:
It is essential that the level is maintained just above the top of the plates. Voltage will fall on load, the rate depends on the:
With excessive current the plates may be distorted and short out or shed plate ma- State of charge.
terial which forms a sediment at the bottom of the container. To prevent the plates
being shorted by the sediment the plates are raised clear of the container bottom. Internal resistance.
s
A separator is fitted between the plates to prevent them coming into contact with Lead Acid Battery
ic
each other. Such separators must have a high insulation and allow free circulation
of the electrolyte. This type of battery shown below contains two matched pairs of 12 volt cell blocks
connected in series. The cell blocks are made from a polystyrene material which
n
The Lead Acid Cell in Use is impervious to the electrolyte. It acts as an insulator and is shock resistant (heavy
ch
landings).
The cell action that occurs as it charges and discharges is shown below:
The case is made of acid proofed aluminium.
From this we can see that RELATIVE DENSITY (RD) and VOLTAGE (V) are good
Te
indicators of the state of charge of the cell. Electrical Connection
Lead Sulphate A quick release connector is used to prevent incorrect terminal connection.
This forms on both plates as the cell discharges and acts as an insulator. This re- Vent Plug
SR
duces the effective area of plate. What effect will this have on the cell's output?
The cell's capacitance is decreased and the internal resistance is increased; so This is fitted to allow gasses produced by chemical action to escape without leak-
our cell's output deteriorates. age of electrolyte in normal aircraft manoeuvres.
Another problem of lead sulphate is that if left on the plate it sets like concrete and The area under the cover is used for ventilation of these gasses into the aircraft
charging cannot remove it. This is one of the reasons we never leave the lead acid battery venting system.
battery in a discharged state. Note, this chamber is quite separate from the cooling air circulating around the cell
blocks.
Fully Charged Cell
We now have the information to determine if our lead acid cell is charged, dis- Hydrometer
charged, or partially charged. The points we are looking for are: The purpose of a Hydrometer is to measure the RD (Relative Density) of the elec-
trolyte.
Relative Density is an interchangeable term for Specific Gravity.
Summary Figure 10:

The cell contains two dissimilar elements and an electrolyte.
A cell stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy.
A primary cell cannot be charged.
A secondary cell can be charged.
Cell voltage depends on electrode material and electrolyte.
Cell capacity is the amount of current a cell is capable of supplying - size of plates.
Cells in series increase the voltage.
Cells in parallel increase the capacity.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Alkaline Cells Electrolyte

In the past the Nickel Cadmium battery was at a disadvantage compared with the The electrolyte is a solution of POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE and either DISTILLED
lead acid battery, mainly due to cost. or DE-IONISED water.
Today's Nickel Cadmium battery is a different breed. The Relative Density (RD) is set by the manufacturer of the battery and is normally
It is reliable and though the initial cost is high, it's in-service life is long if maintained between 1.240 and 1.300.
correctly. It also has a greater performance. The RD is unaffected by the state of charge, i.e., the RD does not change as the
cell charges and discharges.
It will maintain an almost steady terminal voltage while discharging and can take
more punishment, high discharge current, without causing internal cell damage. Therefore the RD of the electrolyte is not a measure of the state of charge of the
cell.
In a lead acid cell, the electrolyte is an acid, with the alkaline cell the electrolyte is
an alkali. (Chemically, an exact opposite). The state of charge of the cell relates to the level of the electrolyte. The level
changes as the cell charges and discharges but should always cover the top of the
If ACID and ALKALI come into contact with each other they will neutralise each plates.
other. Therefore, they must always be kept apart.
s
NOTE Contact with carbon dioxide, which is in the air, will reduce the RD of the
There are three basic types of alkaline cell: electrolyte.
ic
• Nickel Cadmium (Ni/Cd)
• Nickel Iron (Ni/Fe) Cell Cap
n
• Silver Zinc The basic reason for any cell cap is to prevent foreign objects entering the cell, to
ch
In today's aircraft Ni/Cd batteries have become the most preferred type of alkaline allow inspection or adjustment of the level of the electrolyte, and to permit gassing.
battery. Vent caps on the lead acid cell are free to gas at all times.
The Ni/Cd cell cannot have a fully open type vent cap due to carbon dioxide in the
Te
Nickel Cadmium Cell Construction air. Carbon dioxide will contaminate the electrolyte and reduce the RD, therefore
The case of a single Ni/Cd cell and is made of a plastic/nylon material which allows the atmosphere must be kept out of the Ni/Cd cell.
for a slight expansion of the cell when fully charged. There are three basic types of cap for Ni/Cd cells:
SR
It acts as an insulator between cells and is impervious to electrolyte. SEALED: The cell is completely sealed. Used on small capacity batteries, emer-
gency lighting circuits.
Cell Plates SEMI-SEALED: This cell is almost fully sealed but has a safety pressure valve.
The plates are manufactured by sintering a nickel powder around a wire screen.
SEMI-OPEN: It is fitted with an NRV (non return valve) allowing the cell to gas yet
Sintering means partial fusion under the influence of heat.
preventing the electrolyte from being contaminated by the air. Used as main air-
They are then impregnated with the active plate material, i.e. craft battery.
• POSITIVE PLATE - NICKEL A higher rate of gassing takes place when the cell is at a charged state. This rate
• NEGATIVE PLATE - CADMIUM of gassing can carry with it some of the water content of the electrolyte.
This type of plate construction allows the electrolyte to be absorbed which helps
increase the plate area.
Also, it does not suffer from 'shedding' under high discharge current.
Separator Charged State

An important part of the Ni/Cd cell construction is the separator. There is only one precise method to determine if a Ni/Cd cell is fully charged and
It consists of a triple layer, a cellophane film with a layer of woven nylon on either that is to fully discharge it at a measured rate against time. Any in-situ check on
side. The nylon acts as an insulator between the plates of opposite polarity. The the aircraft can only INDICATE the state of charge of a Ni/Cd battery.
cellophane film acts as a gas barrier to keep the oxygen, generated on the positive Figure 11:
plate while charging, from reaching the negative plate. If large quantities of oxygen
do reach the negative plate because of a damaged gas barrier, the cell will:
1. Lose voltage,
2. Increase temperature.
3. Decrease internal resistance.
4. Increase charge current.
s
This is known as THERMAL RUNAWAY.
ic
Ni/Cd Charge/Discharge States
The action that occurs as a Ni/Cd cell discharges and charges is as follows:
n
Positive Plate
ch
In its charged state has more hydroxide.
Negative Plate
Te
In its discharged state it gains hydroxide.
These two statements show you that the plates do go through a chemical change
during discharge and charge.
SR
Electrolyte
Note that the RD does not change during discharge and charge. It is the level that
changes, the plates absorb the electrolyte as the cell discharges, so the level falls.
The RD of the electrolyte varies for different batteries.
The actual value for a battery is stated in the manufacturer's instructions.
Cell Voltage
The nominal voltage for a Ni/Cd cell is 1.2v. The charged and discharged voltages
vary between manufacturers.
NOTE:
During battery maintenance the cell is discharged down to zero volts.
Thermal Runaway A lead-acid battery can also enter thermal runaway, but does not enter this state
at such a rapid rate as the Ni/Cd battery.
Thermal runaway, perhaps more appropriately termed overcharge runaway, is a
condition of overcharge instability. Figure 12:
It occurs in the latter part of the charge cycle.
During a normal charge cycle, the heat generated by the charging current is dissi-
pated by the battery and the battery temperature does not rise appreciably.
As the Ni/Cd cell reaches it's charged state, higher gassing takes place.
If the cell temperature is permitted to rise higher, the internal resistance and the
voltage would fall.
If the internal resistance falls the charging current will increase which in turn caus-
es more heat.
s
This chain reaction effect builds up rapidly and leads to the destruction of the gas
barrier, then the cell, and finally a fire or even an explosion.
ic
So thermal runaway takes place very rapidly and is a danger to aircraft.
n
Causes
ch
Some of the causes of thermal runaway are:
1. Aircraft battery location, poor ventilation.
Te
2. Higher than normal charging current.
3. Frequent or lengthy engine starts. (Electric starter).
4. Loose cell connection.
SR
5. Low electrolyte.
6. Damaged gas barrier.
7. Unbalanced cells (see charging booklet).
Preventive Action
To prevent this dangerous situation from arising the following action is recom-
mended.
1. High Standard of Maintenance
2. Design - Battery location
3. Monitor charge current
4. Monitor battery temperature
Nickel Cadmium Battery Figure 13:

There are 20 cells connected in series in a Ni/Cd battery (1.2v x 20 = 24v).
Also produced is a 19 cell battery and some with even 22 cells.
The 19 cell battery is not widely used. As the normal number of cells in a Ni/Cd
battery is 20, we will use this as our basic battery.
Construction of Ni/Cd Battery

The general construction details are shown in the figure below.
The case is of treated metal.
It contains 20 cells connected in series which are secured with plastic spacers,
side wedges, and retainers.
The battery main connector is a quick release type, which prevents incorrect con-
s
nection.
A removable lid is fitted on the case.
ic
The case is vented to the aircraft or the battery venting system depending on air-
n
craft design.
ch
Each battery has a data plate with leading particulars of the battery.
Temperature Sensor
Te
With the danger of thermal runaway, it is important to monitor the battery temper-
ature.
For this reason a majority of Ni/Cd batteries have a small connector for tempera-
ture sensors.
SR
The temperature can be monitored in two basic ways:
1. A temperature sensitive switch mounted inside the battery case: In an over-
heat condition operation of the switch will give a cockpit warning for the pilot
to carry out action, or automatically stop the charge.
2. A temperature sensor mounted between the cells: As the temperature rises
the charge is reduced or even stopped.
Emergency Lighting Batteries Capacity Test

Some of the types of cells used are:
Nominal Rating
1. Dry cell (primary)
Nominal rating is the manufacturers stated output of a new battery.
2. Ni/Cd cell (secondary). It is expressed in Ampere Hours (AH) and an hour rate.
Ampere Hour
Today's transport aircraft are fitted with emergency lighting units which contain:
A term used when talking about batteries is Ampere Hour (AH).
It is the discharge current of a fully charged battery multiplied by the time taken
a) (a) The battery pack, (sealed Ni/Cd cells) from the fully charged to the discharged state.
b) (b) Transistorised control circuit and a charging circuit. DISCHARGE CURRENT (AMPS) x DISCHARGE TIME (HOURS) = AH
e.g. A new 20AH at the 1 HOUR RATE battery with 20 amps flowing should take
1 hour to discharge.
s
While the aircraft normal supply is available the circuit controls the charge of the
battery of Ni/Cd cells.
ic
When the aircraft supply fails, providing the flight deck switch arms the system, the 20 amps x 1 hour = 20AH or
emergency lights are automatically switched on.
n
10 amps x 2 hours = 20AH Hour Rate
The duration of this type of emergency battery is 20 minutes for a fully charged bat-
ch
tery, and the charging time is 16 hours.
Figure 14:
Te
SR
Capacity Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas

It is required to understand the terms: If any particle from a LEAD ACID battery workshop comes into contact with an AL-
Nominal Rating KALINE battery, or any particle from an ALKALINE battery workshop contacts a
Ampere Hour LEAD ACID battery, the electrolyte becomes contaminated.
Hour Rate Therefore, the L/A and Ni/Cd batteries with their maintenance equipment must al-
ways be kept apart.
to be able to talk about the CAPACITY of a battery.
This is achieved by:
The Nominal Rating gives a rated output but this only applies to a new battery.
1. Having separate charging rooms.
After the battery enters service, it's ability to deliver the Nominal Rating decreases
until eventually it must be withdrawn from service. 2. Not transferring equipment from one workshop to the other.
To measure the CAPACITY of a battery it must be fully charged and then dis- 3. Clearly identifying the equipment and areas with notices,
charged at its continuous current rating and at the same time recording the time e.g. ACID ONLY, ALKALINE ONLY
s
(in hours) it takes to reach the discharged state.
Hazards Associated With Industrial Batteries
ic
For Example • Hydrogen Gas
A battery is rated at 20 AH at the 1 Hour Rate.
n
• Sulfuric Acid
Record the time in hours from fully charged to discharged, assume 48 minutes. • Shock
ch
Discharge at a continuous 20 amps. • Weight of the Battery
ACTUAL(Ah) 100 Hydrogen Gas
Te
CAPACITY= ----------------------------------- x ---------
RATED(Ah) 1 • A by-product of the battery’s charging process.
• Lighter than air.
20 × 48- 100 • Flammable in nature.
SR
----------------- × --------- • Explosive mixture at 4 – 74% by volume of air.
20 × 60 1
• Can not taste or see the gas vapors. You can smell the acid in the battery if it
heats up.
This battery therefore has a capacity of 80%. Acid Hazards
Therefore it is 80% of the nominal rating, so the battery will now only give:
• Ph <2 (Typically Sulfuric Acid)
80% of 20 AH = 16 AH • Corrosive material
• Burns to skin
• Burns to eyes
• Never open the battery caps with your face directly over the battery.
Electrical Hazard Handling Battery Acid

• Exposed terminals, even on disconnected batteries, present an electrical • Use extreme caution when handling electrolyte and keep an acid neutralizing
shock hazard. solution, such as baking soda readily available.
• Some battery systems are capable of discharging at extremely high rates of • Always wear proper eye, face and hand protection.
current. Accidental shorting of terminals or cables can result in severe electri- • Use non-metallic containers to handle liquid.
cal arcing, causing burns and electric shock to nearby personnel. • If the electrolyte is splashed into an eye, immediately force the eye open and
flood it with clean, cool water for at least 15 minutes. Get prompt medical at-
Electrical Safety Precautions tention.
• Never touch both battery terminals with your bare hands at the same time! • If electrolyte is taken internally, drink large quantities of water or milk. DO NOT
• Remove rings, watches and dangling jewelry when working with or near bat- induce vomiting. Call a physician immediately.
teries. The metal in the jewelry can cause a shock or burn if they contact the • Neutralize with baking soda any electrolyte that spills on a vehicle or in the
battery terminals. work area. After neutralizing, rinse contaminated area clean with water.
s
• Only use insulated/non-conducting tools to remove cell caps. Never lay tools • To prepare electrolyte of a desired specific gravity, always pour the concen-
or other metal parts on top of a battery. trated acid slowly into the water; DO NOT pour water into the acid. Always stir
ic
• Consider covering battery terminals and connectors if possible with an insu- the water while adding small amounts of acid. If noticeable heat develops, al-
lating blanket before overhead inspections or repairs. low the solution to cool before continuing to add acid.
n
• Ensure charger is turned off before connecting or disconnecting a battery to
ch
prevent arcing.
Fire and Explosion Precautions
Te
• Do not smoke in battery charging areas.
• Prevent open flames, sparks or electric arcs in battery charging areas.
• Do not strike the sides of the battery with any spark producing item.
SR
• Keep tools and other metallic objects away from uncovered batteries.
• Have an ABC dry chemical fire extinguisher in charging areas or readily avail-
able
• Neutralize static buildup just before working on battery by contacting nearest
grounded surface.
• Ensure battery area ventilation is operating prior to working on.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Requirements for Electrolyte Safety Eye Wash & Shower Requirements
Handling • An eyewash facility should be capable of flushing both eyes simultaneously
PPE Requirements: for fifteen minutes and a water hose or safety shower that, if portable, is ca-
• Safety Glasses/goggles pable of drenching the body.
• Rubber Gloves • Eyewash and drenching facilities are to be located as close to the point of ex-
posure as possible of battery handling areas (not to exceed 25 ft.) (OSHA)
• Face Shield
• If Acid comes in contact with eyes, flush for 15 minutes and report to medical
• Chemical Apron
immediately.
• Boots • If acid comes in contact with skin or clothing, rinse off for several minutes and
Figure 15: try not to spread the electrolyte. Report to medical after rinsing.
Figure 16:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.6 DC Circuits
3.6 DC Circuits
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Ohms Law Figure 1:

Ohm's Law defines the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
Ohm's Law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely pro-
portional to resistance.
This law is used extensively in electrical and electronic circuit analyses. By arrang-
ing the symbols within the triangle as shown in the figure below the method of de-
termining the value of an unknown quantity is shown when it's symbol is correct.
As long as the V is at the top i.e. next to the apex, it does not matter where the
other two symbols are placed.
When the symbols are given values in the solution of a problem, the values must
be in the basic units i.e. volts for V, amperes for I and ohms for R.
Consider the following circuit in which a current of 10 amperes flows in a resist-
s
ance of 5 ohms. Find the potential difference V developed across
n ic
V = R × I = Volts
ch
V = 5 × 10 = 50 ( Volts )
Te
SR
Perform the following calculations: Figure 4:

1. Calculate the current flowing in a circuit if the supply voltage is 12 VDC and
the resistance is 2 ohms. Figure 2
2. Calculate the value of the supply voltage if the circuit current is 3 amps and
the resistance is 4 ohms. Figure 3
3. Calculate the circuit resistance if the supply voltage is 12 VDC and the current
is 4 amps. Figure 4
Figure 2:
s
n ic
ch
Te
Figure 3:
SR
Kirchoff's Laws Kirchoff's Second Law (Voltage Law)

Resistors can be connected together in series or in parallel. In any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum
When resistors are connected in parallel the sum of the individual currents flowing of all the voltage drops within the same loop which is also equal to zero. In other
in the resistors is equal to the current flowing into the parallel network. words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This
idea by Kirchoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
When resistors are connected in series, the applied voltage is equal to the sum of
the voltages developed across the resistors. The First Law states that current cannot be lost.
These two facts are expressed in two laws stated by KIRCHOFF and defined as However, the Second Law needs a little more explanation.
follows: The mathematical term 'algebraic' is used and this means the EMF’s and Potential
Drops must be given their correct sign, i.e. positive (+) or negative (-) according to
Kirchoff's First Law (Current Law) the way the EMF's are trying to drive current round the closed circuit, and for the
The sum of the currents flowing into an electrical junction of conductors equals the Potential Drops, the direction the current is flowing in the resistors.
sum of the currents flowing out of the junction. In other words this law states that in any closed circuits the algebraic sum of the
s
Figure 5: potential drops is equal to the algebraic sum of the EMF’s acting in the loop.
ic
Figure 6:
n
ch
Te
SR
The batteries try to drive conventional current from their positive terminal, the Refer Figure 7
longer line, to their negative terminal, the shorter line. Loop 1
To solve a problem like this, ordinary network analysis as used previously is not 6 = 2I1 + 5(I1 + I2)
possible because the circuit cannot be simplified into one which has one source
connected to resistors in series and/or parallel. therefore, 6 = 7I1 + 5I2 Eq.1
However, by applying Kirchoff's Laws to the problem the currents in the three arms
I1, I2 and I3 can be determined. Loop 2 2 = 3I2 + 5(I1 + I2)
From Kirchoff's First Law we know that since I1 and I2 flow into the junction X, therefore, 2 = 5I1 + 8I2 Eq.2
therefore I3 (I1+I2), must flow out.
We can now use Kirchoff's Second Law for each of the closed loops and obtain
Solving the two simultaneous equations (1) and (2)
the three following equations:
I1 = 1.226 amps and I2 = -0.516.amp
s
This clearly shows that we chose the direction of I2 incorrectly and indeed for this
circuit the battery is being charged at 0.516 A.
ic
The other current is given by Kirchoff's First Law as follows;
n
I3 = I1 +I2
ch
I3 = 1.226 - 0.516 A,
I3 = 0.71 A
Te
Figure 7:
SR
Internal Resistance of a Supply Figure 8:

That which is measured at the terminals of a battery is not equal to the Electromo-
tive Force of the battery, but rather the terminal Potential Difference.
Both are measured in Volts.
Any cell, battery or generator has an internal resistance whose magnitude de-
pends on the particular form of construction of the cell or generator.
This internal resistance can be represented as a small resistor connected in series
with the true source of EMF.
If the cell depicted is on open circuit, then the voltage present between the termi-
nals is equal to the EMF E, since there is no voltage drop across r, the current
through r being zero.
If now a resistor of relatively low value is connected across the terminals the meas-
s
ured terminal voltage will be less than the EMF E, as the cell is now delivering an
ic
appreciable current and there is an internal voltage drop across r.
The measurement is now the terminal pd.
n
Let E be the EMF of the cell and V the terminal pd.
ch
If a current I is flowing around the circuit through an external resistor R,
Te
Vr = E – r × I
The voltage "lost" in the cell is E - VR.

SR
Clearly, we can express the current in three ways:
E Vr
I = ------------ = ------ = E – V-
------------
r+R r r
Exercises Draw the following Circuit and calculate the Values of I1 and I2
1. Calculate the voltage drops across two series connected resistors each of val-
ue 10 ohms, if the supply voltage is 100 Vdc. Figure 10:
2. Calculate the circuit current for a circuit containing two series connected re-
sistors, R1 is 25 ohms, R2 is 75 ohms, if the supply voltage is 100 Vdc.
3. What is the value of R1 in a circuit containing two series connected resistors,
where VR2 is 15 Vdc and R2 is 30 ohms, if the supply voltage is 20 Vdc.
Figure 9:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR V1 = 10Vdc, R1 is in series with V1, R1 is 10ohms,
V2 = 20Vdc, R2 is in series with V2, R2 is 20 ohms,
R3 is in series with both R1 and R2 and its value is 40ohms.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.7 Resistance/Resistor
3.7 Resistance/Resistor
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Resistance
The reason why heat is produced in a conductor carrying a current leads to anoth-
er way in which the unit of the volt is often defined. Conductors give up free elec-
trons easily thereby offering very little opposition or RESISTANCE (R) to current
flow, whilst insulators are the opposite and offer very large resistance to current
flow. It is this resistance which produces heat when current flows and it varies from
one material to another.
The unit of resistance is the OHM given the Greek Symbol Omega (Ω) and allows
the volt to be defined as:
'The potential difference between two points in a circuit having a resistance (R) of
1 ohm between them and carrying a current of 1 ampere’.
s
This relationship leads to the very important electrical circuit equation.
ic
V = IxR
n
ch
Which is called Ohm’s Law.
This law is used extensively in electrical and electronic circuit analysis. The other
Te
two forms of it are
I = V/R
SR
And
R = V/I
By arranging the symbols within the triangle as shown in the figure below the meth- Multiples/Sub-Multiples
od of determining the value of an unknown quantity is shown when its symbol is
correct. The table below tells you the multiples and sub-multiples of all units and it will be
seen that they are formed by the addition of a prefix to the name of the unit e.g. a
Figure 1: Ohm’s Law Triangle kilometer is one thousand meters.
Figure 2:
s
n ic
ch
It must be remembered that when the symbols are given values in the solution of
a problem, the values must be in the basic units i.e. volts for V, amperes for I and
Te
ohms for R.
Consider the following circuit in which a current of 10 amperes flows in a resist-

ance of 5 Ω and we wish to find the potential difference V volts developed across it.
SR
The solution will be:
V = I x R volts
i.e. V = 10 X 5 = 50 volts
Examples of Multiples and Sub-multiples commonly used

1mA means 1 milli ampere which is 0.001 of an ampere, therefore if a problem is To find the value of R, L must be in metres, A in square metres and(ρ) found in
one in which the current is 35mA, when this is put in the Ohms Law equation it tables in physical textbooks, in ohms-metres.
must be written as 35 X 10-3. Consider the following problem. If the length of a piece of material is doubled and
Similarly a resistance of 15M would be written as 15 X 106 and a voltage of 5KV its area is halved, what is the effect on its resistance?
would be written as 5 X 103. Since L is doubled and A is halved the effect is to quadruple the value of the re-
The omega (Ω) sign is missed out in the last sentence when writing a resistance sistance.
of 15 Megohm, because the (Ω) sign is not used when a prefix is used and the This is all very well but what materials are we talking about when used to make
accepted way of writing resistance values is as follows: resistors.
Figure 3:
10 ohms written as 10 Ω
s
1.5 kilohms written as 1K5
n ic
43.7 megohms written as 43M7
ch
Factors affecting Resistance
The value of the current in a circuit is not only dependent upon the size of the volt-
Te
age being used but also the RESISTANCE. The factors that affect the value of a
resistance are:
1. The material of which the resistance is made and different materials have dif-
SR
ferent resistances. This is called the SPECIFIC RESISTANCE or RESISTIV-
ITY (ρ) of the material and the value of the resistance is directly proportional
to (ρ).
2. The length of the material L and again the value of the resistance is directly
proportional to L.
3. The cross sectional area (A) of the material, but in this case the resistance is
inversely proportional to A.
Putting them all together the resistance is given by
R = ρ L / A ohms
Resistor Types Power Rating of Resistors

In the main there are two types of resistors, those which are made of a carbon Wattage rating refers to the maximum amount of power or heat that the resistor
composition or those made of special resistance wire wound on a central former. can dissipate without burning up or significantly changing value.
The latter can be made larger than the former and are used in high current circuits, As shown in figure below the LARGER the physical size of the resistor, the more
although it should be realised that the size does not indicate resistance value but power it can dissipate and the higher its wattage rating.
the size does depend upon the heat to be dissipated. For wire wound resistors the
value of resistance is usually stencilled on the body but for carbon resistors a col- Carbon composition resistors generally have fairly low wattage ratings.
our code is used. Typically ratings of 1 watt, ½ watts, ¼ watts are common.
Wire wound, covered later, can have much higher power ratings.
Figure 4: Carbon Composition Resistor Ratings as high as 250 watts are not too uncommon.
Figure 6:
s
n ic
ch
Te
Figure 5: Wire Wound Resistor
SR
Resistor Colour Code Figure 8:

The resistor may have coloured bands around it or a coloured body-tip-spot sys-
tem may be used to tell the resistance value in ohms.
The two methods of marking the resistor are shown below.
For a 4 colour code:
The first band (or the body) gives the first figure of the resistance value.
The second band (or the tip) gives the second figure of the resistance value.
The third band (or the spot) gives the factor of ten by which the first two figures are
to be multiple or the number of 10's to be placed behind the first two figures.
The fourth band, when used, indicates the tolerance of the resistance value.
The meaning of the colours used is given in the table below.
s
ic
Figure 7:
n
ch
Te
SR
Tolerance Figure 9:
The range of values of resistors is approximately 3 ohms to 22M.
For most purposes the value of a resistor in a circuit is not highly critical, so man-
ufacturers make only a certain range of nominal values, called preferred values.
The gap between two successive resistor values is covered by the upper and low-
er limits of their tolerances.
There are thus three sets of preferred values for different tolerances as shown in
the following table.
The figures in the table may be multiplied by any power of ten to obtain the re-
quired range.
For example suppose the value of resistance of a resistor works out to be 16.5
kilohms.
s
If a 5% tolerance resistor is to be used the preferred value would be 16k, for a 10%
ic
tolerance resistor either 15k or 18k and for a 20% tolerance resistor it would be
15k.
n
ch
Te
SR
Total Resistance in a Circuit V = I x RT (3)

One factor that determines the size of a current of electricity is the opposition or
resistance, which the conductor offers to the flow of electrons in it. Substituting expressions (3) and (2) into equation (1) gives:
The resistance in a circuit depends on how the current is being used and hence
the function of the circuit. Naturally there are a very large number of electrical de-
vices having different functions, e.g. machines, radio and radar equipment, all I x R T = I x R 1 + I x R2 + I x R 3 (4)
kinds of heaters, chemical applications, light devices, etc.
A given power supply may well provide currents for many different devices having Since I is common to all terms on each side of the equation it can be eliminated
various resistance's and they may be connected in series or parallel or a combi- from the expression (4) giving:
nation of both.
In order to determine the total power being used the TOTAL RESISTANCE (RT) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 (5)
of the circuit must be known.
s
Series Connected Resistors We see therefore that the total resistance of any number of resistors connected in
ic
series is the sum of the resistance's of each one. All of the resistance's must be
If the three resistors are connected in series as shown below, what is the value of
expressed in ohms, the basic unit for resistance. Two examples; one in which the
n
the total resistance offered to the current flow?
series resistors are given in ohms and the other is one which contains resistors of
The first thing to remember is that current cannot be lost. i.e. the current flowing
ch
multiple values of the basic unit.
into a resistor is equal to the current flowing out. Therefore the current I flowing into
R is the same in all resistors. Similarly, you cannot lose voltage so the sum of the Figure 10:
voltages across V1, V2, and V3 must be equal to the supply voltage V as shown
Te
below.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (1)
SR
We can apply Ohm's Law to each resistor as follows:
1. V 1 = I x R1 (2)
2. V 2 = I x R2
3. V 3 = I x R3
The three resistors can be replaced by one resistor RT with the same current I
flowing in it being produced by the applied voltage V. Therefore we can apply
Ohm's Law to this circuit giving the following expression:
Parallel Connected Resistors

Consider a circuit in which the three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in par- 1 / RT = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 (5)
allel as shown below.
Find the total resistance of the above circuit, i.e. what is the value of a single re- Therefore, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the recipro-
sistor which could replace the three resistors without changing the current I in the cals of each of the resistors connected in parallel. Again, the resistance of each
circuit. resistor must be expressed in ohms.
There are two things to note in the circuit. Firstly, the total current I in the circuit There are two things to note about expression (4). Firstly, it is a very common mis-
divides into I1, I2, and I3 in the three resistors respectively. Current cannot be lost take to fail to find the reciprocal of the result after adding the reciprocals of R1, R2
so I will be equal to the sum of the individual currents. Secondly, the ends of each and R3. Secondly, the total resistance RT is always less than the smallest value of
resistor are connected to the common points and the applied voltage V is also con- R1, R2 or R3.
nected to points. Therefore, the voltage V appears across each resistor.
Figure 11:
s
Consider the currents in the circuit. We have:
ic
I = I1 + I2 + I3 (1)
n
ch
Applying Ohm's Law to each resistor, we get the expressions:
Te
I1 = V / R1, I2 = V / R2, and I3 = V / R3 (2)
Remembering that R1, R2 and R3 can be replaced by one resistor RT in which the
SR
current is I and the voltage across it is V, applying Ohm's Law to this circuit we
have:
I = V / RT (3)
Substituting expressions (3) and (2) in equation (1) we get:
V / R T = V / R1 + V / R2 + V / R3 (4)
Since V is common to all terms on each side of the equation (4), it can be eliminat-
ed from each term resulting in:
Example 1 Series Circuits Series Parallel Resistive Circuits

Find the total resistance of three resistors connected in series having the values Consider the circuit shown below in which we have resistors connected in both se-
200, 150, and 20 ohms. ries and parallel.
Find the resultant equivalent resistor, which would give the same current for the
same applied voltage of the whole circuit.
Answer: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. RT = 200 + 150 + 20 Figure 12:
= 370
Example 2 Series Circuits

Find the total resistance of three resistors connected in series having the values
10K5, 1M5 and 200k7 ohms.
s
n ic
ch
Example 3 Parallel Circuits
Equivalent Resistance
Three resistors of resistance values 8, 12, and 24 ohms are connected in parallel.
In any problem of this kind always work out the equivalent single resistance that
Te
What is the value of the total resistance? will replace any parallel circuits.
This is R2 with R3, and R4 with R5 and R6.
Call them R2/3 and R4/5/6 respectively.
SR
The circuit now becomes as below:
The original circuit now becomes a simple series circuit and the resultant total re-
sistance is obtained by merely adding the three resistor values together.
Example 4 Parallel Circuits
Three resistors of resistance values 10k, 20k, and 60k are connected in Figure 13:
parallel.
What is the value of the total resistance?
Example 5
The values of the resistance's of the resistors shown in the circuit below are:
R1 = 10K, R2 = R3 = 1K, R4 = 1M, R5 = 1.5M, and R6 = 3M.
Find the total resistance of the circuit.

Figure 14:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Potentiometers and Rheostats Carbon Variable Resistors

These are both variable resistors and can be of the wire wound type or carbon These resistors are made of a carbon compound deposited on a fibre disc.
types. A contact on a movable arm is used to vary the resistance as the arm or shaft is
turned.
Wire Wound Variable Resistors Carbon variable resistors are shown in the figure.
These are constructed by winding resistance wire round a porcelain or bakelite for- Figure 16:
mer.
A contact arm that can be adjusted to any position on the circular former by means
of a rotating shaft to select different resistance values.
Figure 15:
s
n ic
ch
Te
Uses
SR As with the other types of resistance's the carbon type is used to control small cur-
rents and the wire wound variable resistors are used to control larger currents.
Rheostats Potentiometers
The Rheostat is represented schematically as a two terminal resistance with a slid- The Potentiometer or Pot is a variable resistor, which has three terminals. The re-
ing arm contact. sistors two ends and the slider arm contact are all connected into circuit.
A Rheostat is used to control CURRENT flow. A Potentiometer is used in a circuit to vary VOLTAGE.
Figure 17 shows a rheostat in series with a fixed resistance. In Figure 18 a potentiometer is used to obtain a variable voltage from a fixed volt-
If the slider arm moves from A in the direction of B the rheostat resistance (AB) is age source to a electrical load.
increased and vice-versa. The voltage applied to the load is the voltage between terminals B and C.
As the rheostat and the fixed resistor are in series, then as When the slider arm is moved to point A the full voltage is applied to the load.
When the slider arm is moved to point C the voltage applied to the load is zero.
Circuit resistance increases, The potentiometer makes possible the application of any voltage between zero
and the full supply voltage.
Circuit current decreases.
s
Potentiometer Uses
Common uses
Potentiometers are used in circuits to vary the amount of voltage applied to a load.
ic
Rheostats are commonly used in circuits to vary the amount of current flowing in They are commonly used in Radio and T.V. for volume control and brightness con-
the circuit and therefore through the load. trol.
n
They will be found in lighting circuits, for dimming control and in motor circuits for
ch
speed control. Figure 18:
Figure 17:
Te
SR
Wheatstone Bridge R4 = R2/R1x R3 (3)

The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the circuit below is known as
a Wheatstone Bridge. In multirange instruments, the ratios R2/R1 can be 1, 10, 100 etc.
This type of circuit is used in test equipment to determine the value of an unknown Bridge instruments have important advantages over other measuring methods.
resistor by comparison with other resistors, the values of which are known accu- The reading does not rely on the accuracy of reading a meter dial, but only on be-
rately. ing able to detect zero current.
In the Wheatstone bridge the values of resistors R1 and R2 are usually known and The balance point of the bridge is not affected by the value of the applied voltage,
fixed. this can be seen from equation (3).
R3 is a variable resistor and R4 is the unknown resistance whose value is required
Figure 19:
to be determined.
R3 is adjusted until the 'Bridge is Balanced', i.e. there is no current flow through the
ammeter, which registers zero amps.
This means that the voltage at point A is equal to the voltage at point B.
s
It also means that the current through R1 is the same as the current through R3
ic
and the current through R2 is equal to the current through R4.
This is from applying Kirchoff’s first law at junctions A and B respectively.
n
Since the voltage at A equals the voltage at B and C is a common point for the
ch
ends of resistors R1 and R2, the voltages across these resistors must be equal.
Applying Ohm's Law for each resistor we find:
Te
I1.R1 = I2.R2 i.e. I1/I2 = R2/R1 (1) SR
The same argument may be applied for resistors R3 and R4 in which D is the com- Figure 20:
mon point, therefore C
R1 R2
I1.R3 = I2.R4 i.e. I1/I2 = R4/R3 (2)
U S
A B
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we see that,
R2/R1= R4/R3 Rx R3
D
From this the unknown resistor R4 is obtained as follows:
Training Manual 3.8 Power
3.8 Power
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Work Example1:
When a force acts on any object to give it motion, work is done. The work in moving a body through a distance of 30 m is 600 J.
In the scientific or engineering sense, work is not done unless the object moves Assuming the force to act in the direction of motion, calculate the average value of
through a distance. As an example, if a force of 100 Newton lifts a mass to height the force.
of 10 meters, the work done is 100 N x 10 m = 1000 Newton meters (Nm).
A Newton meter is a unit of work called a Joule (J), so the work done can be ex- Work done, in joules = F [Newton] x S[meter]
pressed as 1000 J.
W = FxS
If you push a large aircraft in an attempt to move it, you will not succeed.
600 J = F x 30 m
Even though you may exert considerable force, no work is done on the aircraft if
you do not move it. F = 20 N
Figure 1:
Sometimes the object does not move in the same direction as the force. In such
s
cases only that component of the force which acts in the same direction as the
ic
moving object is considered when calculating the work done on the object.
Example 2:
n
Which sketch shows that work is done?
ch
Figure 2:
Te
SR
Power Example 1:
Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is a measure of the work done per A horizontal force of 60 N is applied to a body to move it at a uniform velocity
second. through a distance of 20 m in 8s in the direction of force.
The SI unit of power is the watt (symbol, W), named after the famous Scottish en- Calculate the value of the power.
gineer James Watt (1736 - 1819).
The watt is equal to 1 Joule per second.
Work done = 60 [N] x 20 [m]
= 1200 J
1 Kilowatt [KW] = 1000 W
Power = Joules per second

1 Megawatt [MW] = 1,000,000 W
= 1200 [J]
Figure 3: 8 [s]
s
ic
= 150 W
n
Example 2:
ch
Calculate the power required to lift a mass of 300 kg at a constant speed through
a vertical height of 200 m in 4 min.
Te
Force required to lift load = 300 [kg] x 9.81 [m/s2]
SR = 2943 N
Figure 4: Work done in 4 min = 2943 [N] x 200 [m]

= 588,600 J
Power = 588,600 [J]

(4 x 60) [s]
= 2453 W
= 2.453 kW
In the foot-pound-second (fps) system of measurement work is expressed in foot- Figure 5:

pounds, and power can be expressed as foot pounds of work per minute or per
second.
The most common unit of power is the horsepower (HP), equal to 550 foot pounds
per second, or 33,000 foot pounds per minute.
One horsepower is equal to 746 watts and 1KW equals 1.34 HP.
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. Because energy and work are measured in the
same units a direct comparison can be made of the energy of an energy source,
and the work that can be done if the energy is released or applied.
One Joule of energy can do one Joule of work.
s
It can be accepted that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be con-
ic
verted from one form to another without loss.
This concept is known as the 'conversion of energy'.
n
Although energy cannot be destroyed, some of it may be wasted in a particular ap-
plication. That is, when using energy to do work some of it may go to an undesired
ch
form, and not be used in doing the desired work. An engine does not convert all of
the energy of fuel to mechanical energy or output.
In fact, most of it becomes heat that in an engine is lost or wasted. Potential Energy
Te
Energy exists in many forms, some of which are apparent to our physical senses. Potential energy in or of a body means stored energy, possessed by the body be-
You see because of light energy, you hear sound energy, you feel heat energy. cause of its position, condition, or chemical nature.
The most common forms of energy that we are concerned with on aircraft are me-
chanical, heat, electrical, and chemical. Kinetic Energy
SR
We use the term 'efficiency' in talking about the conversion of energy to work. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body has because of its motion.
Efficiency is the effectiveness with which a machine piece of equipment, or pro- Water in a dam possesses potential energy because of its position above some
cess operates. reference point.
By efficiency, we mean the percentage of the energy that is converted to work. The stored water is said to possess 'gravitational potential energy' because when
When we say that a given engine has 30% efficiency we mean that only 30% of the water is released the force of gravity will send it rushing downwards.
the potential energy in the fuel is converted to work the engine can do. The water now possesses considerable kinetic energy and therefore can do work.
For convenience, energy is divided into two categories, potential energy and kinet- It could spin turbines to drive electric generators. Similarly, a book on a table and
ic energy. an aircraft in flight possess gravitational potential energy. Remove the support
from under the book or stop the aircraft's engines and both will head for the
ground, their potential energy converting to kinetic energy, the energy of a mass
in motion.
The gravitational potential energy of any object is the product of its weight and
height.
The kinetic energy (KE) of a mass in motion is proportional both to the mass (m) Figure 7:
and the square of the velocity (v).
The formula is KE = ½ mv2.
An example of potential energy by reason of an object's condition is a compressed

or tensioned spring.
Work has to be performed on the spring to place it into either condition. When the
holding force is removed the potential energy stored in the spring is released and
it can do useful mechanical work.
An electric storage battery has potential energy because of the chemical nature of
its active materials.
s
The potential energy of fuels such as coal, gasoline, and natural gas is released
in the form of heat energy when they burn.
ic
Figure 6:
n
ch
Te
SR
Example: Power in Resistor Circuits

A body having a mass of 30 kg is supported 50 m above the earth's surface. It is often necessary to obtain the values of current, voltage, or power in circuits.
1. What is it potential energy? In the case of a straightforward series resistor circuit there is only one current, but
there will be various voltages developed across each of the resistors.
2. If the body is allowed to fall freely, calculate it’s potential and energies when The current and voltage for each resistor will produce power and the sum of these
the body is 20 m above the ground. powers will be the total power taken from the source, i.e. the applied voltage.
However, in straightforward parallel circuits the voltage across each resistor is the
Weight of body = 30 x 9.81 = 294.3 N same, i.e. the applied voltage, whilst the current through each resistor will be de-
pendent upon the value of its resistance. Again, the power developed in each one
will be dependent upon the current and voltage for each resistor.
Work done in lifting the body 50 m = 294.3 [N] x 50 [m] The total power taken from the supply will be the sum of the individual powers in
= 14715 J = 14.715 kJ the circuit.
In the definition of the unit of a VOLT, a power of 1 watt is dissipated between two
s
i.e. potential energy of the body when it is 50 m above ground is 14.715 kJ. Since points when the voltage across the two points is 1 volt and the current flowing be-
ic
the body is stationary, its kinetic energy is zero. tween the points is 1 ampere. This can be written mathematically as:
n
When the body is 20 m above ground, 1 WATT = 1 VOLT x 1 AMPERE
ch
its energy potential = 294.3 [N] x 20 [m]
= 5886 J Or, in terms of the symbols for power, voltage and current:
Te
= 5.886 kJ.
P = V x I
Vertical distance travelled by body = 50 - 20
SR
= 30 m From Ohm's Law:
From the principle of the conservation of energy, the sum of the potential and ki- V = I x R
netic energies must remain constant since no energy is being converted into any
other form of energy; hence: or, I = V/R
Kinetic energy = potential energy at 50 m - potential energy at 20 m substituting these expressions in the power equation giving:
= 14.715 - 5.886
= 8.829 kJ P = V x I
= I x R x I = I2R It is required to find the values of VR9, I12, I4, I, and the power developed in each
resistor.
There is usually more than one way to solve these problems, some may be longer
i.e. P = I2 R than others but will still give the correct answers.
In this problem, find the total resistance first. In 'mixed' circuits work out the resist-
P = V x V/R ance of parallel circuits first, i.e.:
1 / RT = 1 / R12 + 1 / R4
2
= V /R
1 / RT = 1 / 12 + 3 / 12
Therefore the power developed in a resistor R when a current I flows in it, pro-
duced by a voltage V across it, can be expressed in three different ways: = 4/12
s
P=IxV or P = I2 R or P = V2 / R
ic
therefore, RT = 12 / 4
n
They will all give the same number of WATTS. = 3
ch
Power Calculations
The total resistance of the circuit will now be the sum of this resistance, 3 ohms,
Consider the circuit shown below.
and the series resistor 9 ohms, i.e. 12 ohms.
Te
Figure 8: This means that all of the resistors can be replaced by just one resistor of value 12
ohms and the equivalent circuit becomes:
Figure 9:
SR
From this circuit the current It can be found from Ohm's Law as follows. I4 = V / R4
therefore, I4 = 6/4 = 1.5 amps.
It = V/R
To find the various powers in the circuit components use any of the three power
= 24 / 12 expressions. Use P = I x V for each one.
therefore, It = 2 amps The power dissipated in R9 is:

PR9 = I x V9
The value of VR9 can now be found, because we know the current through it is 2
amperes. therefore, PR9 = 2 x 18 = 36 watts.
s
VR9 = It x R9 The power in R12 is:
n ic
= 2 x 9 PR12= I12 x V R12
ch
therefore, VR9 = 18 volts therefore, PR12= 1 / 2x 6 = 3 watts.
Te
Since the voltage across R9 is 18 volts, the voltage across the parallel network The power in R4 is:
must be the supply voltage 24 V, less the voltage across R9, i.e. 6 V. PR4 = I4 x VR4
This is the voltage across each of the resistors in the parallel network and there-
SR
fore we can work out the current in each resistor from Ohm's Law as follows:
therefore, P R4= 1.5 x 6 = 9 watts.
I12 = V / R12
Therefore the total power PT absorbed by the resistors is the sum of each of the
above, i.e. 36 + 3 + 9 = 48 watts. This must be the power taken from the source.
therefore, I12 = 6 / 12 = 1 / 2amp Since the total current in the circuit I and the applied voltage V are supplying this
power, the total power is also given by
Repeat the above for the other resistor or obtain I4 by realising that it is the differ-
ence between the current flowing into the network I, less the current I12, i.e. 1.5 PT = I x V
amps.
Confirm this result using Ohm's Law for R4 resistor.
therefore, PT = 2 x 24 = 48 watts.
Example-Power Calculation Measurement of Power

Calculate the total power consumed by the circuit below and the power consumed This can be carried out by using a Wattmeter or by measuring first the circuit cur-
by each resistor. rent and then the voltage and by calculation the power.
Figure 10: Figure 11:
80Ω
R2 25Ω
60Ω R4
R3
s
ic
R5 60Ω
R1 20Ω R6 30Ω
n
ch
Te
+ -
240V
SR
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor
3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Introduction Relationship Between Voltage and Charge

A conductor can be given a positive charge when electrons are forcibly removed There is a direct relationship between the voltage (V) placed across the plates of
from the conductor by connecting it to the positive pole of a battery. a capacitor and the charge (Q) held by them.
Similarly, when additional electrons are forced on to a conductor, it is given a neg- If the voltage is doubled the charge is doubled, if the charge is halved then the volt-
ative charge. age is halved.
This is shown in the diagram shown in figure below. Therefore, the ratio of charge to voltage is constant and this is known as the CA-
Since force is required, energy has been expended by the source (the battery) and PACITANCE (C) of the capacitor i.e.:
this energy is STORED in an ELECTRIC FIELD surrounding the charged conduc-
tor. C=Q/V FARADS
The electric field is often represented by LINES OF ELECTRIC FLUX.
Any conductor such as that shown in figure below will hold a charge and the larger where Q is in coulombs, V is in volts and constant C is in FARADS (F).
the voltage the larger will be the charge held.
s
The farad is a very large unit and in practice it is usual to find capacitance meas-
However, for a single conductor even a large voltage will only produce a small
ic
ured in microfarads or picofarads.
charge.
These sub units are;
n
If two metal plate conductors, are placed close together but separated by an insu-
lator, then this device is known as a capacitor and is capable of holding a larger
ch
charge when a voltage is placed across the plates. This is due to the increased 1/1000,000 farads = 1 microfarad
strength of the field created between the plates.
Te
Figure 1: 1/1000,000 microfarads = 1 picofarad
When values are put into the capacitance charge and voltage formula given above
they must be in their basic unit.
SR
The capacitor can be considered to act as a reservoir, storing a quantity of elec-
tricity as an electrostatic field between the surfaces.
Factors Affecting Capacitance Figure 2:

The factors to consider are:
1. The capacitance increases as the total area (A) of the opposing surfaces of
the plates increases, a larger plate area can hold a larger charge.
2. The capacitance increases as the distance (d) between the plates is de-
creased, the electric field then becomes more concentrated.
3. The capacitance depends upon the material, called DIELECTRIC, between
the plates and this is called the dielectric constant (ε).
The formula from which the capacitance is found is:
C= ε A/d Farads
s
ic
The quantities must be in their correct basic unit
n
ch
i.e. A in square metres,
Figure 3:
d in metres and
Te
ε is the dielectric constant.
εr = Relative Permittivity
SR
εo = Electric Constant
Dielectric Constant (ε)
One of the factors which affects the capacitance of a capacitor is the dielectric con-
stant of the material between the plates.
This constant is also called RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY and it is the measure of the
dielectric ability to concentrate into itself electrostatic energy.
Various materials are used as a dielectric and they each have their own dielectric
value.
If waxed paper is placed between the metal plates instead of air, the capacitance
is multiplied by about 2.5 and this is the dielectric constant for waxed paper.
Safe Working Voltage Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor

When a dc voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor the electrons in the The diagram Figure 5 A below shows an uncharged capacitor connected to a
material between the plates are put under strain. switch and, because the switch is open, there is no voltage across the plates.
This is shown in the diagram Figure 4 below. Therefore, there is no electric field and no energy is stored in the capacitor.
In (A) the capacitor is not charged and the electrons are spinning in their normal At the instant the switch is closed no current flows in the circuit and no charge ap-
orbits. pears on the plates of the capacitor.
When the switch is closed the electrons will be attracted towards the positive plate This is an important fact i.e. the capacitor cannot change its charge instantaneous-
and away from the negative plate. ly.
As the voltage applied to the plates is increased, the electrons are stretched in However, very soon after the switch is closed the battery removes electrons from
their orbits, and if the voltage is increased to or beyond the rated maximum safe the upper plate, and gives electrons to the lower plate, Figure 5 B.
working value the electric field becomes strong enough to cause a flash-over be-
tween the plates. This movement of electrons is called the charging current and where there is no
resistance in the circuit only lasts a very short time.
s
This is usually written on the capacitor as say '750V DC.
Whilst the charge is building up the voltage must be changing in the same way be-
ic
cause we know Q/V is a constant.
WARNING When the voltage across the plates equals the battery voltage Figure 5 B, the ca-
n
A CHARGED CAPACITOR, ESPECIALLY A LARGE ONE CAN BE VERY DAN- pacitor is fully charged, no current flows in the circuit and the charges on plates
ch
GEROUS SO ALWAYS MAKE SURE THAT IT IS DISCHARGED BEFORE YOU have equal and opposite charges.
ATTEMPT TO TOUCH IT. The extent of the charges on the plates depends upon the voltage of the battery
and the capacitance of the capacitor.
Te
Figure 4:
At the instant the switch is opened we know the capacitor cannot change its
charge instantaneously, therefore no current can flow because, with the switch
open there is no path for a current to flow.
SR Figure 5 C show this state, the capacitor continues to store electrical energy and
the voltage between the plates remains at the same value of the battery voltage.
In effect, the capacitor can be isolated from the circuit but still have a voltage po-
tential and it is behaving as a battery storing electrical energy.
Hence the reason for the warning not to leave a capacitor around fully charged.
If as in Figure 5 D the capacitor is connected across the battery it will charge up to
the battery voltage. Charging up through resistor R1.
In Figure 5 E the switch S1 is now moved to connect the charged capacitor across
the resistor R2, the capacitor will discharge across resistor R2.
The discharge time may be different to the charging time depending on the relative
values of R1 and R2.
Figure 5:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Capacitors in Series Figure 6:

Connecting capacitors in series is equivalent to doubling the thickness of the die-
lectric between a single capacitors plates.
Since capacitance is inversely proportional to the spacing between the plates,
doubling the thickness of the dielectric cuts the capacitance value to one half that
of a single capacitor.
The total capacitance of a group of series connected capacitors is calculated in the
same way as the total resistance of parallel resistors.
Or stated more simply, capacitors combine in the same way as resistors in parallel. Figure 7:
The total capacitance of two series connected capacitors can be found using the
formula:
C1 × C2
s
C t = ------------------
-
ic
C1 + C2
56 nF
n
ch
If the capacitors in series are equal use the formula:
3.3 PF 180 nF
C
C t = ----
Te
n
For calculating more than two capacitors use the formula: 470 pF 3.3 PF 390 nF
SR
1
C t = --------------------------------
1- + ----- 1- + ----- 1-
-----
C1 C2 C3 820 pF 3.3 PF 220 nF
NOTE: The total capacitance is always less than the smallest of the capacitors
joined in series, and that all the capacitor values must be in the same units.
Capacitors in Parallel Figure 9:

Connecting capacitors in parallel is equivalent to increasing the plate area of a sin-
gle capacitor.
Two capacitors in parallel the capacitance has doubled, three in parallel the area
and therefore the capacitance has trebled.
Consequently connecting capacitors in parallel increases the total circuit capaci-
tance.
The total circuit capacitance can be found using the formula, 100 nF 10 nF 47 nF 100 pF 1 nF 56 pF 470 pF
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3
s
Therefore capacitors add up like resistors in series.
ic
Figure 8:
Figure 10:
n
ch
Te
SR
Time Constant Figure 12:

Referring to figure below the voltage across the capacitor reaches 63% of its final
steady value after a time (T) seconds.
This time (T) is called the TIME CONSTANT of the circuit and determines the rate
at which the voltage rises.
It is dependent upon the values of the capacitance and the resistance in the circuit.
Thus with smaller values of either capacitance or resistance the time constant is
reduced and the voltage builds up more rapidly.
T = C x R seconds
s
C and R must be in their basic units of farads and ohm.
ic
Time for Capacitor to Become Fully Charged
n
The way in which the voltage builds up to its maximum value is said to be EXPO-
NENTIAL.
ch
It reaches 63% of its final value after T seconds and takes 5 times T seconds for
it to reach the final value.
Te
Figure 11:
SR
Discharge of a Capacitor Figure 14:

Referring to the previous description of the charge of capacitor, after the capacitor
has become fully charged the battery can be removed without any change of volt-
age across the capacitor.
The capacitor is storing electrical energy and effectively is behaving as a dc bat-
tery.
If the battery is replaced by a short circuit then the effective voltage on the capac-
itor will drive a current round the circuit. It is therefore a similar but opposite effect
as for charging a capacitor with now both voltage and current changing exponen-
tially to zero values.
The current is in the opposite direction to that of charging current and once the
voltage across the capacitor reaches zero there is no effective voltage in the circuit
and no further changes take place.
s
The diagram below shows how the voltage falls during discharge.
ic
The voltage drops 63% of the fully charged voltage in the normal time constant CR
seconds and becomes fully discharged after a time of 5T seconds.
n
ch
Figure 13:
Te
SR
Types of Capacitor
The type of capacitor used in a circuit depends upon the job it has to do, the ca-
pacitance value required and the working voltage of the circuit.
A capacitor may be used to block a dc current in a circuit whilst allowing an alter-
nating current (ac) to flow or it may be required to restrict ac at one frequency
whilst allowing an ac of another frequency to pass.
In order to be able to recognise the various types of capacitors, diagrams of the
more common ones used in radio communications equipment are shown figure
below.
Figure 14 shows capacitance, maximum working voltage and where they are
used, for various types of capacitor.
s
Figure 15:
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Figure 16: Capacitor Color Code
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
How to Test & Check a Capacitor Method 3

In Most Electrical and Electronics troubleshooting and repairing, we face this trou- Test & Check a Capacitor By a Digital Multimeter
ble that how to test and check a capacitor? Is it Good, Bad (dead) Short or Open? Make sure the capacitor is discharged.
Here, we can check a capacitor with Analog as well as Digital multimeter.
Set the meter on Ohm range (Set it at lease 1000Ohm = 1k).
Below are four (4) methods to check & test that a Capacitor is Good, Bad, Open,
Dead, or Short. Connect the Meter leads to the Capacitor terminals.
Digital meter will show some numbers for a second. Note the reading.
Method 1 And then immediately it will return to the OL (Open Line). Every attempt of Step 2
Traditional Method to test & check a capacitor. will show the same result as was in step 4 and Step 5. It's mean that Capacitor is
Disconnect the suspected capacitor from the power supply or make sure at least in Good Condition.
one lead of the capacitor is disconnected. If there is no Change, then Capacitor is dead.
Make sure it is fully discharge.
s
Method 4
Connect leads to the Capacitors terminal.
Checking Capacitor By Multimeter in the capacitance Mode.
ic
Now connect safely these leads to 230 V AC Supply for a very short period (about
1-4 Sec) [or for a short time where the Voltage rise to 63.2% of the Source Voltage] Note: You can do this test with a multimeter if you have a Capacitance meter on
n
your multimeter. Also, this method is good for tiny capacitors.
Remove Safety leads from the 230 V AC Supply.
Make sure the capacitor is fully discharged.
ch
Now Short the Capacitor Terminal (Please Be Careful to do that).
Remove the capacitors from board or circuit.
If it makes a strong spark, then the capacitor is good.
Now Select "Capacitance" on your multimeter.
Te
If it makes a weak spark, then it is a bad capacitor and change it immediately.
Now connect the capacitor terminal to the multimeter leads.
Method 2 If the reading is near to the actual value of the capacitor (i.e. the printed value on
Check & Test a Capacitor by Analog Multimeter. the Capacitor container box). Then the capacitor is in good condition. (Note that
SR
the reading may be less than the actual value of the capacitor (the printed value
Make sure the suspected capacitor is fully discharged. on the Capacitor container box). If you read a significantly lower capacitance or
Take an AVO meter. none at all, then capacitor is dead and you should change it.
Select analog meter on OHM (Always, select the higher range of Ohms).
Connect the Meter leads to the Capacitor terminals.
Note The reading and Compare with the following results.
Short Capacitors: Shorted Capacitor will show very low Resistance.
Open Capacitors: An Open Capacitor will not show any movement (Deflection) on
OHM meter Screen.
Good Capacitors: Initially, it will show low resistance, and then gradually increases
toward the infinite. It means that Capacitor is in Good Condition.
Training Manual 3.10 Magnetism
3.10 Magnetism
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Magnetism Magnets
In science, action-at-a-distance is explained in terms of fields. Magnets may be classified in several different ways. First, they can be classified
For example, you have seen that a charged particle can attract or repel another according to the method by which they obtain their magnetic field.
charged particle simply by coming close to it. The first known magnets were natural magnets, called magnetities or Iodestones.
This happens because a region of electrical influence extends outside each These materials in their natural state are surrounded by a magnetic field.
particle. Artificial magnets can be created from natural magnets. For example, if soft iron is
This region of influence is called a field. An electrical field made up of lines of force rubbed repeatedly over a piece of Iodestone, a magnetic field is transferred to the
is said to exist around every charged particle. iron. Another type of artificial magnet is the electromagnet.
The field concept is also used to explain why certain metals can attract other Its magnetic field is produced by an electric current.
metals. Some materials readily retain their magnetic fields for long periods of time. These
Everyone knows that a magnet attracts small pieces of iron or steel. are called permanent magnets. Other materials quickly lose their magnetism and
A region of influence extends outside the magnet into the surrounding space. are called temporary magnets.
In this case, the region is called a magnetic field and is said to be made up of Both of these types are widely used in electronics.
s
magnetic lines of force.
The two ends of a magnet have different characteristics.
ic
Thus, a magnet is a piece of material that has a concentrated magnetic field sur-
rounding it. One end is called a south (S) pole while the other is called a north (N) pole.
One reason for choosing these name is that a bar magnet will align itself in the
n
Figure 1: north-south direction if allowed freedom of movement as shown in the figure below
ch
Figure 2:
Te
SR
The magnet lines up in this way because the earth itself is a huge magnet. As Figure 4: Action of Like and Unlike Poles
shown below, it has its own magnetic field, which influences any magnet on Earth.
Figure 3: Earth’s Magnetic Field
s
n ic
ch
Te
The Magnetic Field
1. Action at a distance is explained in terms of fields.
2. The region of influence is called a field.
SR
The north (N) pole of the magnet is defined as that end which points toward the 3. A region of influence extends outside the magnet into the surrounding
north pole of the earth. space.
This fact has been used for centuries by mariners and explorers who rely on the 4. This field is made up of magnetic lines of force.
magnetic compass.
The compass itself is nothing more than a tiny magnet balanced on a pin so that Magnets can be classified in several different ways. How they acquire their mag-
the needle rotates freely. netism, how long they retain their magnetism. First known were natural magnets,
Magnets tend to align in a north-south direction because of the fundamental laws called magnetites or lodestones.
of magnetism. Artificial magnets are created from natural magnets (by rubbing them).
This law states that like poles repel while unlike poles attract. Another type of artificial magnet is the "Electromagnet". A compass is a magnet
Thus, the north geographic pole is labelled S while the south geographic pole is free to rotate on a pin.
labelled N. Like poles repel.
In this way, the north end of a magnet is attracted to the north geographic pole
while the south end of the magnet points to the south geographic pole. Unlike poles attract.
Lines of Force - Flux Lines Ferromagnetic

To explain a magnetic field, scientist proved that lines of magnetic force called flux Strongly influenced by magnetic fields.
lines surround a magnet. Figure 5 on page 5 (A) shows the flux lines as they might
appear around a bar magnet. While these lines are invisible, their effects can be
demonstrated in several different ways. IRON (26) COBALT (27) NICKEL (28)
Iron filings are sprinkled evenly over a piece of paper. When the paper is placed
over the magnet, the filings align so that the effects of the lines of force are clearly Paramagnetic
visible.
Slightly attracted by a strong magnetic field. Considered non-magnetic.
Magnetic Materials
Of the 92 natural elements, only three respond readily to magnetic fields. AIR ALUMINIUM WOOD
These are iron, cobalt, and nickel. All three are metals and they have atomic num-
bers of 26, 27, and 28 respectively. Each has two valence electrons so that their
s
chemical and electrical characteristics are quite similar.
Diamagnetic
ic
In addition to these elements, there are dozens of alloys that have magnetic char-
Slightly repelled by magnetic fields.
acteristics. Substances, like these that readily respond to magnetic fields, are
n
called ferromagnetic substances. Ferromagnetic materials are strongly influenced
by magnetic fields.
ch
BISMUTH QUARTZ WATER and COPPER.
Most substances are classified as paramagnetic. These are substances that are
attracted only slightly by a strong magnetic field. Generally, the force of attraction Theory of Magnetism
Te
is so tiny, that these materials are considered to non-magnetic. As with the basic theories of electricity, this one starts with the electron.
Substances such as air, aluminium, and wood are paramagnetic in nature. Tech- The electron orbits the nucleus of the atom is much the same way that the Earth
nically speaking there is one other classification called diamagnetic. Diamagnetic orbits the Sun. It also appears that the electron spins on its axis as shown in
materials are slight repelled by magnetic fields. However, here again, the force of Figure 5 on page 5 (A) in much the same way that the Earth does.
SR
repulsion is so tiny that these materials are generally considered non-magnetic.
The electron has an electrostatic field as shown in Figure 5 on page 5 (B).
Examples of diamagnetic materials are bismuth, quartz, water, and copper. It appears to be a fact of nature that a moving electrical charge produces a mag-
netic field.
The electron is also surrounded by a magnetic field.
The magnetic field is produced by the spinning charge and exists as a number of
concentric circles around the electron as shown in Figure 5 on page 5 (C).
The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of spin of the electron.
At any given point, the electrostatic field is at right angles to the magnetic field.
These combined fields at right angles are often called electromagnetic field.
Figure 5 on page 5 (D) shows the complete picture of the electron and its associ-
ated fields.
Iron, nickel, and cobalt are the only natural magnetic elements. Figure 5: Electron’s Role in Magnetism
Each of these elements has low valence electrons.
In other substances, the electrons have opposite magnetic characteristics that
tend to cancel.
However, in iron, nickel, and cobalt the two valence electrons have the same spin
direction. Consequently, their magnetic fields do no cancel; they add.
Thus, an atom of iron, nickel, or cobalt has a net magnetic field.
Small groups of these atoms tend to form tiny permanent magnets called magnetic
domains. When not in the presence of a magnetic field, these domains are ar-
ranged haphazardly as shown in Figure 6 on left below.
Because the domains are turned at odd angles, the net magnetic effect is zero.
A piece of metal such as this can be magnetized by subjecting it to a strong mag-
s
netic field.
ic
As shown in Figure 6 on right, this causes all the domains to align in the same di-
rection. With all the domains aligned in a common direction the entire piece of met-
n
al becomes a magnet.
ch
Te
SR
Figure 6: Magnetic Domains
Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity and magnetism are closely related. The electron has both an electro-
static field and a magnetic field. This may lead to the conclusion that a charged
object should have a magnetic field.
However, this is not the case, since the magnetic field of about half the electrons
will be opposite that of the other half. Nevertheless, the electron plays an important
part in magnetism. It can be forced to produce a magnetic field in substances that
are normally considered non-magnetic such as copper and aluminium.
The key to creating a magnetic field electrically is motion. Motion is the catalyst the
links electricity and magnetism. Anytime a charge particle moves, a magnetic field
is produced.
If a large number of charge particles are moved in a systematic way, a usable mag-
s
netic field is formed. Current flow is the systematic movement of large numbers of
electrons. Thus, current flow, since it consists of a large number of charged parti-
ic
cles moving in a systematic way, produces a magnetic field.
n
ch
Te
SR
Current Flow and Magnetism Figure 8: Flux lines Around a Loop of Wire
When current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is developed around the wire.
The field exists as concentric flux lines as shown below. While the field has no
north or south pole, it does have direction. The direction of the field depends on
the direction of current flow.
The arrow heads on the flux lines indicate their direction. This does not mean that
the flux lines are moving in this direction. It simply means that they are pointed in
this direction.
The direction of the flux lines can be determined if the direction of current flow is
known. The rule for determining this is called the left-hand magnetic-field rule or
the left-hand rule for conductors. It is illustrated in the Figure 7.
Simply state, if you grasp the conductor in your left hand with your thumb pointing
s
in the direction of current flow through the conductor, your fingers now point in the
direction of the flux lines.
ic
An electron has both an Electrostatic Field and a Magnetic Field. Your thumb is
n
the Motion.
The Figure 8 shows two views of a short piece of wire twisted into a loop.
ch
Simply forming the loop helps the magnetic characteristics in three ways.
First, it brings the flux lines closer together.
Te
Second, it concentrates the majority of the flux lines in the centre or core of the
loop.
Third, it creates north and south poles.
SR
The north pole is the side where the flux lines exit the loop; the south pole, the side
where they enter the loop. Thus, this loop of wire has the characteristics of a mag-
net. this is an example of a simple electromagnet.
Figure 7: Flux Lines Around a Current Carrying Conductor
The Electromagnet Figure 9: Magnetic Field Around a Coil

Electromagnetism is used in many different electronic devices. In its simplest form,
the electromagnet is nothing more than a length of wire wrapped in coils as shown
below.
When current passes through the wire, a magnetic field is established.
Because the turns of wire are very close together, the flux lines of the individual
turns reinforce one another to produce a strong magnetic field.
The more turns in a coil, the more flux lines there will be to add together.
Furthermore, as more current flows through the coil, more flux lines are created
resulting in a strengthened magnetic field.
Consequently, the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to both the
number of turns in the coil and the amount of current through the coil.
s
There are two ways to increase the strength of the magnetic field around an elec-
tromagnet. One way is increase the current.
ic
Another is to increase the number of turns.
n
However, a third method is the most dramatic of all.
It involves the addition of a bar of ferromagnetic materials, called a core, to the
ch
centre of the coil.
Inserting an iron core into the coil, will increase the strength of the magnetic field
dramatically.
Te
The reason for this is that the iron core is much more permeable than air.
Consequently, the iron core can support many times more flux lines than air.
Most electromagnets are made by winding many turns of wire around a bar of fer-
SR Figure 10: Right-Hand Rule for Coils
romagnetic material such as iron.
Often, it is helpful to know the polarity of an electromagnet. This can be determined
if the direction of current through the coil is known.
The rule used for doing this is called the right-hand rule of coils and is illustrated
in Figure 10.
This rule states that if you grasp the coil with your right hand in such a way that
your fingers are wrapped around it in the same direction that current is flowing,
your thumb will then point toward the north pole of the magnet.
Hysteresis Curve From the above expression it can be seen therefore that the area is determined to
a very large degree by the materials retentivity.
Before going onto electromagnetic devices it is required to understand what hap-
pens to the magnetic field produced by a coil wound round an iron core when the Permanent magnetic materials are hard to magnetise and have very high retentiv-
current is reversed in direction. ities, e.g. cobalt iron - 25,000.
A magnetising force H will produce a magnetic field which will have a certain flux Other materials such as permalloy are very easy to magnetise and have very low
density B and that the direction of the field is determined by the direction of the cur- retentivity. Permalloy is only 4.
rent I. It would appear therefore, that when the current is reduced to zero the mag-
Figure 11:
netic field should be zero. However, with ferromagnetic materials, this is not the
case, when the current is zero, there is still magnetic flux in the core.
This effect of the magnetic field change lagging behind the current change is called
HYSTERESIS. Consider the graph shown in Figure 11.
The dotted line from the origin up to saturation shows how the flux density B in-
s
creases as the magnetising field H is increased.
Since the strength of the magnetising field is NI and N is constant, the strength of
ic
H is dependent upon the value of the current I.
n
It can be seen that if I is now gradually reduced back to zero, the full line is a meas-
ure of the flux density being produced and when H is zero, i.e. I is zero, there is
ch
some flux density left.
This is called REMANENCE or RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.
If now the current is made to increase negatively the flux density will continue to
Te
decrease until the magnetism has disappeared.
The amount of negative H to produce this is called COERCIVE FORCE. By con-
tinuing to increase H in the negative sense, the iron core will again become satu-
rated.
SR
By decreasing the - H field to zero and then increasing it in the positive direction
again to saturation, the complete closed loop is produced. The whole loop is in fact
called a HYSTERESIS LOOP.
The ability of a material to retain magnetism is dependent upon both its remanence
and coercive force.
This is called RETENTIVITY.
The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop for a given material indicates the energy
used in the magnetising and de-magnetising process. Thus the greater the area of
the loop the greater the energy loss, which usually appears as heat.
Since there is little variation in remanence between different materials, the are of
the loop is dependent mainly on the field strength required to produce saturation.
Figure 12: Magnetic Quantities

Flux
The complete magnetic field of a coil or a magnet is known as its flux.
Thus, the flux is the total number of lines of magnetic force.
The Greek letter phi (Φ) is used to denote flux.
Flux Density
As the name implies, flux density refers to the number of flux lines per unit of area.
In the English system the unit of area is the square inch.
Thus, flux density is expressed as the number of lines per square inch.
The letter beta (β) is used to represent flux density. If a coil with a cross sectional
area of two square inches has a flux of 1000 lines then the flux density is 1000/2
s
or 500 lines per square inch (β = 500 lines/in/2).
ic
Magnetomotive Force (MMF or mmf)
Magnetomotive force is the force that produces the flux in an electromagnet or coil.
n
This force is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil and the amount
ch
of current flowing through the coil. For this reason, the unit of MMF is the ampere-
turn or amp-turn.
This is the amount of force developed by one turn of wire when the current flow is
Te
one ampere.
Field Intensity or Magnetizing Force

While MMF is a useful term, it is limited in application because it does not take into
SR
consideration the length of the coil.
Thus, a coil with 50 turns may be 1 inch long or 10 inches long and still have the
same MMF. However, it is obvious that the magnetic field in the 1 inch long coil is
concentrated in a much smaller space than the field in the larger coil. Field inten-
sity is sometimes called magnetizing force. Do not to confuse this term with mag-
netomotive force.
Permeability
Permeability is the ease with which a material can accept lines of force. It can also
be thought of as the ability of a material to concentrate a large number of force
lines in a small area.
For example, a 1-inch column of soft iron can hold hundreds of times more flux
lines than a comparable column of aluminium.
The Greek letter mu (μ) is used to represent permeability. Figure 13: Magnetic Induction
Reluctance
The opposite or reciprocal of permeability is called reluctance and is represented
by the letter R.
Reluctance is generally defined as an opposition to flux. Thus, a material with high
reluctance is reluctant to accept flux lines.
Magnetic Induction
Another type of induction is called magnetic induction. It is known that a magnet
can affect objects from a distance. A strong magnet can cause a compass needle
to deflect even at a distance of several feet. A magnet can also induce a magnetic
field in a previously non-magnetized object.
s
For example, a magnet placed near a piece of iron can cause the iron to become
ic
magnetized: in other words, to become a magnet.
When the piece of iron is removed from the magnetic field, most of the magnetic
n
domains return to random positions. However, a few of the domains will remain
aligned in the north-south direction. Thus, the iron bar retains a weak magnetic
ch
field even after it is removed from the influence of the permanent magnet.
The magnet field that remains in the iron bar is referred to as residual magnetism.
Te
The ability of material to retain a magnetic field even after the magnetizing force
has been removed is called retentivity. Soft iron has a
relatively low value of retentivity. Thus, it retains little residual magnetism.
Steel has a somewhat higher value of retentivity, therefore its residual magnetism
SR
is higher.
Some materials, such as alnico, have a very high value of retentivity. In these ma-
terials, the residual magnetic field is almost as strong as the original magnetizing
field.
Electromagnetic Induction Figure 14: Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the action that causes electrons to flow in a conductor
when the conductor moves across a magnetic field.
The figure below illustrates this action.
When the conductor moves up through the magnetic field, the free electrons are
pushed to the right end of the conductor. This causes an excess of electrons at the
right end of the conductor and a deficiency of electrons at the other end. The result
is a potential difference that develops between the two ends of the conductor.
The potential difference developed in the conductor exists only while the conduc-
tor is moving though, or cutting, the flux lines of the magnet. When the conductor
moves out of the magnetic field, the electrons return to their original positions and
the potential difference disappears. The potential difference also disappears if the
conductor stops in the magnetic field.
s
Thus, there must be relative movement between the conductor and the magnetic
ic
lines of the flux before a potential difference develops in the conductor. Motion is
essential to electromagnetic induction.
n
Some outside force must be applied to the conductor in order to move it through
ch
the magnetic field. This mechanical force is converted to an electromotive force
(EMF) by electromagnetic induction.
In other words, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The potential difference
Te
across the conductor is called an induced EMF or and induced voltage.
SR
Factors Determining the Magnitude of an Induced Voltage Ε = B. l. v. sin θ = Volts

The amount of EMF induced in a conductor is determined by four factors:
1. The Strength of the Magnetic Field L = length of the conductor
The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the number of lines of flux in the field B = flux density of the field
per unit area. If the magnetic field has a great number of lines of force, then the v = velocity of motion
moving conductor can cut a great number of lines. The greater the number of lines
cut for a given time period, the greater the induced EMF. θ = is the angle between the magnetic field and the direction of motion
2. The Speed of the Conductor with Respect to the Field Fleming’s Left Hand Rule for Generators
As a conductor moves through a magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic lines of force. The polarity of the induced EMF can be determined by another of the left-hand
Increasing the conductor's speed through the field results in a greater number of rules.
lines of flux being cut for a given time period. This results in an increase in the EMF
induced in the conductor. This one is called the left-hand rule for generators and is illustrated below. It in-
s
volves the thumb and the firs two fingers of the left hand.
3. The Angle at which the Conductor Cuts the Field The thumb is pointed in the direction that the conductor is moving.
ic
If one conductor moves perpendicular, or at right angles, to the magnetic lines of The index or forefinger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field: from north
force, it will cut a maximum number lines of force per second and produce a max- to south. Now, the middle finger now points to the negative end of the conductor.
n
imum EMF. This is the direction that current flows if an external circuit is connected across the
ch
two ends of the conductor.
This movement is shown below. An identical conductor moving at the same speed
but at an angle other than perpendicular to the field will cut less lines of force in the Figure 15: Left Hand Rule for Generators
same time and therefore produce a smaller EMF. A conductor moving parallel to
Te
the field crosses no lines of flux and therefore has no EMF induced in it.
4. The Length of the Conductor in the Field
A longer conductor must be coiled in order for it to fit into the magnetic field. Each
SR
loop in the coil cuts the field. Thus, the lines of flux are cut a greater number of
times per second resulting in a greater induced voltage.
All four of these factors are a natural consequence of a basic law of electromag-
netic induction.
This law is Faraday's Law and it states:
The voltage induced in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate at which
the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force.
In other words, the more flux lines cut per second, the higher the induced EMF.
The AC Generator Figure 16: AC Generator

Electromagnetic induction is important because it is this method used to produce
the EMF that supplies virtually all of the electrical power used in the world today.
It is the most efficient way known for producing electricity.
The figure below shows an elementary electric generator.
This device converts mechanical energy into electrical energy though electromag-
netic induction. Mechanical energy is required to establish relative motion between
the magnetic field and the conductor.
Either the magnet or the conductor can be rotated.
For this explanation, assume that the conductor rotates in a counter-clockwise di-
rection. The conductor is shaped like a loop and is called and armature. When the
loop or armature rotates, one half moves up through the field near the south pole
while the other half move down through the field near the north pole.
s
In a simple generator, the magnets are called pole pieces and the loop of wire is
ic
called the armature. Attached to each end of the loop is a slip ring on which a set
of brushes ride to complete a circuit through a load. maximum voltage is induced
n
into the armature when it is parallel with the flux lines. Once the armature is per-
ch
pendicular with the flux lines, no lines are cut and no voltage is induced. As the
armature rotates to the 90 degree point, the maximum number of flux lines are be-
ing cut, but in the opposite direction.
Te
SR
Magnetic and Electromagnetic Applications Reed Switch and Relay

The figure below shows a magnetic reed switch. It consists of two contacts in a
Relay sealed glass container. The contacts are made of a ferromagnetic material and are
The relay is one of the simplest, and most useful, electromagnetic devices. The normally open. However, when a magnet is placed next to the reed switch as
figure below shows how the relay operates. shown below, the contact close.
When the switch is closed, current flows from the battery through the relay coil. The reason for this is that a magnetic field is induced into each contact by the flux
The current develops a magnetic field in the core that attracts the armature (mov- lines form the magnet. Thus, each contact becomes a tiny magnet having the po-
ing contact), pulling it down. This closes the contacts connecting the generator to larity shown.
the load. At the point where the two contacts are closest, opposite poles exist. These poles
When the switch is opened, the current though the relay coil stops. This allows the are attracted to each other closing the contacts.
magnetic field to collapse. The spring pulls the armature up opening the contacts The reed switch allows control of a circuit by changing the position of a permanent
and disconnecting the generator from the load. magnet.
s
The relay is used when it is desirable to have one circuit controlling another. Also shown is that the contact can be also controlled with the field from an electro-
Note that in the figure there are two complete and separate circuits. Because the magnet. When the electromagnet is wound directly on the reed switch, the device
ic
relay circuit is electrically isolated from the generator circuit, it can act as a protec- is called a reed relay.
tive device.
n
The relay can be used to open and close high voltage or high-current circuits and, Figure 18: Reed Switch and Relay
ch
at the same time, expose you to relatively little voltage and current in the coil cir-
cuit.
It is also useful for remote control where the switch is located at one point and the
Te
other circuit components are located at a distance.
Also, a relay with several contact arms can open and close several circuits at once.
Figure 17: Relay
SR
Record Pickup Loudspeaker

Electromagnetic principles are used in many types of recording and playback Loudspeakers are used in all types of audio equipment. Most loudspeakers use a
equipment. The pickup cartridge used in the tone arm of many record players is moving coil and a permanent magnet.
an electromagnetic device. A cutaway diagram of a loud speaker is shown below.
The figure below shows the construction of a cartridge called a moving-coil or dy- A permanent magnet establishes a strong stationary magnetic field.
namic pickup. Here, a magnetic field is produced by the permanent magnet. A tiny A coil that is free to move is placed in this magnetic field.
coil is placed in this magnetic field. A current that varies at an audio rate is then passed through the coil. The varying
The core on which the coil is wound is attached to the stylus or needle. The coil is current establishes a varying magnetic field around the coil. The varying magnetic
held in place by a flexible grommet. field of the coil is alternately attracted and repelled by the stationary field of the per-
As the needle slips down the spiral groove on the record, it vibrates in response to manent magnet.
the variations in the groove. These variations in the groove correspond to the au- Thus, the coil moves back and forth at the same rate as the vary current. The mov-
dio tones recorded there. ing coil is attached to a large cone or diaphragm.
As the coil vibrates the cone also vibrates setting the air around the cone into mo-
s
Thus, the needle vibrates at the same rate as the audio tones. tion at the same rate.
Because the coil is connected to the needle, it also vibrates at this rate. The tiny
ic
This reproduces the original sound.
movements of the coil in the magnetic field cause a minute EMF to be induced into
the coil. The induced EMF also varies at the audio rate. This EMF can be amplified
n
Figure 20: Loudspeaker
and used to drive a loudspeaker so that the original audio tone is reproduced.
ch
Figure 19: Moving-coil Pickup
Te
SR
Magnetic Tape Computer Memories

The tape recorder uses electromagnetic principles to record electronic signals on Computers use a variety of electromagnetic devices to store information.
a magnetic tape. The device that actually "writes" the signal on the tape and later One device that is used to store information is the core memory where information
"reads" it back is called a record-playback head. It is nothing more than a coil with is stored on small magnetic cores. These cores are tiny little doughnut-shaped
a ferromagnetic core. pieces of ferrite material that can be magnetized in either of two directions.
The figure below illustrates its operation in the record mode. As shown below, wires are strung through the holes in the cores.
A tiny air gap exists between the two ends of the core. When current is applied to By applying current to these wires in the appropriate direction, the cores can be
the coil, a magnetic field is concentrated in this gap. magnetized in a certain pattern.
A length of plastic tape, covered with a ferromagnetic substance such as iron ox- A clockwise magnetic field can arbitrarily be called 1 while a counter-clockwise
ide, is pulled past the air gap. field can be called 0.
The magnetic field surrounding the air gap penetrates the tape magnetizing the The circuitry inside the computer interprets patterns of 1's and 0's.
ferromagnetic coating at this point. Numbers, letters of the alphabet, and punctuation marks can be encoded using
patterns of 1's and 0's.
s
If the current applied to the coil varies at an audio rate, then the magnetic field
across the air gap varies at the same rate. For example, one popular computer code uses seven digit patterns.
ic
The magnetic field alters the magnetic domains on the surface of the tape. Con- The letter A is represented by 100001; the number 6 by 0110110; and the question
sequently, the magnetic pattern "written" on the tape corresponds to the original mark (?) by 0111111. Thus, if you are willing to use enough cores, the entire con-
n
audio signal. tents of this course can be stored in a core memory using seven digit patterns of
1's and 0's
ch
Figure 21: Record Mode/Playback Mode
Figure 22: Cores of a Computer Memory
Te
SR
Magnetic Deflection of Electron Beams Shielding/Spark Suppression

A current carrying conductor is deflected or moved by a magnetic field. However, Sparking from the brushes of generators and motors now matter how slight results
it is not the conductor that is deflected but the electrons travelling through the con- in the propagation of electromagnetic waves which interfere with other electronic
ductor. Since the electrons are confined to the conductor, it also moves. and radio equipment.
In some cases, streams of electrons are not confined to a wire but travel through The braided screen is then grounded to the main earth system, usually only once
space. Such a beam can be deflected in the same way as the electrons in a current to prevent earth loops.
carrying conductor. There are many practical applications of this principle. The The interference originating from the various sources can be eliminated quite ef-
most familiar of these is the TV picture tube shown below. fectively through the use of screening and suppression.
In the picture tube, a device called an electron gun produces a narrow beam of Screening involves the enclosure of a generator in a continuous metallic casing
electrons that is fired at the TV screen. Wherever the beam hits the phosphor on and the screening of the output supply cables in a continuous metallic tubing or
the screen, light is given off. By moving the beam over the entire surface of the conduit to prevent direct radiation.
screen and varying the beam's intensity, a picture is produced.
To prevent interference being conducted along the distribution cables, the
s
The principle is used in radar sets and TV cameras as well as TV receivers. screened output supply cables are terminated in filters or suppression units.
ic
Figure 23: TV Picture Tube These units consists of Chokes (Inductors) and Condensers (Capacitors) of suita-
ble electrical rating.
n
ch
Te
SR
Figure 24: Shielding Inside Mobile Phone Screening

Screening performs a similar function to bonding in that it provides a low resist-
ance path for voltages producing unwanted interference to ground.
Sources of electromagnetic interference include, generators, engine ignition
equipment, switches, relays, and fluorescent lamps.
Usual methods employed to protect against this interference includes screened
cables and coaxial cables.
Screened cables are usually constructed of a braided metal sheath running
around the full length of the cable.
They are usually grounded to the main earth system, normally at one end only to
prevent earth loops.
At the higher frequencies Coaxial cables are used as skin effect reduces the effi-
s
Figure 25: Coaxial Cable
ciency of screened cables.
ic
An effective Bonding System and Static Dischargers improves the effectiveness of
the screening.
n
ch
Figure 27: Static Dischargers/Bonding Strap
Te
SR
Figure 26: Shielded Wire
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.11 Inductance/Inductor
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Introduction Since there is little variation in remanence between different materials, the are of
the loop is dependent mainly on the field strength required to produce saturation.
Before going onto electromagnetic devices it is required to understand what hap- From the above expression it can be seen therefore that the area is determined to
pens to the magnetic field produced by a coil wound round an iron core when the a very large degree by the materials retentivity.
current is reversed in direction.
Permanent magnetic materials are hard to magnetise and have very high retentiv-
Hysteresis ities, e.g. cobalt iron - 25,000. Other materials such as permalloy are very easy to
magnetise and have very low retentivity. Permalloy is only 4.
A magnetising force H will produce a magnetic field which will have a certain flux
density B and that the direction of the field is determined by the direction of the cur- Figure 1: Hysteresis
rent I. It would appear therefore, that when the current is reduced to zero the mag-
netic field should be zero.
However, with ferromagnetic materials, this is not the case, when the current is ze-
ro, there is still magnetic flux in the core.
This effect of the magnetic field change lagging behind the current change produc-
s
ing it is called HYSTERESIS. Consider the graph shown in Fig below.
ic
The dotted line from the origin up to saturation shows how the flux density B in-
creases as the magnetising field H is increased. Since the strength of the magnet-
n
ising field is N.I and N is constant, the strength of H is dependent upon the value
ch
of the current I.
It can be seen that if I is now gradually reduced back to zero, the full line is a meas-
ure of the flux density being produced and when H is zero, i.e. I is zero, there is
Te
some flux density left. This is called REMANENCE or RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.
If now the current is made to increase negatively the flux density will continue to
decrease until the magnetism has disappeared. The amount of negative H to pro-
duce this is called COERCIVE FORCE. By continuing to increase H in the negative
SR
sense, the iron core will again become saturated.
By decreasing the - H field to zero and then increasing it in the positive direction
again to saturation, the complete closed loop is produced. The whole loop is in fact
called a HYSTERESIS LOOP.
The ability of a material to retain magnetism is dependent upon both its remanence
and coercive force.
It is called RETENTIVITY.
The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop for a given material indicates the energy
used in the magnetising and de-magnetising process.
Thus the greater the area of the loop the greater the energy loss, which usually
appears as heat.
Figure 2: Induction Principles

When current flows through an electrical conductor such as a wire, a magnetic
field is generated around it.
Each electron in the conductor has a minute magnetic field associated with it. The
electrons in the conductor are aligned in a random manner, when no current is
flowing through it. For that reason, the tiny magnetic fields associated with each
electron tend to cancel one another.
With no current flowing through the conductor, no external magnetic field exists.
When a voltage is applied to the conductor, electrons begin to flow. This tends to
align the electrons so that their magnetic fields add. The total strength of the mag-
netic field is the sum of the individual electron fields. The higher the applied voltage
or the lower the resistance of the conductor, the greater the number of electrons
flowing.
s
The magnitude of the magnetic field surrounding the conductor increases as the
ic
amount of current flow increases. This effect is known as electromagnetism. See
Figure 3.
n
Current flowing in a conductor produces a magnetic field. In addition, a magnetic
ch
field can cause a current to flow in a conductor. This current flows when there is
relative motion between the magnetic field and the conductor. When a conductor
or wire is passed through a stationary magnetic field, a voltage or electromotive
Te
force (emf) is induced into that conductor. Alternately, when a magnetic field is
passed across a fixed conductor, a voltage is induced into the conductor.
As long as there is relative motion between the magnetic field and the conductor,
an induced voltage is generated in the conductor. As the conductor is moved, the
SR
magnetic fields of the electrons in the conductor are affected by the external mag-
netic field. The motion between the conductor and the magnetic field forces the
electrons to move in one direction or the other. This effect creates a small voltage
across the conductor. There is a difference of potential from one end of the con-
ductor to its opposite end.
When the conductor forms a complete electrical circuit, current will flow in the cir-
cuit.
The amount of voltage induced into a conductor, by its motion in a magnetic field,
depends upon the strength of the magnetic field. The stronger the field, the more
influence it has on the electrons inside the conductor, and the greater the induced
voltage. The length of the conductor also determines the amount of induced volt-
age. For a given magnetic field, the longer the conductor, the greater the induced
voltage.
Figure 3: The speed with which the conductor cuts the magnetic field also influences the
magnitude of the induced voltage. Moving the conductor through the field slowly
causes only a small voltage to be induced. When the conductor is moved quickly
through the magnetic field, a larger voltage is induced.
The direction of motion between the conductor and the magnetic field also deter-
mines the amount of induced voltage. When the conductor moves in the same di-
rection and at the same speed as the magnetic field, no voltage is induced. The
conductor must cut across the magnetic lines of force in order for a voltage to be
generated. When the conductor moves perpendicular (90 degrees) to the magnet-
ic lines of force, maximum voltage is induced.
The amount of induced voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the mag-
netic field, the length of the conductor, the speed of the conductor and the direction
of movement of the conductor relative to the magnetic field. This effect is known
s
as electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
are both responsible for the property of inductance and the effect it has on electri-
ic
cal circuits.
n
Figure 4: Figure 5:
ch
Te
SR
Self-Induction The induced voltage is referred to as counter emf or back emf since it always op-
poses the applied voltage. The ability of a conductor to generate a voltage, with a
When voltage is applied to a conductor, current flows. This current flow results in change in current, is called self-induction. It is this characteristic that produces the
a magnetic field being generated around the conductor. property called inductance.
This field is not created immediately when voltage is applied to the conductor.
Rather, the field builds gradually as current flow through the conductor increases. Figure 6: Self-Induction
When current flow reaches its maximum value, the magnetic field around the con-
ductor is at its maximum strength.
As the magnetic lines of force expand outward from the center of the conductor,
the magnetic field induces a voltage into the conductor itself. In other words, the
magnetic field generated by the conductor induces a voltage in the conductor.
The expansion of the magnetic lines of force with respect to the conductor repre-
sents the relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field, required
to induce a voltage. The polarity of the induced voltage opposes the polarity of the
s
voltage that causes the magnetic field.
ic
As long as the magnetic field is moving with respect to the conductor, an induced
voltage is generated. As the magnetic lines of force continue to expand outward
n
from the conductor during the rise of the current in the circuit, induced voltage is
ch
present.
When the current in the circuit reaches its maximum, as determined by the applied
voltage and the resistance of the conductor, the magnetic field becomes station-
Te
ary. Since there is no further relative motion between the conductor and the mag-
netic field, there is no induced voltage. At this time, the current in the circuit is
strictly a function of Ohm's Law.
When the voltage applied to the conductor is removed, current flow decreases.
SR
With less movement of electrons in the conductor, the magnetic field starts to col-
lapse. As it collapses, the lines of force cut across the conductor and induce a volt-
age.
Again, the collapsing lines of force cause relative motion between the conductor
and the magnetic field. Therefore, a voltage is induced into the conductor. The po-
larity of the induced voltage is such that it tends to keep current flowing in the same
direction.
The application or removal of the voltage source causes a self-induced voltage.
This self-induction takes place for any current changes that occur. Increasing or
decreasing the current in a circuit causes the magnetic lines of force to expand or
collapse and thereby cut the conductor. The conductor cutting induces a voltage
that opposes the applied voltage.
Factors Determining the Magnitude of an Induced Voltage L = length of the conductor

The amount of EMF induced in a conductor is determined by four factors: B = flux density of the field
1. The Strength of the Magnetic Field v = velocity of motion
The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the number of lines of flux in the field θ = is the angle between the magnetic field and the direction of motion
per unit area. If the magnetic field has a great number of lines of force, then the
moving conductor can cut a great number of lines. The greater the number of lines
cut for a given time period, the greater the induced EMF.
E = B ⋅ l ⋅ v ⋅ sin θ
2. The Speed of the Conductor with Respect to the Field
As a conductor moves through a magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic lines of force.
Increasing the conductor's speed through the field results in a greater number of
lines of flux being cut for a given time period. This results in an increase in the EMF
induced in the conductor.
s
3. The Angle at which the Conductor Cuts the Field
ic
If one conductor moves perpendicular, or at right angles, to the magnetic lines of
force, it will cut a maximum number lines of force per second and produce a max-
n
imum EMF.
ch
An identical conductor moving at the same speed but at an angle other than per-
pendicular to the field will cut less lines of force in the same time and therefore pro-
duce a smaller EMF. A conductor moving parallel to the field crosses no lines of
Te
flux and therefore has no EMF induced in it.
4. The Length of the Conductor in the Field
A longer conductor must be coiled in order for it to fit into the magnetic field. Each
SR
loop in the coil cuts the field. Thus, the lines of flux are cut a greater number of
times per second resulting in a greater induced voltage.
All four of these factors are a natural consequence of a basic law of electromag-
netic induction.
This law is Faraday's Law and it states:
The voltage induced in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate at which
the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force.
In other words, the more flux lines cut per second, the higher the induced EMF.
Inductors and Inductance Electromagnetic Induction

Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit that tends to oppose any change Consider a coil wound with a large number of turns connected to a centre zero
of current in the circuit. reading GALVANOMETER (Figure 8).
The conductor or wire we have been discussing exhibits the property of inductance If the permanent magnet is moved up to and along the axis of the coil and the gal-
because it opposes changes in the current flow. vanometer will show a current is flowing in the coil. Since there is no battery con-
Below is shown various types of inductors. nected in the coil circuit there must have been an electromotive force induced,
hence induction, in the coil. Immediately the magnet stops moving the current in
Figure 7: Inductors the coil circuit ceases.
When the magnet is moved towards or away from the coil its magnetic field moves
with it and it is this magnetic field cutting the coil which generates the EMF across
the coil. Conversely, when the coil is moved towards, or away from the magnet,
the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and again an EMF is induced in the coil. The
direction of current flow will depend on the relative direction of the movement of
s
the coil or magnet.
ic
Since the number of turns of the coil is fixed, and the size of the permanent mag-
netic field is also fixed, then the only other quantity which can change the size of
n
the current induced is the SPEED at which the magnet is moved. When the mag-
ch
net is moved faster the current increases and, of course, vice versa. These factors
are embodied in Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
Figure 8: Electromagnetic Induction
Te
SR
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction Inductance in DC Circuits

The two important laws are: Consider figure below.
When the switch is opened the current and magnetic flux must drop to zero. The
1. Faraday's Law: flux in the coil is therefore changing and by Faraday's Law there will be an induced
voltage across it. This is called SELF INDUCED VOLTAGE and the phenomenon
is called SELF INDUCTION.
This states that when a magnetic flux through a coil is made to vary, an EMF is The coil is now open circuited so that the induced voltage cannot produce a cur-
induced in the coil and the magnitude of this EMF is proportional to the rate of rent. The voltage in fact appears across the switch gap and may be great enough
change of flux. to produce a spark across the gap.
By the same reasoning, a voltage will be induced when the switch is moved from
2. Lenz's Law: the open to the closed position. From Lenz's Law, the induced magnetic effect will
oppose that which is causing the change, i.e. it will oppose the current growth. The
s
induced EMF is therefore called a BACK EMF
This states that the induced current always acts in such a direction so as to oppose
ic
The above assumes that there is no resistance in the circuit below.
the change in flux producing the current.
Figure 10:
n
Factors Affecting Inductance of an Inductor
ch
Figure 9:
Te
SR
Growth and Decay of Current in a Coil There is no energy source to maintain a current in the circuit and it must therefore
decay to zero.
Consider the practical case of when there is resistance in the circuit below.
It does so exponentially, VR follows it (Ohm's Law) and VL rises also exponentially,
When the switch 'S' is placed on contact 'a', the current in the circuit suddenly and all reach zero at the same time as shown in Figure 11 b above.
changes from zero to some discrete value and this produces a back EMF (VL) in
the coil. At the moment of switching this will be equal to the whole of the applied Figure 11:
EMF (V) and therefore the voltage across R (VR) is zero. At the moment the switch
is closed and for as long as it remains closed:
VR + V L = V
The current in the circuit can now build up EXPONENTIALLY.

This is shown in the diagram in Figure 11 below.
s
As the current changes exponentially the voltage across R (VR) must also change
ic
in the same way because Ohm's Law must apply.
The back EMF across the coil must decrease exponentially since the above volt-
n
age equation must be maintained.
Eventually VR reaches its maximum value and VL decrease to zero.
ch
VR will be a maximum when the current reaches its maximum value, i.e.:
Te
VR = V = I x R
Since now the current is constant there cannot be any back EMF in the coil, i.e.
VL= 0. This is shown in the current and voltage waveform diagrams Figure 12 a
SR
below.
The switch is now moved to contact 'b' i.e. the source of energy keeping the cur-
rent flowing, the battery, is removed from the circuit. The voltage equation now be-
comes:
VR + VL = 0 or VL = - VR
At the instant the switch is moved to 'b', the current tries to drop to zero, i.e. a sud-
den change. This rapid change of current produces a back EMF and, by Lenz's
Law, it will be in a direction as to keep the current flowing.
The back EMF is initially at its maximum value and, since the voltage equation
above must be maintained, it is opposite to the voltage across the Resistor.
Unit of Inductance
The unit of inductance L is the HENRY (H).
It is defined as:
A circuit has an inductance of 1 HENRY (1H) if an electromotive force (E) of 1 volt
is induced in the circuit when the current varies uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere
per second.
Inductors in Series and Parallel

The rules for inductors in series and parallel are the same as for resistors in series
and parallel. If there are three inductors, L1, L2, and L3, the total inductance L will
be:
s
In series L = L1 + L2 + L3
ic
--1- = -----
1 + -----
1 + -----
1
n
In parallel
L L1 L2 L3
ch
L1 ⋅ L2
or L = -----------------
-
Te
L1 + L2
Figure 12:
SR
Mutual Inductance Figure 13: Mutual Inductance

Consider the circuit shown below in Figure 13.
A and B are two coils in which A has established in it a magnetic field due to the
battery and B is connected to a galvanometer.
A coil produces a magnetic field similar to a bar magnet when a current passes
through it. If A is moved towards B as shown in the diagram, an EMF will be pro-
duced across coil B.
This will produce a current as indicated by the needle position on the galvanome-
ter.
If the coil A is brought to rest no current flows in coil B.
If the coil A is drawn away from coil B, a current will flow again, but in the opposite
direction in coil B.
s
Consider what happens when neither of the coils are moved but the current in one
ic
is made to change.
In the example Figure 13, the EMF induced in coil B is due to magnetic flux pro-
n
duced by coil A cutting it. The two coils are then said to have MUTUAL INDUCT-
ANCE (M) and this is defined as follows:
ch
Two coils have a mutual inductance of 1 Henry when an electromotive force of 1
volt is induced in one coil due to the current in the other changing at the rate of 1
Te
ampere per second.
When inductors are placed in series or parallel, any mutual inductance present
modifies the formulae stated above for calculations of total inductance in a circuit.
If, instead of having a switch in coil A circuit in the examples but have a continually
SR
changing EMF, then a continually changing EMF will be induced in coil B. This is
the basis of a very important electrical component, the TRANSFORMER
(Figure 13).
Inductive Time Constant Figure 14: Charging Curve

This is the length of time taken for a current to build up to its maximum value if a
dc circuit contains an inductor L, and a resistor R, connected in series.
The time taken for the circuit currents to reach approximately 2/3 of its maximum
value is called the inductive TIME CONSTANT (T) and is calculated from the for-
mula:
T = --L- sec onds

R
L must be in Henries and R in ohms.
s
It will reach its maximum after an interval equal to five times the time constant val-
ic
ue for the circuit, i.e. 5T seconds. It will also take approximately 5T for the current
to reach zero after the switch is opened.
n
ch
Example
An inductor having an inductance of 25mH is connected in series to a resistor hav- Figure 15: Discharging Curve
ing a resistance of 5 K.
Te
Calculate the time taken for the circuit current to reach approximately 2/3 of the
maximum value when a voltage is applied to the circuit.
T = --L-
SR
sec onds
R
–3
×10 -
T = 25
-------------------
3
5 ×10
= 5 x 10-6 seconds or 5μSec
Training Manual 3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory
3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
DC Generators Figure 1: Generator Operation
Energy for the operation of most electrical equipment in an airplane depends upon
the electrical energy supplied by a generator.
A generator is any machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical en-
ergy by electromagnetic induction.
A generator, which produces direct-current energy, is called a DC generator.
DC Generator Operation
This basic generator principles are explained in the chapter which describes the
generation of AC voltage. In a simple generator a coil is rotating in a magnetic field.
Because lines of magnetic force are cut by the coil a voltage is induced in the con-
ductor.
s
To use the voltage generated in the loop for producing a current flow in an external
ic
circuit, some means must be provided to connect the loop of wire in series with the
external circuit. Such an electrical connection can be effected by opening the loop
n
of wire and connecting its two ends to two metal rings, called slip rings, against
which two metal or carbon brushes ride. The brushes are connected to the exter-
ch
nal circuit.
By replacing the slip rings of the basic AC generator with two half-cylinders, called
Te
a commutator, a basic DC generator is obtained.In the illustration the black side of
the coil is connected to the black segment and the white side of the coil to the white
segment of the commutator.
The segments are insulated from each other. The two stationary brushes are
SR
placed on opposite sides of the commutator and are so mounted that each brush
contacts each segment of the commutator as the latter revolves simultaneously
with the loop.
The rotating parts of a DC generator (coil and commutator) are called the arma-
ture.
The generation of an EMF by the loop rotating in the magnetic field is the same for
both AC and DC generators, but the action of the commutator produces a DC volt-
age. This generation of a DC voltage is described as follows for the various posi-
tions of the loop rotating in a magnetic field.
DC Generator Operation Cont. Figure 2: Generator Operation

The loop in position A is rotating clockwise, but no lines of force are cut by the coil
sides and no EMF is generated.
The black brush is shown coming into contact with the black segment of the com-
mutator, and the white brush is just coming into contact with the white segment.
In position B the flux is being cut at a maximum rate and the induced EMF is max-
imum. At this time, the black brush is contacting the black segment and the white
brush is contacting the white segment.
The deflection of the meter is toward the right, indicating the polarity of the output
voltage.
At position C the loop has completed 180° of rotation. Again, no flux lines are be-
ing cut and the output voltage is zero.
s
The important condition to observe at position C is the action of the segments and
brushes. The black brush at the 180° angle is contacting both black and white seg-
ic
ments on one side of the commutator, and the white brush is contacting both seg-
ments on the other side of the commutator.
n
After the loop rotates slightly past the 180° point, the black brush is contacting only
the white segment and the white brush is contacting only the black segment.
ch
Because of this switching of the commutator elements, the black brush is always
in contact with the coil side moving downward, and the white brush is always in
Te
contact with the coil side moving upward.
Though the current actually reverses its direction in the loop in exactly the same
way as in the ac generator, commutator action causes the current to flow always
in the same direction through the external circuit or meter.
SR
A graph of one cycle of operation is shown. The generation of the EMF. for posi-
tions A,B and C is the same as for the basic ac generator, but then, commutator
action reverses the current in the cycle. The process of commutation is sometimes
called rectification, since rectification is the converting of an ac voltage to a dc volt-
age.
At this instant that each brush is contacting two segments on the commutator (po-
sitions A, C, and E), a direct short circuit is produced. If an EMF were generated
in the loop at this time, a high current would flow in the circuit, causing an arc and
thus damaging the commutator. For this reason, the brushes must be placed in the
exact position where the short will occur when the generated EMF is zero.
This position is called the neutral plane.
Generator Classifications Figure 4: Self-excited Generator

Generators are classified according to the method by which their magnetic circuits
are energized, and the following three classes are normally recognized,
Permanent magnetic generators
Separately-excited generators
in which electromagnets are excited by current obtained form a separate source
of d.c.
Self-excited generators
in which electromagnets are excited by current produced by the machines them-
selves. These generators are further classified by the manner in which the fixed
windings, i.e. the electromagnetic flied and armature windings, are interconnected.
s
In aircraft DC power supply systems, self-excited shunt-wound generators are em-
ployed and the following details are therefore related only to this type.
ic
Figure 5: Shunt-Wound Generator
Figure 3: Separately-excited Generator
n
ch
Te
SR
Self-Excited Shunt-Wound Generators End Frame Assemblies

Shunt-wound generators are one of the three types in the self-excited class of ma- These assemblies are bolted one at each end of yoke and house the armature
chine and as already noted are used in aircraft DC power supply systems. shaft bearings. The drive end frame provides for the attachment of the generator
to the mounting pad of the engine of gearbox drive and the commutator and frame
The term "shunt-wound" is derived from the fact that the high resistance field wind-
provides a mounting for the brush-gear assembly and, in the majority of cases,
ing is connected across or in parallel with the armature as shown below. The ar- also provides for the attachment of a cooling air duct.
mature current divides into two branches, one formed by the field winding, the
other by the external circuit. Since the field winding is of high resistance, the ad- Inspection and replacement of brushes is accomplished by removing a strap which
vantage gained of having maximum current flow through the external circuit and normally covers apertures in the commutator end frame.
expenditure of unnecessary electrical energy within the generator is avoided.
Figure 6: DC Generator
Generator Construction
A typical self-excited shunt-wound four-pole generator, which is employed in a cur-
rent type of turbo-prop civil transport aircraft, is illustrated in the figure below.
s
It is designed to provide an output of 9 kilowatts at a continuous current of 300 am-
ic
peres (A) over the speed range of 4,500 to 8,500 rev/min.
In its basic form the construction follows the pattern conventionally adopted and
n
consists of five principal assemblies; namely, the yoke, armature, two end frames
and brush-gear assembly.
ch
The Yoke
Te
The yoke forms the main housing of the generator, and is designed to carry the
electromagnet system made up of the four field windings and pole pieces. It also
provides for the attachment of the end frame assemblies.
The windings are pre-formed coils of the required ampere-turns, wound and con-
SR
nected in series in such a manner that when mounted on the pole pieces, the po-
larity of the field produced at the poles by the coil current is alternately North and
South.
The field windings are suitably insulated and are close fit on the pole pieces which
are bolted to the yoke. The faces of the pole pieces are subjected to varying mag-
netic fields caused by rotation of the armature, giving rise to induced EMF which
in turn produces eddy currents through the pole pieces causing local heating and
power wastage. To minimize these effects the pole pieces are of laminated con-
struction; the thin soft iron laminations being oxidized to insulate and to offer high
electrical resistance of the induced EMF.
Armature Assembly Contact between brushes and commutator is maintained by the pressure exerted
The armature assembly comprises the main shaft (which may be solid or hollow) by the free ends of adjustable springs anchored to posts on the brush holders.
core and main winding commutator and bearings; the whole assembly being stat- The brushes are fitted with short leads or "pigtails" of flexible copper braid moulded
ically and dynamically balanced. into the brush during manufacture.
In the generator shown, the shaft is hollow and internally splined to mate with The free ends of the pigtails terminate in spade or plate type terminals, which are
splines of a drive shaft, which passes through the entire length of the armature connected to the appropriate main terminals of the generator via the brush holders
shaft. and connecting links.
Armature windings are made up of a number of individual identical coils, which fit,
into slots at the outer edges of steel laminations, which form the core of the arma- Spark Suppression
ture. The coils are made from copper strip and as security against displacement Sparking at the brushes of a generator, no matter how slight, results in the propa-
by centrifugal force, steel wire (in some cases steel strip) is bound round the cir- gation of electromagnetic waves, which interfere with the reception of radio sig-
cumference of the armature. The ends of each coil are brought out to the commu- nals.
tator and silver brazed to separate segments, the finish of one coil being
The interference originating in generators may be eliminated quite effectively by
s
connected to the same segment as the beginning of another coil.
screening and suppression.
The complete winding thus forms a closed circuit.
ic
The windings are invariably vacuum-impregnated with silicone varnish to maintain Screening involves the enclosure of a generator in a continuous metallic casing
insulation resistance under all conditions. and the sheathing of output supply cables in continuous metallic tubing or conduit
n
to prevent direct radiation.
In common with most aircraft generators, the commutator is of small diameter to
ch
To prevent interference being conducted along the distribution cable system, the
minimize centrifugal stressing, and is built up of long, narrow copper segments
screened output supply cables are terminated in filter or suppressor units. These
corresponding in number to that of the field coils (a typical figure is 51 coils).
units consist of chokes and capacitors of suitable electrical rating built into metal
The segment surfaces are swept by brushes which are narrow and mounted in
Te
cases located as close to a generator as possible.
pairs (usually four pairs) to maintain the brush contact area per segment - an es-
Independent suppressor units are rather cumbersome and quite heavy, and it is
sential pre-requisite for effective commutation.
therefore the practice in the design of current types of generator to incorporate in-
Brush-Gear Assembly ternal suppression systems.
SR
These systems do not normally contain chokes, but consist simply of suitably rated
The brush-gear assembly is comprised of the brushes and the holding equipment capacitors which are connected between generator casing (earth) and terminals.
necessary for retaining the brushes in the correct position, and at the correct angle
with respect to magnetic neutral axis. The use of internal suppression systems eliminates the necessity for screened
output supply cables and conduits thereby making for a considerable saving in the
Brushes used in aircraft generators are the electrographite type made from artifi- overall weight of a generator installation.
cial graphite.
The graphite is produced by taking several forms of natural carbons, grinding them
in fine powder, blending them together and consolidating the mixture into the de-
sired solid shape by mechanical pressure in an electric furnace.
These brushes posses both the robustness of carbon and the lubricating proper-
ties of graphite. In addition they are very resistant to burning by sparking, they
cause little commutator wear and their heat conductivity enables them to withstand
overloads.
DC Motors Figure 7: DC Motor

An electric motor is a device which changes electric power to mechanical energy:
that is, its function is opposite to that of a generator.
Electric motors and generators are very much alike in construction, and some gen-
erators are actually used as motors under some conditions. This is true of engine-
driven generators that are used as motors to start the engine.
Certain turbojet engines employ starter-generators, which are constructed with
special series field windings for use in starting. These field windings are only en-
ergized during starting, and their purpose is to provide a very high starting torque.
Usually it is not good practice to use a generator as a motor, because certain fea-
ture which make a generator more efficient will have the opposite effect when the
unit is used as a motor.
s
Electric motors are classified in many ways; the number of different types of mo-
ic
tors is so great, however, that it would be impossible to describe them with simple
classifications.
n
There are a few basic feature which are common to all DC motors, and these will
help to indicate the type of motor to be used for a specific purpose.
ch
DC motors are described in part by the type of internal winding they have.
There are series-wound, shunt-wound, and compound-wound motors, named ar-
Te
mature winding.
Motors of all types are usually rated according to horsepower.
Usually the data plate will also show the voltage and amperage. Additional infor-
mation on DC motors includes RPM, type of duty, and some other points descrip-
SR
tive of the motor design.
Electric motors are used in aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft for many purposes.
Among the many units and systems requiring electric motors are engine starters,
cowl flaps, intercooler or heat-exchanger shutter or control valves, heat-control
valves, landing gear, flaps, trim tabs, flight controls, fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps,
vacuum pumps, controllable propellers, gyro-stabilizing units, navigation devices,
and tracking devices.
Principles of DC Motors Figure 8: Force Acting on a Conductor
Force Acting on a Conductor

The operation of a DC motor depends on the principle that a current carrying con-
ductor placed in, and at right angles to a magnetic field tends to move at right an-
gles to the direction of the field.
The magnetic field between a north and south pole of a magnet is shown in figure
(A).
The lines of force, comprising the field extend from the north pole to the south pole.
A cross section of a current carrying conductor is shown in figure (B). The plus sign
in the wire indicates that the electron flow is away from the observer.
The direction of the flux loops around the wire is counter-clockwise, as shown.
s
This follows from the left-hand flux rule which states that if the conductor is
grasped in the left hand with the thumb extended in the direction of the current
ic
flow, the fingers will curve around the conductor in the direction of the magnetic
flux.
n
If the conductor (carrying the electron flow away from the observer) is placed be-
ch
tween the poles of the magnet, as in figure (C), both fields will be distorted. Above
the wire the field is weakened, and the conductor tends to move upward. The force
exerted upward depends on the strength of the field between the poles and on the Figure 9: Right-Hand Motor Rule
Te
strength of the current flowing through the wire.
If the current through the conductor is reversed, as in figure (D), the direction of
the flux around the wire is reversed.
The field below the conductor is now weakened, and the conductor tends to move
SR
downward.
A convenient method of determining the direction of motion of a current carrying
conductor in a magnetic field is by the use of the right-hand motor rule.
Practical DC motors depend for their operation on the interaction between the field
flux and a large number of current carrying conductors.
Basic DC Motor Figure 10: DC Motor Operation

A coil of wire through which current flows will rotate when placed in a magnetic
field. This is the technical basis governing the construction of a DC motor.
The figure shows a coil mounted in a magnetic field in which it can rotate.
However, if the connecting wires from the battery were permanently fastened to
the terminals of the coil and there was a flow of current, the coil would rotate only
until it lined itself up with the magnetic field. Then, it would stop, because the
torque at that point would be zero.
A motor, of course, must continue rotating. It is necessary, therefore, to design a
device that will reverse the current in the coil just at the time the coil becomes par-
allel to the lines of force.
This will create torque again and cause the coil to rotate.
s
If the current-reversing device is set up to reverse the current each time the coil is
about to stop, the coil can be made to continue rotating as long as desired.
ic
One method of doing this is to connect the circuit so that, as the coil rotates, each
n
contact slides off the terminal to which it connects and slides on to the terminal of
opposite polarity.
ch
In other words, the coil contacts switch terminals continuously as the coil rotates,
preserving the torque and keeping the coil rotating.
The coil terminal segments are labelled A and B. As the coil rotates, the segments
Te
slide onto and past the fixed terminals of brushes.
With the arrangement, the direction of current in the side of the coil next to the
north seeking pole flows toward the reader, and the force acting on that side of the
coil turns it downward.
SR
The part of the motor which changes the current from one wire to another is called
the commutator.
DC Motor Operation The commutator, likewise, contains a large number of segments instead of only
two.
When the coil is positioned as shown in A, current will flow from the negative ter-
minal of the battery to the negative (-) brush, to segment B of the commutator, The armature in a practical motor is not placed between the poles of a permanent
through the loop to segment A of the commutator, to the positive (+) brush, and magnet but between those of an electromagnet, since a much stronger magnetic
then, back to the positive terminal of the battery. field can be furnished. The core is usually made of mild or annealed steel, which
can be magnetized strongly by induction. The current magnetizing the electromag-
By using the right-hand motor rule, it is seen that the coil will rotate counter-clock- net is from the same source that supplies the current to the armature.
wise.
The torque at this position of the coil is maximum, since the greatest numbers of A simple motor of the type described does not deliver a smooth flow of power be-
lines of force are being cut by the coil. cause the torque is high when the armature is at right angles to the field poles and
there is no torque at the moment the armature is in line with the field poles.
When the coil has rotated 90° to the position shown in B, segments A and B of the
commutator no longer make contact with the battery circuit and no current can flow In order to deliver smooth power, the armature is provided with additional coils so
through the coil. that there will always be a high torque.
At this position, the torque has reached a minimum value, since a minimum num-
s
ber of lines of force are being cut. Counter EMF and Net EMF
ic
However, the momentum of the coil carries it beyond this position until the seg- A conductor moving across a magnetic field will have an EMF induced within itself.
ments again make contact with the brushes, and current against enters the coil; Since the conductors in the armature of a motor are cutting across a magnetic field
n
this time, though, it enters through segment A and leaves through segment B. as the armature rotates, an EMF is produced in the conductors and this EMF op-
ch
However, since the positions of segments A and B have also been reversed, the poses the current being applied to the armature from the outside source.
effect of the current is as before, the torque acts in the same direction, and the coil This inducted voltage is called counter EMF, and it acts to reduce the amount of
continues its counter-clockwise rotation. current flowing in the armature.
Te
On passing through the positions shown in C, the torque again reaches maximum. The net EMF is the difference between the applied EMF and the counter EMF.
Continued rotation carries the coil again to a position of minimum torque, as in D. An engine-driven generator unit, such as an auxiliary power plant, gives an excel-
At this position, the brushes no longer carry current, but once more the momentum lent example of the action of the counter EMF in a generator. When battery voltage
is applied to the generator, it acts as a motor to start the engine.
SR
rotates the coil to the point where current enters through segment B and leaves
through A. When the engine starts and begins to run at normal speed, the counter EMF pro-
Further rotation brings the coil to the starting point and, thus, one revolution is duced in the armature becomes greater than the applied battery voltage. The cur-
completed. rent then flows in the opposite direction and charges the battery.
The switching of the coil terminals from the positive to the negative brushes occurs Counter EMF plays a large part in the design of a motor.
twice per revolution of the coil. Motors must be designed to operate efficiently on the net EMF, which is only a
fraction of the applied EMF; hence, the resistance of the armature coils must be
The torque in a motor containing only a single coil is neither continuous nor very
effective, for there are two positions where there is actually no toque at all. relatively low.
To overcome this, a practical DC motor contains a large number of coils wound on Before a motor gains speed, the current through the armature is determined by the
the armature. These coils are so spaced that, for any position of the armature, applied EMF and the armature resistance.
Since the armature resistance is low, the current is very high.
there will be coils near the poles of the magnet. This makes the torque both con-
tinuous and strong. As the speed of the motor increases, the counter EMF builds up and opposes the
applied EMF thus reducing the current flow through the armature.
This explains the facts that there is a large surge of current when a motor is first ing torque over that of the shunt motor, and has less variation in speed than the
started and that the current then rapidly falls off to a fraction of its initial value. series motor.
With some electric-motor installations the starting current is so high that it would Shunt, series, and compound motors are all DC motors designed to operate from
overheat and damage the wiring or the armature, and so resistance must be in- constant-potential variable-current DC sources.
serted into the circuit until the motor has gained speed.
The resistance may be automatically cut out as the speed of the motor increases, Figure 11: Types of DC Motors
or it may be controlled manually.
Types of Direct Current Motors

The construction of a DC motor is essentially the same as that of a DC generator.
The DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy back into me-
chanical energy. A DC generator may be made to function as a motor by applying
a suitable source of a direct voltage across the normal output electrical terminals.
s
There are various types of DC motors, depending on the way the field coils are
ic
connected.
Each has characteristics that are advantageous under given load conditions.
n
Such loads are found in machine shop drives.
They include lathes, milling machines, drills, planers, shapers, and so forth.
ch
Series Wound DC Motors
Series motors have the field coils connected in series with the armature circuit.
Te
This type of motor, with constant potential applied, develops variable torque but its
speed varies widely, under changing load conditions. That is, the speed is low un-
der heavy loads, but becomes excessively high under light loads.
SR
Series motors are commonly used to drive electric cranes, hoists, winches, and
certain types of vehicles (for example, electric trucks).
Series motors are used extensively to start internal combustion engines.
Shunt Wound DC Motors

These DC motors have their armature coils wound in parallel with their field coils.
They provide for relatively constant speed operation over a range of different size
loads.
However, they produce only a low starting torque.
Compound Wound DC Motors

Compound motors have one set of field coils in parallel with the armature circuit,
and another set of field coils in series with the armature circuit. This type of motor
is a compromise between shunt and series motors. It develops an increased start-
Characteristics of DC Motors Figure 13: Series Motor

DC motors are series-wound, shunt-wound, or compound-wound, depending
upon the arrangement of the field windings with respect to the armature circuit.
In a series motor the field coils are connected in series with the armature as
shown. Since all the current used by the motor must flow through both the field and
the armature, it is apparent that the flux of both the armature and the field will be
strong.
The greatest flow of current through the motor will take place when the motor is
being started; hence; the starting torque will be high.
A motor of this type is very useful in installations in which the load is continually Figure 14:
applied to the motor and in which the load is heavy when the motor starts.
In aircraft, series motors are used to operate engine starters, landing gear, cowl
s
flaps, and similar equipment. In each case the motor must start with a fairly heavy
load; the high starting torque of the series motor is particularly well suited to this
ic
condition.
n
If a series motor is not connected mechanically to a load, the speed of the motor
will continue to increase for as long as the counter EMF is substantially below the
ch
applied EMF. The speed may increase far above the normal operating speed of
the motor, and this may result in the armature flying apart because of the centrifu-
gal force developed by the rapid rotation. A series motor should always be con-
Te
nected mechanically to a load to prevent it from "running away".
Figure 12: Per-mag Motor SR
The reason for the increase in speed when a series motor is not driving a load may Figure 15: Characteristics
be understood if the behaviour of the field in such a motor is considered. As the
speed of the motor increases, the counter EMF increases. As the counter EMF in-
creases, however, the field current decreases.
Remember that the field is in series with the armature and that since the counter
EMF causes the armature current to decrease, it must necessarily cause a de-
crease in the field current. This weakens the fields so that the counter EMF cannot
build up sufficiently to oppose the applied voltage. A current continues to flow
through both the armature and the field, and the resulting torque increases the ar-
mature speed still further.
This increase of speed will continue until the centrifugal force tears the armature
apart, or, as is the case with very small motors, the friction and other losses in the
motor balance the armature torque.
s
In a shunt motor the field coils are connected in parallel with the armature. The
ic
shunt field must have sufficient resistance to limit the field current to that required
for normal operation because the counter EMF of the armature will not act to re-
n
duce the field current.
Since the voltage applied to the field at operating speed will be practically the
ch
same as the voltage applied to the motor as a whole, regardless of counter EMF,
the resistance of the field must be many times the resistance of the armature. This
is usually accomplished by winding the field coils with many turns of fine wire.
Te
The result of this arrangement is that the motor will have a low starting torque be-
cause of a weak field. The reason for the weak field is that the armature, owing to
its low resistance, draws most of the current when the motor is first starting.
SR
As the armature of a shunt motor gains in speed, the armature current will de-
crease because of counter EMF, and the field current will increase. This will cause
a corresponding increase in torque until the counter EMF is almost equal to the
applied EMF, at which time the motor is operating at its normal speed. This speed
is almost constant for all reasonable loads.
When a load is applied to a shunt motor, there is a slight reduction in speed which
causes the counter EMF to decrease and the net EMF across the armature to in-
crease. Since the resistance of the armature is low, a slight rise in net EMF will
cause a comparatively large increase in armature current, which in turn increase
the torque.
This prevents a further decrease in speed and actually holds the speed to a point
only slightly less than the no-load speed.
The current flow increases to a level sufficient to hold the speed against the in- Figure 17: Characteristics
creases load. Because of the ability of the shunt motor to maintain an almost con-
stant speed under a variety of loads, it is often called a constant speed motor.
Shunt motors are used when the load is small at the start and increases as the mo-
tor speed increases. Typical of such loads are electric fans, centrifugal pumps, and
motor-generator units.
When a motor has both a series field and a shunt field it is called a compound mo-
tor. This type of motor combines the feature of series and shunt motors; that is, it
has a strong starting torque like the series motor but will not over-speed when the
load is light.
This is because the shunt winding maintains a field which allows the counter EMF
to increase sufficiently to balance the applied EMF. When the load on a compound
motor is increased, the speed of the motor will decrease more than it does in a
s
shunt motor, but it provides speed sufficiently constant for many practical applica-
ic
tions.
Compound motors are used to operate machines subject to a wide variety of
n
loads.
In aircraft they are used to drive hydraulic pumps which may operate from a no-
ch
load condition to a maximum-load condition.
Neither a shunt motor nor a series motor would satisfactorily fulfil these require-
ments.
Te
Figure 16: Characteristics
SR
Practical DC Motor Construction Figure 18: DC Motor

The major parts in a practical motor are the armature assembly, the field assem-
bly, the brush assembly, and the end frame.
Armature Assembly
The armature assembly contains a laminated, soft-iron cores, coils, and a commu-
tator, all mounted on a rotating steel shaft.
Laminations made of stacks of soft iron, insulated from each other, form the arma-
ture core.
Solid iron is not used , since a solid-iron core revolving in the magnetic field would
heat and use energy needlessly. The armature windings are insulated copper
wire, which are inserted slots insulated with fiber paper to protect the windings.
The ends of the windings are connected to the commutator segments.
s
Wedges or steel bands hold the windings in place to prevent them form flying out
ic
of the slots when the armature is rotating at high speeds.
The commutator consists of a large number of copper segments insulated from
n
each other and the armature shaft by pieces of mica. Insulated wedge rings hold
the segments in place.
ch
Field Assembly
Te
The field assembly consists of the field frame, the pole pieces, and the field coils.
The field frame is located along the inner wall of the motor housing. It contains lam-
inated soft steel pole pieces on which the field coils are wound.
A coil, consisting of several turns of insulated wire, fits over each pole piece and,
SR
together with the pole, constitutes a field pole. Some motors have a few as two
poles, others as many as eight.
Brush Assembly
The brush assembly consists of the brushes and their holders.
The brushes are usually small blocks of graphite carbon.
Reversible DC Motors Figure 19: Reversible DC Motors

The field and armature both receive their current from the same source and their
magnetic fields are polarised to rotate the motor in a given direction.
Reversing the polarity of the input voltage will not reverse the direction of rotation,
as both the polarity of the field and armature will reverse.
To reverse the direction of rotation of a DC Motor, you must reverse the polarity of
either the field or the armature, but not both.
Ways of doing this is by polarity-reversing switches or by split field windings.
Also transmission rotation from a motor can be reversed by counter-rotating elec-
tromagnetic clutches.
Figure 19 is a schematic circuit of a split field series motor.
The split field windings are wound in opposite directions on the same poles.
s
With the upper field energized the motor rotates in one direction.
With the lower field energized it rotates in the opposite direction.
ic
Figure 19 shows switching arrangements for reversing different types of motors.
n
You can see with the two circuits for the permanent magnet type motor that the
reversing switch changes the direction of current through the armature. Figure (a)
ch
In figure (b) the reversing switch reverses the direction of the current in the field
circuit of a shunt motor.
Te
In figure (c) the reversing switch changes the direction of current in the armature
of what could be a series or compound wound motor.
In figure (d) a unidirectional motor drives counter-rotating gears.
The output shaft of the gear assembly can be turned in either direction by one or
SR
other of the counter-rotating gears.
These gears are coupled into the transmission by electromagnetic clutches.
In the position shown the switch energizes the lower solenoid causing the lower
counter-rotating gear and clutch plate to engage.
When a solenoid is de-energized its related clutch plate is disengaged from its
drive gear by a spring (not shown).
Starter Generators Figure 20: Starter Generators

Most small turbine engines are equipped with starter generators rather than sep-
arate starters and generators.
This effects an appreciable weight saving, as both starters and generators are
quite heavy and they are never used at the same time.
The armature of a starter generator is splined to fit into a drive pad on the engine,
rather than being connected through a clutch and drive jaws as starters are.
Starter generators are equipped with two or three sets of field windings. Below we
have a schematic of a typical starter generator.
The generator consists of an armature and a series field around the interpoles and
a shunt winding for generator control.
A series motor field is wound around the pole shoes inside the field frame and the
end of this winding is connected to the C-terminal.
s
For starting current from the battery or external power unit flows through the series
ic
winding and the armature._
As soon as the engine starts the start relay disconnects this winding and connects
n
the generator circuit to the aircraft electrical system.
ch
The starter generator unit shown pictorially and schematically is basically a shunt
generator with an additionally heavy series winding.
This series winding is electrically connected to produce a strong field and a result-
Te
ing high torque for starting.
Starter generator units are desirable from an economical standpoint since one unit
performs the function of both starter and generator.
Additionally the total weight of the starting system components is reduced and few-
SR
er parts are required.
While acting as a starter the unit makes no practical use of its shunt field winding.
A source of 24Vdc and 150 amperes is usually required for starting.
When operating as a generator the shunt, compensating and commutating wind-
ings are used.
The series field is used only for starting purposes.
The shunt field is connected in the conventional voltage control circuit for genera-
tor voltage control.
Compensating and commutating (interpoles) windings provide almost sparkless
commutation from no load to full load.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.13 AC Theory
3.13 AC Theory
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
AC Theory Introduction Figure 1:

Alternating current, or AC is current which flows first in one direction and then in
the other at regular intervals.
The diagram below shows the conventional current flow (positive to negative)
'downwards' through the resistor. If we reversed the connections to the battery (Di-
agram below) the current would flow 'upwards' through the resistor.
If we continue to reverse the connections at regular intervals with a device such as
a changeover switch, we would produce a type of AC.
Assume the changeover switch is operated at 2 second intervals and that the
changeover can occur instantly.
Draw graphs, on the axes provided (bottom diagram below), of how you think the
voltage and current will vary with time. Remember the battery voltage (3V) and the
s
resistance value (1).
ic
Graphs, which show how current or voltage varies over a period of time, are known
as waveforms.
n
ch
Te
SR
The Elementary Generator With the loop moving in this direction (black down, white up) we are assuming the
polarity of the generated voltage to be positive.
The elementary generator utilises the principle that electricity is produced when-
ever a conductor passes through a magnetic field. Finish the diagram below by drawing in the remainder of the waveform for a com-
As the armature loop rotates, electricity is produced. plete revolution of the loop.
This is 'picked up' by contact between the slip rings and brushes and passed to the Keep in mind that between positions C and D, the white part of the loop will be
external circuit. moving downwards and the black part upwards, different from when the loop was
The 'center zero' meter can then be used to monitor output at each stage. moving between A and B.
Also keep in mind that between positions D and A, the white part of the loop will
The diagram below shows the armature loop in various positions; the remainder of be moving downwards and the black part moving upwards.
the generator's components has been left out for clarity.
Between B and C the generated voltage is reducing, until at C it reduces to zero.
Assume the armature loop rotates clockwise within the magnetic field. In position
A both the black and white parts of the loop are moving parallel to the magnetic This is because at this point no field is being cut.
field, it doesn't cut through it, so no voltage is generated. Between C and D the voltage increases in a negative direction and by the time it
s
As the loop rotates towards position B (90 later) maximum voltage is generated. returns to position A reduces again to zero.
Notice that the black part of the loop is moving downwards through the field and The name we give to this kind of waveform is a SINE WAVE.
ic
the white part is moving upward.
n
Figure 2:
ch
Te
N S N S N S N S
SR
Electron Electron
Flow Flow
A Generator B C D
Terminal Voltage A B C D E
+
Generator
Terminal 0 180˚ 270˚ 360˚
0˚ 90˚
Voltage
-
Period Figure 3:
When you are analysing an AC sine wave, it is often necessary to know exactly
how much time is required to generate one complete cycle. The time required to
produce one complete cycle is called the period of the waveform.
The period of a sine wave is shown in the fig below.
The period is usual measured in seconds although other units of time can be used.
Furthermore, the period is often represented by the letter T as shown.
If a generator produces 1 cycle of output voltage in 1 second, the output sine wave
has a period of 1 second. However, if 4 cycles are produced in 1 second, the out-
put sine wave will have a period of ¼ of a second (T = 0.25 seconds). It is important
to remember, that the period is the time of one cycle, and not the total time required
to generate a given number of cycles.
Time of a cycle is also expressed in angular notation. Remember that an armature
s
is rotated through 360 degrees, to produce a complete sine wave. The output volt-
ic
age started at zero and increased to maximum at 90 degrees. This portion is equal
to ¼ of one revolution. From maximum back to zero completes one alternation,
n
which is ½ of one cycle. The other ½ cycle is the other alteration.
ch
Angular motion is measured in radians. A radian is approximately 57.3 degrees.
A circle (360 degrees) contains exactly 2π radians.
Te
SR
The Cycle Figure 4:

When the loop of our elementary generator rotated through 360 degrees, the gen-
erated voltage and current completed one cycle.
In other words, a cycle is a complete set of positive and negative values.
Frequency
The frequency of an alternating current or voltage is a measure of the number of
cycles that occur in 1 second of time.
In mathematical terms this is:
A frequency of one cycle per second is known as 1 HERTZ (Hz).
Frequency is the reciprocal of time. This relationship is shown in the following
equation:
s
F = 1/T
ic
The diagram below shows 25 cycles occurring in half a second.
n
ch
What is the frequency of the waveform?
Te
This value of 50 Hz is interesting in that it is the standard frequency of the domestic
electricity supply.
The standard frequency for aircraft electrical supplies is 400 Hz.
SR
Frequency Ranges
Frequencies that range from just a few hertz to many millions of hertz are widely
used in the electronics industry.
As mentioned before 50 hz is the standard frequency of the domestic electricity
supply, but in many electronic applications, much higher frequencies are required.
This is because high frequencies are needed to carry information or intelligence.
The higher frequencies are easier to convert into electromagnetic (radio) waves.
The higher frequencies can be transmitted more easily over long distances.
Mechanical AC generators cannot produce these higher frequencies. Mechanical
generators cannot rotate at the very high speeds required to produce frequencies
such as 10Khz.
To produce a frequency equal to 10Khz requires a waveform with a period of (1
divided by 10,000).
s
The generator would have to turn at the rate of 600,000 revolutions per minute
(RPM).
ic
Therefore, electronic generators are used to produce the required frequencies
which would be necessary.
n
Electronic circuits do not require moving parts and are easily capable of producing
ch
frequencies many times greater than 10Khz.
When working with frequencies that extend up to many million of hertz, you must
work with very large numbers.
However, these large numbers can be reduced to a manageable size by using var-
Te
ious metric prefixes and position notation (powers of ten).
The metric prefixes most commonly used for this purpose are defined in the table
shown.
SR
Max or Peak Value RMS values are the ones most usually quoted when values of alternating current
or voltage are being referred to.
The maximum value of a waveform is the highest value it reaches in either a pos- Maximum values are used when the amount of conductor insulation required for
itive or negative direction. If we compare the two waveforms in the diagram below
electrical equipment is being considered.
we can see that the DC is at a maximum whenever it is switched on, whereas the
AC is at maximum only once per half cycle. All the other instantaneous values are Figure 5: Sine Wave
less than peak values.
Peak to Peak Value

This value is twice the maximum value since it is measured between maximum
positive and maximum negative (See Peak to Peak Value diagram).
Effective or RMS Value
s
The EFFECTIVE value of a sine wave is usually referred to as the RMS or ROOT
MEAN SQUARE value. This refers to the mathematical process used to find the
ic
value.
Simply, it is the amount of heat that a particular current can produce in a circuit,
n
provides a convenient method of finding the effective or RMS value.
If a DC current of 1 amp flows through a resistor to raise its temperature by
ch
100° C, a sine wave AC of maximum value 1 amp would only raise its temperature
by 70.7 °C.
Te
From this we can see that the sine wave AC. is only 0.707 times as effective as
the 1 amp DC. This is the AC maximum value.
Therefore: I RMS= 0.707 x I PEAK

SR
Or: I PEAK = I RMS / 0.707
= I RMS x 1.414
In this instance we have quoted the RMS value with respect to current I.
The same would apply to voltage.
VRMS = VPEAK x 0.707
AC Meters bled. When a DC meter is used with a rectifier network to measure AC values, the
meter deflection depends on the average value.
Most DC meters use a basic moving coil movement and are polarity sensitive.
Positive must be connected to positive and negative to negative. This now takes us back to values associated with alternating currents.
If we used a DC meter to measure an AC value without modifying it, the movement
Figure 7: Half Wave Rectification
would first turn in one direction and then the other on alternate half cycles.
This could damage the meter (Diagram below). To modify DC meters to measure
AC, we could use a device known as a rectifier.
Figure 6: AC Meter
s
ic
Figure 8: Full Wave Rectification
n
ch
Te
Rectifiers
A rectifier allows a conventional current flow in one direction only, so if we applied
an alternating current to a rectifier it would conduct on alternate half cycles.
SR
The rectifier allows conventional current flow in the direction of the arrow.
A simple meter rectifier circuit, shown below, consists of a rectifier and basic meter
movement connected in series.
For one half-cycle, current flows through the meter circuit.
During the next half-cycle, no current flows, although a voltage exists across the
circuit, including the rectifier.
This is called half wave rectification.
It is more usual to use full wave rectification for modifying AC meter to read AC
values.
A bridge circuit using four rectifiers can be used (Diagram below).
It is so connected that both halves of the AC current wave must follow paths that
lead through the meter in the same direction.
Thus, the number of current pulses flowing through the meter movement is dou-
Average Value
The average value of an alternating current is obtained by averaging all the instan-
taneous values over half a cycle.
The average value of a half cycle of sine wave AC is 0.637 of the maximum value.
VAVERAGE = VPEAK x 0.637
Although the meter deflection depends on average values, the scales are normally
calibrated in RMS.
So bear in mind whenever a DC Meter is used to measure AC values with a recti-

fier network, the Meter responds to average values but is calibrated to read RMS.
s
The last topic we are going to look at is the relationship between RMS and average
ic
values.
For a DC waveform the average value will of course be the same as the maximum
n
value.
ch
Figure 9: Sine Wave
Te
SR
Types of AC Waveforms Triangular waves are used as electronic signals and are seldom used to provide
electrical power.
Although the sine wave is the most basic and widely used AC waveform, it is not
the only type of waveform that is used in electronics. Figure 10: Periodic Waveforms
In fact, many different types of AC waveforms are used and these waveforms may
have very simple or extremely complex shapes.
The Square Wave

The fig below shows two different types of non-sinusoidal waveforms, which rep-
resent either current or voltage. In each case, only one cycle of the waveform is
shown. Waveform fig (a) is commonly referred to as a square wave. The name
was selected because its positive and negative alternations are square in shape.
The square shape of each alternation indicates that the voltage, or current, imme-
diately increases to its maximum or peak value, at one polarity and remains there
s
throughout that alternation. Then the voltage waveform immediately changes its
polarity, or the current waveform reverses its direction. Notice that the waveform
ic
jumps to a peak value almost instantly, and remains there for the duration of the
second alternation. When continuous train of these square waves is produced, the
n
voltage or current simply continues to fluctuate back and forth between its peak
ch
values.
Not all square waves are symmetrical, as shown in fig (a).
In some cases, the positive half may be wider or narrower (longer or shorter time
Te
duration) than the negative half.
Also, some square waves may have a positive peak value that is higher or lower
(amplitude variations), than its negative peak value.
Although electrical power can be generated as square waves, the square wave is
SR
more useful as an electronic signal. The square wave is used to represent elec-
tronic data because its characteristics can be easily varied.
The Triangular Wave

The waveform shown in fig (b) is called triangular wave because its positive and
negative alternations are triangular in shape.
Notice that during the positive alternation the waveform rises at a linear rate from
zero to a peak value and then decreases linearly back to zero.
Then, on the negative alternation its polarity, or direction, reverses.
Triangular waves may have peak values that are higher or lower than those shown
in fig (b).
In other words, the positive and negative alternations may not always form a per-
fect triangle which has three equal sides.
The Wattmeter Wattmeter Operation

Whilst power may be calculated from the measured RMS values of V and I in AC Wattmeters are not constructed with a basic moving coil meter movement.
circuits containing only resistance, it can also be measured directly with a wattme- Instead, they use what is known as a dynamometer-type movement. This differs
ter. from the moving coil meter in that it does not have a permanent magnet to provide
Wattmeters are not used as commonly as voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters a fixed magnetic field.
- but in order to learn more about AC circuits we will need to discuss them. The field in this meter is obtained from field coils.
These are two coils of wire, one placed opposite to the other, just like the perma-
The wattmeter looks very much like any other type of meter, except that the scale
nent magnet poles in a moving coil meter.
is calibrated in watts and it has four terminals instead of the usual two, as shown
in Diagram below. These field coils are connected in series across the wattmeter current terminals so
There are two 'voltage terminals' and two 'current terminals'. that all the circuit current flows through the coils when a measurement is being tak-
The voltage terminals are connected across the circuit just like a voltmeter, whilst en.
the current terminals are connected in series just like an ammeter. A large circuit current provides a strong magnetic field, whilst a small current pro-
vides a weak magnetic field.
Two of the terminals, one a voltage terminal and one a current terminal, are-
s
The strength of the magnetic field provided by the current coils will of course de-
marked (±).
pend on circuit current.
ic
When using the wattmeter, these two terminals must always be connected to the The wattmeter reading will vary as circuit current varies.
same point in the circuit. So, for a fixed voltage, the meter pointer deflection will be large for a large current
n
This is usually done by connecting them together directly at the meter terminals.
and small for a small current.
ch
For measuring either AC or DC power, this common junction is connected to one
side of the power line. Figure 12:
The voltage terminal (V) is then connected to the opposite side of the power line.
Te
The current terminal (A) is connected to the power-consuming load resistance.
(Diagram below).
Figure 11:
SR
The moving coil in a wattmeter is similar to that of a basic moving coil meter and Figure 13:
is connected in series with an internal multiplier resistor to the VOLTAGE terminals
of the wattmeter.
The voltage terminals are connected across the circuit just like a voltmeter.
The multiplier resistor limits the current flow through the moving coil. Because the
resistance of the multiplier is fixed, the amount of current flow through it, and
through the moving coil, will depend on circuit voltage.
The lower the voltage, the lower the current flow through the multiplier and moving
coil and therefore the weaker the magnetic field.
This produces a small turning force.
The higher the voltage, the higher the current flow and therefore the stronger the
magnetic field.
This leads to a large turning force.
s
Therefore the meter reading depends on both the circuit current and the circuit
voltage and will vary if either changes.
ic
Since power depends on both voltage and current the meter measures power.
Figure 14:
n
It would appear that the same wattmeter could be used to measure power in both
AC and DC circuits.
ch
Because of design problems, meters are usually made to measure either AC or
DC power.
This type of wattmeter can only be used in circuits where the frequency does not
Te
exceed 120 Hz.
SR
Three Phase Systems Generation of a Three Phase Output

The fig below shows three similar loops placed 120 degrees apart.
A single loop generator provides a single-phase output. If further loops and slip
rings are added, then a generator with multiphase outputs can be constructed. Air- Each of the loops has a pair of slip rings to "pick off" the generated EMF's. The slip
craft and industrial generators generally have three phase outputs. rings are not shown for the sake of clarity.
Three phase power generation is advantageous for the following reasons: The three loops have been positioned to rotate within the magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnet.
1. A three phase generator produces a higher output than a similar size single
phase generator.
2. To transmit the same amount of power at the same voltage over the same dis- The phases are normally identified A, B, and C, and are normally colour coded red,
tance, requires less conductor material than a single phase system. yellow and blue respectively.
3. Three phase motors can be used. These have high, uniform torque and can The loops in the diagram have been identified RR1, YY1 and BB1 corresponding
be self-starting. with colour codes red, yellow and blue.
s
4. Three phase generators can operate in parallel with little difficulty. The 1 suffix identifies the 'Start' part of the loop.
ic
5. Two voltages can be made available. Assume that when the EMF direction is from 'Start' to 'finish' the EMF is positive
By using three loops in the rotor of the elementary generator shown below a simple and when the EMF direction is from 'finish' to 'Start' it is negative.
n
three-phase generator is created. The three loops have been symmetrically
ch
placed 120 degrees apart. In a simple three-phase generator each loop would Assume the loop is rotating anti-clockwise within the magnetic field. With RR1, in
have its own pair of slip rings. the Start position shown (0 degrees), no EMF is produced.
Slip rings are omitted from this diagram for clarity.
Te
Figure 15: Generation of a 3-Phase Output Having rotated through 90 degrees the EMF will have built up to a maximum.
Once the loop travels through one revolution, a full cycle will have been completed,
as shown by the solid line waveform.
SR
Since all three loops are turning together the YY1 and the BB1 loops will each
have produced their own waveforms, but the YY1 EMF will lag the RR1 EMF by
120 degrees.
Similarly the BB1 EMF will lag the YY1 EMF by 120 degrees.
Sum of the Instantaneous EMF's is Zero

Fig. below shows that at any instant, the sum of the EMF's of the three phases is
zero. At time P for instance, PL = PM + PN.
If you measured PM and PN and added their lengths together you would see that
this equalled the length of PL.
Since PM and PN are both negative and PL is positive the resultant instantaneous
EMF will be zero.
If the three phase generator was connected to a 'balanced load', or in other words
a load offering the same opposition to current flow for each phase, then the sum
of the instantaneous currents would also be zero.
Figure 16: 3-Phase Output
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Star and Delta Connections Figure 17: Y Stator

In a practical three-phase generator, windings are used instead of a single loop
and the number of slip rings can be reduced from six, by using the methods of con-
nection shown in figures below.
Delta or Mesh Connection

One method of connecting the windings is shown below.
This is known as 'mesh' or 'Delta' connection.
The number of slip rings is reduced to three by connecting the 'Start' end of the
winding to the 'finish' end of the next winding.
The phase currents IP flow through each individual phase and line currents IL flow
in each output line.
s
Three Wire Star or 'Y' Connection
ic
The fig below shows the three windings connected in the form of a Star or 'Y'.
In this case all the 'Start' ends of the windings are connected together at what is
n
known as the 'Star' or 'Neutral' point.
This method of connection is known as a 'three wire' method.
ch
Four Wire Star or 'Y' Connection
Another method of Star connection is to use four wires connected as shown in fig
Te
below. Figure 18: Delta Stator
This method has the advantage of making two different voltages available.
These are: VPHASE and VLINE

SR
The voltage across a single phase, known as the phase voltage VP. The voltage
across two phases known as the line voltage VL.
Modern commercial aircraft power systems normally use three phase generators.
These are usually arranged as four wire systems with the Star point earthed or
grounded.
The aircraft structure would then act as the fourth wire.
Three phase loads such as components containing three phase motors would nor-
mally be connected to the three phases of the generator busbar.
Single-phase loads would be connected to one of the phases of the busbar.
The distribution of the single-phase loads across the three phases is normally ar-
ranged for an overall 'balance'.
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems Figure 19:
The line and phase currents are one and the same. Therefore, for a Star connect-
ed system:
IL = IP
To examine the relationship between line and phase voltages for a 'balanced' sys-
tem it is necessary to construct a vector diagram of the circuit below.
The phases are identified simply as A, B and C.
VA represents the voltage across the A phase and VAB represents the voltage
across the A and B lines.
The relationships between VB, VC and their respective line voltages will be identi-
s
cal.
ic
The vector VA , VB and VC represent the individual phase voltages.
To find the line voltage VAB, which is the vector difference of VA and VB it is re-
n
quired to draw in a 'dotted VB vector, equal and opposite to the solid one. This will
ch
create an angle of 60 degrees between VA and our dotted VB vector as shown be-
low. Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems.
If now the diagonal is completed by drawing a parallelogram, the diagonal will rep-
Te
resent VAB.
The diagonal has split the 60 degree angle into two equal 30 degree angles as
shown below.
The dotted line drawn between the ends of VB and VA would cut VAB exactly in
SR
half.
Half VAB forms one side of a right-angled triangle.
Therefore:
V AB = 3 ⋅ VA
We can therefore say for a Star connected system:
VL = 3 ⋅ VP
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Delta Connected Systems Summary of Relationships between Currents and Voltages in
In the fig below the line and phase voltages are one and the same. Therefore, for Star and Delta 'Balanced' Systems
a Delta connected system:
In Star connected systems:
VL = VP
IL = IP
To examine the relationship between line and phase currents for a 'balanced' sys-
tem it is required to construct a vector diagram for the circuit shown below.
The phases are identified as A, B and C. IA, IB and IC represent the individual VL = 3 ⋅ VP
phase currents.
The line current for phase A will be a combination of IA and IB.
The line currents for B and C will be combinations of IB and IC and IA and IC re-
s
spectively. In Delta connected systems:
ic
Figure 20: Delta Connected System
VL = VP
n
ch
IP = 3 ⋅ IP
Te
Exercise
SR
An aircraft generator has a line to line voltage of 200 volts.
What is its phase voltage?
Comments on Exercise
Modern aircraft generators normally are Star connected, so we have to use the for-
mula for a Star connected system.
VL = 3 ⋅ Vp
therefore
V
V P = ------L-
3
In this case:
s
ic
200
V P = --------- ≈ 115volts
n
3
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.14 RLC Circuits
3.14 RLC Circuits
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Resistance in AC Circuits Power in AC Resistive Circuits

Many AC circuits consist of 'pure resistance' only, and for such circuits the same The power used in an AC circuit is the average of all the instantaneous values of
rules and laws apply as for DC circuits. power or "heating effect' in a complete cycle.
Ohm's law, Kirchoff's laws, and the circuit rules for voltage, current and power can All the corresponding instantaneous values of voltage and current are multiplied
be used exactly as in DC circuits. together to find the instantaneous values of power, which are then plotted for the
corresponding time, to form a power wave.
Current and Voltage in Resistive Circuits The average of this power wave is the actual power used in the circuit. (Diagram
below).
When an AC power supply is connected across a resistor, the voltage (V) and the
current (I) rise and fall together in both a positive and negative direction. For "in-phase" voltages and current waves, all the instantaneous powers are
above the zero axis and the entire power wave is above the zero axis.
The voltage increases to a maximum in one direction, decreases to zero increases
to a maximum in the opposite direction and again decreases to zero to complete Thus during the first half cycle of V and I, the power wave increases in a positive
a cycle. direction from zero to a maximum and then decreases to zero, as do the V and I
s
waves.
The current follows the voltage exactly.
During the next half cycle the power wave again increases in a positive direction
ic
As the voltage increases, the current increases.
to maximum and then back to zero.
When the voltage decreases the current decreases, and at the moment the volt-
At this time V and I increase, then decrease in a negative direction.
n
age changes polarity, so does the current.
Because of this, the voltage and current waves are said to be Note that if a new axis is drawn through the power wave halfway between its max-
ch
"in-phase" (Diagram below). imum and minimum values, the power wave frequency is twice that of the voltage
and current waves.
To summarise, in a resistive circuit the voltages and currents are
Also notice that some of the instantaneous values of the power wave are less than
"in-phase" whenever they are of the same frequency and pass through zero at the
Te
those of the current and voltage values.
same time, both going in the same direction.
This is because when two numbers less than one are multiplied together, the result
Figure 1: is smaller than the original numbers,
e.g. 0.5V x 0.5A = 0.25W.
SR
The axis of the power wave represents the average value of power in a resistive
circuit, since the shaded areas above the axis are equal to those below.
Average power is the actual power used in any AC circuit.
The average power is equal to half the maximum, positive power value.
This value can also be found by multiplying the RMS values of V and I together, i.e.
2 x 0.707 x 4 x 0.707 = 4 approx.
This is the same value as indicated for average power in Diagram below.
The reason the answer is approximate is that 0.707 is only an approximation for
the RMS value of a sine wave.
Figure 2: Figure 3:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Comparing Power Used in AC and DC Resistive Circuits Comparing Power Used in AC and DC Resistive Circuits Cont.
To see that RMS values of an AC voltage and current can be used to determine Using a 7.5 Volt AC power source instead of the battery and replacing the DC volt-
the power used in resistive circuits in the same manner as for DC values, connect meter with an AC voltmeter, the lamps will illuminate as brightly as they did in the
two lamps in parallel across a 7.5 volt battery - five dry cells in series. DC circuit.
Then connect a 0 to 10 volt DC voltmeter across the lamp terminals, and measure The voltmeter reading would be 7.5 volts RMS using the power formula, the power
the circuit voltage. is 7.5 x 0.5 = 3.75 watts, equal to the DC power and causing the same amount of
If the lamps are rated at 250 mA together they should allow 0.5 amps to flow light.
through the circuit while the voltage is 7.5 volts. Now, instead of trying to calculate the current we can measure it by connecting an
Using the power formula, P = V x I, the power is 7.5 x 0.5 = 3.75 watts. ammeter in series into the circuit as shown in Diagram below, with the voltmeter
connected across a 150 ohm load resistor. For the given supply voltage of 60 volts
Figure 4: RMS the ammeter would read 0.4 amps, and the voltmeter the supply voltage.
We can now calculate the power by multiplying 60 by 0.4 giving a power output of
24 watts.
s
Figure 5:
n ic
ch
Te
SR
AC Inductive Circuits Effects of Frequency on Inductive Reactance

If the frequency of the applied AC voltage is low, the current has more time to rise
This section explains how inductance affects AC circuits.
before the voltage starts dropping than it would if the frequency was high.
We will begin by examining the effect that inductance has in opposing current flow. The lower the frequency the higher the current in an inductive circuit.
The opposition offered by an inductance to current flow is known as "inductive re-
The opposition to current flow offered by an inductance, known as inductive reac-
actance".
tance, depends not only on inductance but also on frequency. The formula used
to calculate inductive reactance is given below:
Inductive Reactance
The Diagram below shows the relationship between voltage and current the in-
stant after the switch is closed. XL = 2 ΠFL ohms
Assume that this happens at precisely the time that the voltage passes through
zero in a positive direction.
where F = frequency in Hertz
Initially the current will rise as the voltage rises but there will be a delay because
s
L = Inductance in henries
of the inductance present in the circuit.
ic
The delay will prevent the current from reaching the same value as it would in a Π = a constant, 3.14
DC circuit. XL = Inductive Reactance in ohms
n
This is because, before it can reach its maximum value the AC voltage would start
dropping.
ch
From this we can see that in a circuit containing inductance, a DC voltage will pro- As with resistance XL has been expressed in ohms.
duce a higher current than an AC voltage of the same value. This is because it is the opposition to current flow.
Te
Figure 6: Figure 7:
SR
Phase Relationship Voltage and Current - AC Inductive Circuits Figure 9:

You have already seen that if an AC circuit contains pure resistance only, the cur-
rent and voltage rise and fall together.
That is, the current and voltage are in phase with each other, as shown in Diagram
below.
Figure 8:
s
ic
Power in AC Resistive Circuits
n
In a resistive circuit where the voltage and current are in phase, the power wave
is entirely above the zero axis and the average, or true power, is always positive.
ch
Diagram below shows this.
Te
In an AC circuit containing pure inductance only (Diagram below), the current and Apparent Power = Vs x I (VA)
voltage are not in phase with each other.
The current rises to its maximum value 90 degrees after the voltage.
It will remain 90 degrees removed throughout the cycle. True Power = VR x I or VR2/R or I2 x R (Watts)
SR
In this case we can say that the current and voltage are "out of phase" by an angle Figure 10:
of 90 degrees.
The current "lags" the voltage by 90 degrees as shown in Diagram below.
No inductor can possess pure inductance.
There will always be an element of resistance.
Since there is no such thing as a pure inductance, the current will never lag the
voltage by as much as 90 degrees, but by an angle, the value of which depends
on the ratio of inductance and whatever resistance there might be present in the
circuit.
Increasing the proportion of resistance to reactance in the circuit will have the ef-
fect of decreasing the amount by which the current is out of phase with the voltage.
If an AC circuit contained an equal amount of resistance and inductive reactance
the current will be out of phase with the voltage by 45°.
To calculate the instantaneous power values we multiply the instantaneous values In the Diagram below, that part of the power wave above the zero axis is "positive
of current and voltage together. power", and that below the zero axis is "negative power". In a purely inductive cir-
cuit you can see that the positive power delivered by the supply is exactly equal to
the negative power returned to the supply.
Remember
To calculate the actual or true power you have to subtract the negative power from
positive times positive are positive, the positive power.
negative times negative is also positive,
but negative times positive is negative. In our case of power consumed by a purely inductive load the result will be zero.
We shall now see how these rules affect the power wave in a circuit containing Figure 12:
pure inductance.
In the case of a “theoretical” circuit containing pure inductance, where the current
lags the voltage by 90 degrees, half the instantaneous power values are positive
and half are negative.
s
In Diagram below we can also see that the power axis is the same as the current
ic
and voltage axis and the power wave frequency is double the current and voltage
frequency.
n
Figure 11:
ch
Te
SR
True and Apparent Power Power Factor

The power factor of a circuit is the ratio between true power in watts and apparent
True Power power in volt amperes.
In any AC circuit the true power consumed by a load will be found by using one of
the following formulae:
TRUE POWER (WATTS)
POWER FACTOR = ------------------------------------------------------
TRUE POWER = I2R = V2 / R watts or Vr x Ir
APPARENT POWER (VOLT AMPERES)
You can see that if it was possible for a circuit to have no resistance whatsoever
then the true power would be zero or infinity. Let's examine what the power factor in a resistive circuit is.
Use the values shown in the Diagram below.
Apparent Power In a purely resistive circuit the true power is always equal to the apparent power
s
The “apparent” or “wattless” power consumed by a circuit is found simply by mul- so the power factor will always be 1 or unity.
ic
tiplying the r.m.s. values of current and voltage together. The result is expressed In a purely inductive circuit the power factor will always be zero.
in volt amperes or VA.
We should be able to see from what's been said that power factor seems to be re-
n
lated to the phase angle of the circuit.
ch
APPARENT POWER = V x I volt amperes or V/A When the phase angle is zero, as in a purely resistive circuit, the power factor is
unity.
Alternating current devices are normally rated in VA or kVA. When the phase angle is 90 degrees, as in a purely inductive circuit, the power
Te
This is because although a device might consume only a small amount of power, factor is zero.
large currents could be involved. When a circuit contains elements of both resistance and inductance the phase an-
gle will be somewhere between zero and 90 degrees and the power factor will be
Reactive Power
SR somewhere between unity and zero.
The actual values will depend on the exact proportions of resistance and induct-
This is the calculated power to do with the reactive element either a capacitor or ance.
an inductor,
Reactive Power = I2 x XL or XC VARs
s
Figure 14:
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Effect of Phase Angle on True Power
It can be seen from the Diagram below, by increasing the phase angle towards 90
degrees, the amount of true power consumed by the circuit will reduce.
Note that the power wave axis, which is drawn half way between the maximum
power values, indicates the amount of true power consumed by the circuit.
Exercise:
Which circuit elements, resistance, inductance or a combination of resistance and
inductance, do you think corresponds with power waves A, B, and C in the Dia-
gram below.
Measurement of True Power Figure 16:

The dynamometer wattmeter can be used to measure true power.
The reading is affected by both the circuit current and voltage, and also by the
phase difference between them as shown below in figures below.
When the voltage and current are in phase the current increases at the same time
as the voltage, and they act together to increase the turning force on the meter
movement.
If the current and voltage are out of phase, the fixed meter field does not increase
at the same time as the field due to the moving coil current.
The effect of this is that there is less turning force on the wattmeter movement.
The power indicated by the pointer is then less than it is with in-phase voltage and
s
current of the same value.
Therefore the wattmeter responds to true power and not apparent power, because
ic
out of phase voltage and current act in opposition to decrease the turning force on
the wattmeter movement. Figure 17:
n
ch
Te
SR
Notes/Comments
1. Inductive reactance is the opposition to current flow that inductance offers in

a circuit.
It is calculated using the formula 2Π FL.
Inductive reactance is measured in ohms.
2. In a purely inductive circuit the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.
3. The phase angle between the current and voltage in a circuit containing both
resistance and inductance is affected by the amount of resistance and induc-
tive reactance in the circuit.
The more “resistive” the circuit, the smaller will be the phase angle.
The more “inductive” the circuit, the closer the phase angle will be to 90 de-
s
grees.
4. Current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit because the back EMF is in
ic
anti-phase to the applied voltage.
n
ch
Te
SR
Capacitive Reactance Effect of Frequency on Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition to current flow that a capacitor offers. Let's consider operating the reversing switch in the circuit in the previous Diagram
We have seen that in a DC capacitive circuit current only flows while charging or back and forth, first quickly and then less quickly.
discharging is taking place. When the switch is operated quickly or at high frequency, a higher average current
Once the capacitor is charged or discharged, current flow ceases. Since an AC will flow because the current is reversed before it has a chance to fall to a lower
voltage alternately changes direction, current will flow back and forth as the capac- level.
itor is charged and discharged. When the switch is operated at a lower frequency, the current is allowed to drop to
The value of the current that flows is determined by the amount of capacitive re- a lower value before reversal takes place.
actance in the circuit. This produces a lower average current. See Diagram below.
To examine capacitive reactance further, let's first look at current in a capacitive
circuit. We can summarise this by saying; the higher the frequency the higher the current,
and therefore the lower the capacitive reactance.
Current in a Capacitive Circuit Figure 19:
s
Let's look at the current when the switch in our circuit in Diagram below is posi-
tioned to A.
ic
At this instant, current flows at a maximum rate to charge the capacitor. The rate
will reduce as the capacitor becomes closer to being fully charged, until it finally
n
falls to zero.
ch
Should we now reverse the battery terminals by positioning the switch to B, current
will flow at a maximum rate in the opposite direction as the capacitor discharges
and then charges with the opposite polarity. The current will reduce to zero as be-
Te
fore, as the capacitor becomes charged with opposite polarity.
Figure 18: SR
Effect of Capacitance on Capacitive Reactance Figure 20:

To examine the effect that capacitance has on capacitive reactance it is conven-
ient to recall the time constant of a capacitive circuit.
The time constant determines the time it takes for charged current to decay.
The higher the time constant the longer is the decay period.
If the capacitance of a circuit is increased, the time constant increases. See that
in fig. below graph left has the highest time constant, capacitance, and average
current.
From this we can see that increasing the capacitance will cause the average cur-
rent to increase and therefore the capacitive reactance to decrease.
Capacitive Reactance is Inversely Proportional to Capacitance
s
We have now determined that both capacitance and frequency are inversely pro-
ic
portional to capacitive reactance.
n
The formula used to calculate capacitive reactance is:
ch
Xc = 1 / 2πFC
Te
where: F is frequency in Hertz,
C is capacitance in farads,
π is a constant, 3.14
SR
Since Xc represents opposition to current flow, it is expressed in ohms just like re-
sistance.
Phase Relationship - Current and Voltage in Capacitive Circuits Figure 21:

The phase relationship between current and voltage in an AC capacitive circuit is
exactly opposite to that of an AC inductive circuit. In a purely inductive circuit the
current lags the voltage by 90°, whilst in a purely capacitive circuit the current
leads the voltage by 90°
A convenient aid to memorising the phase relationship between current and volt-
age in purely inductive and capacitive circuits is the word CIVIL:
CIVIL
Capacitive Current Voltage Current Inductive
s
ic
In a theoretical circuit of pure capacitance, the voltage across the capacitor exists
only after current flows to charge the plates.
n
At the instant a capacitor starts to charge, the voltage across its plates is zero and
the current flow is maximum.
ch
As the capacitor charges the current drops to zero whilst the voltage rises to its
maximum value.
When full charge is reached the current is zero and the voltage maximum.
Te
During discharge the current starts at zero and rises to a maximum in the opposite
direction whilst the voltage falls from maximum to zero. From this we can see that
the current leads the voltage by 90° as shown in Diagram below.
Consider the phase relationship between current and voltage in a circuit that has
SR
equal proportions of resistance and capacitive reactance Diagram below. We
should bear in mind that the current and voltage in a purely resistive circuit are in
phase and in a purely capacitive circuit the current leads the voltage by 90°. It
seems reasonable that the phase angle should be leading by an amount between
zero and 90°. In this case we have equal proportions of resistance and capacitive
reactance and we can assume that the phase angle will be half of 90°, i.e. 45°.
AC Power in Capacitive Circuits Figure 22:

The true power used in a capacitive circuit is less than the apparent power, as it
was in an inductive circuit.
The power wave is again derived from multiplying instantaneous values of voltage
and current to obtain the instantaneous values of power.
The power wave of an AC capacitive circuit is shown in Diagram below.
The power wave axis is the same as the axis for voltage and current as it was for
inductance.
The negative power equals the positive power, making the true power zero, and
the power wave frequency is twice the frequency for current and voltage.
Power factor in a capacitive circuit can be found using exactly the same formula
as was used in an inductive circuit.
s
When resistance is added to a capacitive circuit the phase angle decreases and
ic
positive power becomes greater than negative power, shifting the power axis up-
wards. Since the true power is now greater than zero, the power factor will be
n
somewhere between zero and unity.
ch
Figure 23:
Reactive Power
Te
PC = I2 x XC VARs
SR
Series AC Circuits Voltage

Whenever current and voltage are being referred to, remember that it's always the
Introduction RMS values that are being considered, unless specifically stated otherwise.
Series AC circuits may be formed from the various combinations of resistance, in- In a series AC circuit the total voltage V cannot be found by adding the individual
ductance, and capacitance. voltages VR, VL and VC together because they will not be in phase with each other,
Every circuit contains a certain amount of resistive, inductive and capacitive com- as shown in diagram below.
ponents, but in some cases individual components can be so small as to be ig- To determine voltage values in AC series circuits it is necessary to learn about
nored. something known as Vector or Phasor representation.
You have seen how R, L and C individually affect AC current, phase angle and
power.
Now we are going to find out how various combinations of R, L and C affect series VS2 = VR2 + VX2
AC circuits.
Current VS = √ VR2 + VX2
s
In a series circuit such as the one shown in the Diagram below there is only one
ic
path through which current can flow, regardless of which types of component the Where VX = VL - VC or VC - VL
circuit contains.
n
The current will be the same in all parts of the circuit therefore all phase angles will Figure 25:
ch
be measured with respect to the circuit current
Figure 24:
Te
SR
Vector Representation of AC Values Series R and L Circuits

A vector quantity is one that has magnitude and direction.
Vector Diagrams
If we said that an aircraft was travelling due east at 300 knots, we could represent
this velocity by a line drawn to scale horizontally on the page as shown in Diagram Let's see in the Diagram below how we represent current and voltage for circuits
below. containing pure resistance, inductance, and capacitance, using phasor diagrams.
We can represent AC values of voltage, current, and power in a similar way with Since the current and voltage are in phase both the I and the VR vectors are drawn
what are known as vectors. horizontally.
If we wanted to represent current in an AC series circuit we draw a line whose The VL phasor leads the I phasor by 90°.
length represents the value of the current, horizontally from left to right. The voltage phasor is therefore drawn vertically upwards.
It is conventional that the horizontal is used for the vector, which represents the
value, which is common to all parts of the circuit. The voltage VC lags I by 90°.
The voltage phasor is therefore drawn vertically downwards.
In a series circuit it is the current, and is often referred to as the "reference" vector.
Figure 27:
s
In a Capacitive ac circuit, circuit current leads the applied Voltage by 90º.
n ic
In an Inductive ac circuit, the circuit current lags the applied voltage by 90º.
ch
Figure 26:
Te
300 kts
SR
Voltages Impedance
You have seen how we can use phasor diagrams to represent current and voltage The impedance of a circuit, which has the symbol Z, cannot be found by simply
relationships for individual circuits containing pure resistance, inductance, and ca- adding the ohmic values of XL and R because of phase difference.
pacitance. The values VL, VR and VS can be expressed in ohm's law fashion.
We will now combine these phasor diagrams to determine the relationship be-
tween current and voltage in a circuit with resistance and inductance.
i.e. VL = I x XL VR = I x R, VS = I x Z
The phasor diagram shows the phase relationship between the supply voltage and
circuit current for the circuit shown in the Diagram below. R and XL have identical
values. Since I is common to each of these expressions, we can use phasor diagrams to
VR has been drawn horizontally because the voltage across the resistor is in phase represent R, XL and Z.
with the current and VL has been drawn vertically upward because the voltage
If we had a circuit containing a resistance of 200 ohms and an inductive reactance
across the coil leads the current by 90°. The supply voltage VS is the phasor-sum of 200 ohms, then the impedance Z could be found by measuring the phasor sum
of VL and VR, found by completing the parallelogram and drawing in the diagonal. of R and XL in Diagram below.
s
If we had used values for R, XL and the current I, and drawn the phasor diagram In this case the value would be 283 ohms at a phase angle of 45 degrees.
ic
to scale, we could have found the value of VS by measuring the diagonal line.
VS also represents the voltage drop across the entire circuit.
Z2 = R2 + XL2
n
The opposition to current flow offered by the entire circuit is known as IMPED-
ANCE.
ch
Z = √ R2 + XL2
VS2 = VR2 + VL2 Figure 29:
Te
VS = √VR2 + VL2 SR
Figure 28:
It is often neither convenient nor accurate to draw phasor diagrams to scale to find Figure 30:
out various electrical values.
Electrical values can be found by calculation using Pythagoras' Theorem when the
associated phasor diagram forms a right angled triangle.
Pythagoras' Theorem states that in a right angled triangle "the square of the hy-
potenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides."
Text below shows how Pythagoras' Theorem can be used to find any value of Z,
R, or XL and VS, VR or VL provided that any two values are known.
From Pythagoras:
s
HYPOTENUSE LENGTH2 = ADJACENT LENGTH2 + OPPOSITE LENGTH2 Exercise:
ic
Calculate for a circuit having a coil of inductance 10mH in series,
2 2 2 2 2 2 with a resistance of value 100 ohms connected across a voltage,
n
Z =R + XL or V = VR + VL
supply of 50 volts at a frequency of 1KHz, the following
ch
so Z= √R2 + XL2 and V = √VR2 + VL2 Impedance,
Current,
Te
The phase angle can be found by using trigonometry.
Voltage across L and R,
Phase angle
i.e. Sin Ф = XL / Z from Figure 29, or VL / VS from Diagram below
Draw the Vector diagram.
SR
i.e. Cos Ф = R / Z from Figure 29, or VR / VS from Diagram below
Your Calculation:
i.e. Tan Ф = XL / R from Figure 29, or VL / VR from Diagram below
Power Factor Figure 31:
POWER FACTOR = TRUE POWER / APPARENT POWER
= I2 x R / VS x I
since I2 x R / VS x I = I x (I x R) / Vs x I = I x VR / VS x I = VR / VS
from Diagram (b) below we can see that VR is Cos Ф.
s
So we can determine the power factor from any phasor diagram.
This allows us to calculate Cos Ф.
n ic
For instance, Cos Ф could be expressed as:
ch
R/Z
Te
from Diagram (a) below.
Finally, we can say from the above that:

SR
TRUE POWER = APPARENT POWER x POWER FACTOR
TRUE POWER = VS x l x Cos Ф
Series R C Circuits Exercise RC Series Circuits

Calculate the following for a series RC circuit containing
Introduction a Capacitor of value 10μ Farads and a resistance of value
In an AC series circuit containing resistance and capacitance, the supply voltage of 500ohms connected across a voltage supply of 100Volts
V is the phasor sum of VR and VC. at a frequency of 1KHz,
VR will be in phase with the current, while VC lags the current by 90 degrees.
Similarly Z is the phasor sum of R and XC. Impedance,
Both V and Z can be determined from phasor diagrams just as they could with RL
circuits. Current,
Impedance Z can also be calculated using Pythagoras' Theorem: Voltage across the resistor and the capacitor,
Phase Angle,
Z= √ R2 + XC2 True Power and Apparent Power,
s
Power Factor,
Figure 32:
ic
Draw the Vector diagram.
n
Your Calculation
ch
Te
SR
LC Series Circuits Exercise:

Let's take a look at how we can determine the total voltage of an L and C series Diagram below. Calculate the impedance for both A and B, and also comment on
circuit. whether the phase angle will be leading or lagging.
You need to find the difference between VL and VC since they are in "anti-phase"
with each other.
This is because VL leads the current by 90 degrees and VC lags it by 90 degrees. 1. Impedance for A ………….
For circuits like this the total voltage VS can be found by subtracting the smaller 2. Phase angle for A ………..
voltage from the larger. 3. Impedance for B ……..….
It is possible for either or both of the voltages VL and VC to be larger than the total 4. Phase angle for B ………..
circuit voltage in an AC series circuit containing only L and C.
We can calculate the impedance of an AC series circuit containing only inductance Figure 34:
and capacitance in a similar way to the one in which we found total voltage.
s
Because inductive and capacitive reactances act in opposite directions, the total
effect can be found by subtracting the smaller reactance from the larger one to
ic
give us circuit impedance.
The circuit will be predominantly inductive or capacitive depending on which is the
n
larger.
ch
Where a condition occurs causing XL to be equal XC we have Series Resonance,
which will be covered later.
Te
Figure 33:
SR
Series R, L and C Circuits Figure 35:

To combine the three voltages VL, VC and VR by means of vectors, we need to
take two steps.
1. The voltages VL and VC are combined by subtracting the smaller voltage from
the larger voltage.
Remember we can subtract directly only when these voltages are in anti-
phase. (Diagram below)
2. The VR vector is now added to the diagram (below).
The vector sum of VR and the difference between VL and VC will provide us
Exercise Series RLC Circuits
with the phasor the total circuit voltage.
Let's use the formula we've just seen to calculate the impedance of the circuit
s
shown in Diagram below.
ic
The impedance of a series circuit containing R, XL and XC can be found using a
First we need to calculate the reactances XL and XC.
similar technique to the one we used to determine total circuit voltage.
n
The impedance of this type of circuit may also be calculated using a modification
XL = 2πFL and XC = 1 / 2πFC
ch
of Pythagoras' Theorem.
The modification in the formula involves XT. = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 5 = 1 / 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 10-6
Instead of including XL or XC on their own, we look at the difference between them. = 1570 ohms = 3185 ohms
Te
We take the smaller from the larger. Z = √R + (XL - XC)
2 2
= √10002 + (3185 - 1570)2

Z= √ R2 + (XT)2 = √10002 + 16152
SR
= √106 + (2.6 x 106)
Z= √ R2 + (XL - XC)2 = √ 3.6 x 106
= 1.9 x 103
= 1900 ohms
As XC is greater than XL, the current leads the voltage.

We have seen the effect of having XL and XC unequal in an R, L, and C circuit.
The next thing we stall consider is the effect of having XL and XC equal to each
other. In such a case the circuit is said to be at 'resonance'.
Figure 36: In the resonant circuit, XL, and XC are equal.

The voltages VL and VC are also equal and could be many times higher than the
supply voltage.
The Diagram below shows a typical series resonant circuit.
Such a circuit is often known as an acceptor circuit because its low impedance al-
lows it to accept current easily.
We know that the value of both XL and XC is dependent upon frequency.
For given values of L and C there will only be one frequency at which XL and XC
are equal.
This is known as the resonant frequency FR.
Let's see how this can be found.
s
ic
Series Resonance Resonant Frequency
The current in an AC series L C circuit is always greatest when XL and XC are
n
equal. Since at resonance XL = XC
ch
This is because, under these conditions, the impedance Z is equal only to the re-
sistance R, as shown in Diagram below.
2πFRL = 1 / 2πFRC
When the circuit is at resonance the current and voltage will be in phase and there-
Te
fore the power factor will be unity.
Notice also that whenever the circuit contains some reactance, either leading or FR2 = 1 / (2π)2 LC
lagging, Z is greater than R.
1
Figure 37:
SR F R = -----------------------
2π ⋅ LC
Figure 38: Exercise:

If the circuit in the Diagram below is at resonance, find the following:
(a) The resonant frequency.
(b) The current.

Figure 39:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Parallel AC Circuits Vector Diagram - Parallel AC Circuits

Because the voltage across each of the individual components is the same, the
Introduction voltage vector is always used as the reference vector for AC parallel circuits.
Parallel circuits, like series circuits, also contain a certain degree of resistance, in-
You will remember that in the case of series circuits, current was used as the ref-
ductance, and capacitance.
erence vector.
For a given circuit any of these factors may be so small that they can be disregard-
ed.
Phase Relationships Parallel RLC Circuits
You know how the individual components of R, L, and C and the various series
circuit combinations affect AC current flow, voltage, phase angle, and power. The opposition to current flow offered by each branch of a parallel circuit will de-
termine the current flow through that branch.
Now you will learn how current, voltage, phase angle, and power are affected by
the various parallel combinations. In our example in the Diagram below each individual current IR, IL
and IC is determined by the opposition offered within the branch.
Examples of parallel circuit combinations are shown in Diagram below.
These currents cannot be added together arithmetically because they are not in-
s
In a parallel DC circuit the voltage across each of the parallel branches is the phase with each other.
same.
ic
In AC parallel circuits this is also true. To determine the total current IT we would have to find the phasor sum of the in-
dividual currents.
n
The voltages across each parallel branch are all exactly the same as the supply
voltage. We will now continue by seeing how we can determine various electrical values in
ch
They are also in-phase with the AC supply voltage. AC parallel circuits by first looking at a parallel R\L circuit.
Te
SR
RL Parallel Circuits The phase angle between V and I can be determined using the formula
In an AC parallel circuit containing pure resistance and inductance the total circuit
current will be a combination of IR and IL. Tan θ = IL / IR
IR is in-phase with the circuit voltage VS, while IL lags the voltage by 90 degrees.
To find IT we construct a phasor diagram.
In this case we draw the reference phasor horizontally from left to right. The refer- Power
ence phasor for a parallel circuit will be the voltage phasor. Since the current
through the resistor IR is in-phase with the voltage it will also be drawn horizontal-
ly. Apparent Power = VS x I (VA)
The inductive phasor IL will be drawn horizontally downwards since it lags the volt-
age by 90 degrees.
True Power = VS x IT x Cos θ (Watts)
The total current can then be found by completing the parallelogram and drawing
in the diagonal.
s
With this diagram drawn to scale the length of the diagonal would represent the Power Factor = TP / AP
ic
value of IT and the angle between IT and IR is the phase angle.
An alternative method of finding the total current would be to use Pythagoras' The-
Let's use the next exercise to practice some of these rules.
n
orem.
In this case the expression would look like this:
ch
Figure 42:
IT = IR2+ IL2
Te
The impedance in an AC parallel circuit can be calculated using Ohm's Law where:
SR
Z = VS / IT
1
Also Z = --------------------------------------
-
2 2
1 ⁄ R + 1 ⁄ XL
Ohm's Law can also be used for the individual branches of the circuit where:
V = IR x R, or
V = I x XL
Exercise RL Circuits RC Parallel Circuits

1. The Diagram below shows a parallel circuit containing a 40 ohm resistor and In a circuit containing pure resistance and capacitance the total current can be
an inductance having an inductive reactance of 30 ohms. found by combining IR and IC, either with a vector diagram or by calculation.
Given a supply voltage of 115V, calculate:
The vector diagram below shows that IR is drawn horizontally, because IR is in-
a) Currents IR and IL phase with the voltage.
b) Total circuit current IT IC is drawn vertically upwards to indicate that the current is leading the voltage by
c) The impedance Z, 90 degrees.
IT is found by completing the parallelogram and drawing the diagonal. The length
d) The Phase Angle
of the diagonal represents the value of IT, if the vector diagram is to scale.
e) True Power, Apparent Power, and the Power Factor
2. Draw a phasor diagram, not necessarily to scale, to represent IL, IR and
It can also be determined by calculation using Pythagoras' Theorem where:
IT in the above circuit.
s
Figure 43: 2 2
IT = IR + IC
n ic
Z = VS / IT
ch
Also Z = 1 / √1/R2 + 1/XC2
Te
1
Z = ---------------------------------------
-
2 2
SR 1 ⁄ R + 1 ⁄ XC
The Phase Angle can be found from
Tan θ = IC / IR
The power Formulae are the same as given for parallel RL Circuits given previous-
ly.
Figure 44: LC Parallel Circuits

Since IL and IC are in anti-phase, the total current can be found by subtracting the
smaller value from the larger value.
The Diagram below shows the phasor diagram of an L and C circuit. Since IL is
larger than IC, the total current will be predominantly inductive.
We can consider the parallel circuit to consist of both an internal and an external
circuit.
Since IL flows in the opposite direction to IC, an internal circuit is formed.
Exercise The amount of current flowing around this internal circuit will be equal to the small-
er current value.
Calculate the following for a parallel RC circuit containing a capacitor of value
In this case it will be IC.
100μFarads and a resistor of value 50 ohms connected across a power source of
s
50 volts at a frequency of 50 Hz: The amount of current flowing through the external circuit I equals the difference
between IL and IC
ic
a) IC and IR,
n
b) Z, IT = IL - IC, or
ch
c) Phase Angle,
d) True Power, Apparent Power and the Power Factor, IT = IC - IL, if IL is the larger value
e) Draw vector diagram.
Te
The impedance of this circuit can again be found by using the Ohm's Law expres-
SR sion:
Z = VS / IT and
Since I = IL - IC or I = IC - IL, if IC is greater:
VS / Z = V S / XL - V S / XC
1/Z = 1 / X L - 1 / XC
Figure 45: In an R, L, and C circuit a circulating current equal to the smaller of the two currents
IL and IC, flows through an internal circuit consisting of the inductive and capacitive
branches, in a similar way to that which occurred in an L and C circuit.
The total current IT flows through the external circuit, as shown in the Diagram be-
low.
The total current IT can be found by using Pythagoras' Theorem,
where:
2 2
IT = IR + ( IC – IL )
s
IXT= IC - IL or IL - IC
ic
RLC Parallel Circuits
In a circuit having R, L, and C branches, the total current IT can be found by con- and impedance can be found by using Ohm's Law where Z = V / IT ohms
n
structing a vector diagram.
ch
Two stages are required to do this. The phase angle can be determined from
1. The currents IL and IC are combined by direct subtraction.
In this case the smaller value of IC is subtracted from the larger value of
Te
Tan θ = IXT / IR
IL. See Diagram below (a).
2. IL - IC is then combined with the IR phasor to obtain the total current IT.
The power formulae is the same as previously given for the other parallel circuits.
See Diagram below (b).
SR
Figure 47:
Figure 46:
Exercise RLC Parallel Circuits

Calculate the following for a parallel circuit containing a capacitor of value 0.5μF,
an Inductor of value 10mH and a resistor 400ohms, connected across a power
supply of value 500V at a frequency of 1KHz:
A) IC, IL, IR and IT
B) Z
C) Phase Angle
s
D) True Power, Apparent Power and the Power Factor
n ic
E) Draw the Vector diagram.
ch
Te
SR
Figure 48:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Parallel Resonance Figure 49:

If XL and XC are equal in an R, L, and C parallel circuit, the external circuit current
will be equal to IR.
If the circuit contained only L and C the external circuit current would be zero.
However a large circulating current will flow around the internal circuit made up of
the L and C branches.
In this case no current will be taken from the power supply.
This is because the corresponding values IL and IC are always acting in opposite
directions, and since these values are equal, no external circuit current will flow.
This is known as a "parallel resonant circuit"
Because no current is taken from the source, a parallel resonant circuit containing
s
only L and C has an infinite impedance.
ic
This is sometimes referred to as a "rejector" circuit.
To calculate the value of the circulating current in a parallel resonant circuit, all we
n
need to do is to calculate the value for either IC or IL.
ch
As they are equal to each other, then calculating either will give the value of the
circulating current.
Te
CIRCULATING CURRENT = IC or IL = VS / XC or VS / XL
In a parallel circuit resonance occurs only when XL and XC are equal.

SR
For given values of L and C the respect reactances will only be equal at a given
frequency.
This frequency is known as the resonant frequency, and is calculated in exactly
the same way as for a series resonant circuit.
1
RESONANT FREQUENCY: F r = ------------------
2π LC
Exercise
Fill in the blanks in the table which describe the characteristics of Resonant Cir-
cuits
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT
s
n ic
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
ch
Te
CURRENT CURRENT
SR
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
I hope that you've completed the chart in a similar way to that shown below
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT
s
n ic
ch
VOLTAGE Equal across XL and XC. Voltage across XL and XC much higher VOLTAGE Equal across all circuit branches
than supply voltage
Te
CURRENT Maximum SR CURRENT Minimum in external circuit
High in internal circuit
IMPEDANCE Minimum IMPEDANCE Maximum
Final Exercise Answers
1. What is the reference phasor in an AC parallel circuit?
2. Sketch a phasor diagram for an R and L parallel circuit where R and XL

are equal.
3. In an R and L parallel circuit with IR equal to 4 amps and IL equal to

8 amps, what would be the total current?
4. In an R and C circuit with I equal to 2 amps and V equal to 115 volts, what
s
would be the impedance of the circuit?
n ic
5. In a parallel circuit containing pure inductance and capacitance, what
would be the total circuit current if IL = 3 amps and IC = 2 amps?
ch
6. In a parallel circuit containing R, L, and C, with IR equal to 4 mA, IC equal
Te
to 8 mA, and IL equal to 5 mA, what would be the power factor?
7. In a theoretical L and C parallel circuit containing no resistance, what

SR
would be the current drawn from the supply when the circuit is at
resonance?
Training Manual 3.15 Transformers
3.15 Transformers
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Transformers - Introduction Figure 1: Typical Transformers and Their Symbols

One main advantage that alternating current has over direct current is that voltag-
es can be raised or lowered using devices known as transformers. Transformers
are used for many commercial and domestic uses. They are used extensively in
aircraft systems and can be found:
1. In Lighting circuits.
2. As power supplies within a variety of Avionic equipment.
3. For providing 26 volt AC Instrument power supplies.
4. As a main component in Transformer Rectifier units.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Transformer Principle Figure 2:

When an alternating current flows through a coil, an alternating field expands and
contracts with it. When the alternating magnetic field cuts through the adjacent
turns of the coil a back EMF is produced opposing the change in current.
Exercise:
What happens if we place two coils close together, but insulated from each other,
and pass an alternating current through one of them?
Study the Diagram below and comment on what you think is going to happen to
the centre zero voltmeter in each of the two cases.
Imagine that the voltage is alternating in 'slow motion'.
s
Give reasons for your answer.
n ic
ch
Te
SR
The voltmeter indicates first in one direction and then the other.
The field that was moving it not only cut its own turns but also the turns of the other
coil.
In doing this, an EMF was induced into this coil, first of one polarity as the field ex-
pands, and then of opposite polarity as the field contracts. The two coils in our ex-
ample formed a simple transformer.
So, a transformer transfers electrical power from one coil to another.
We call this 'mutual inductance'.
Turns Ratio Figure 3: Turns Ratio

The diagram below shows a simple transformer with one winding of 100 turns con-
nected to a 240 volt AC supply.
This winding is called the 'primary' winding. The other winding has 1000 turns and
can provide us with a voltage of a different value from the supply voltage.
This winding is called the 'secondary' winding. The voltage produced by the sec-
ondary winding depends upon the turns ratio.
In our example the turns ratio is 10. This is because there are 100 turns on the pri-
mary and 1000 turns on the secondary.
numbers of turns on secondary

Turns ratio = ----------------------------------------
s
numbers of turns on primary
ic
1000
= ------------
n
100
ch
= 10
Te
The secondary voltage VS will equal the primary voltage VP x the turns ratio.
In our case 10 x 240 = 2400 volts.

SR
Since this transformer causes an increase in voltage it is known as a 'step up'
transformer.
Phase Relationship Figure 5:

A phase shift of 180 degrees takes place across a transformer, as shown in dia-
gram below.
This is because the EMF induced in the secondary is as a result of a back EMF
which is in opposition to the change producing it.
Reversal of the output or secondary terminals will bring the primary and secondary
voltage in phase.
Figure 4:
s
n ic
ch
Te
Exercise:
SR
Determine from the diagram below what the secondary voltage will be.
What do you think would be a suitable name for this type of transformer?
Figure 6:
Comments on Exercise: Exercise:

The secondary voltage is 24 volts. Look at diagrams A and B and determine:
In this case the turns ratio was: 1. Which transformer is a step up transformer and which is a step down trans-
former?
10 / 100 = 1 / 10 2. Which transformer has a high secondary voltage and which has a low second-
ary voltage?
3. Which transformer has a high secondary current and which has a low second-
therefore the secondary voltage would be ary current?
Figure 7:
1 / 10 x 240 = 24 volts
s
Since we dropped the voltage, a 'step down' transformer would be a suitable
name.
ic
Relationship between Primary and Secondary Power
n
A transformer transfers electrical power from the primary to the secondary by mu-
ch
tual induction. It transfers this power with very little loss.
Assume for the moment it does this with no loss. If we can transfer power from the
primary circuit to the secondary circuit with no loss of power we say:
Te
PRIMARY POWER = SECONDARY POWER SR
Since power is voltage x current we represent primary power as
Vp x Ip and we represent secondary power as Vs x Is.
Since primary power equals secondary power we say:
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is
Comments on Exercise: Transformer Construction

1. Diagram A shows a step down transformer, diagram B shows a step up Transformers have their windings wound on cores. The cores are made of a suit-
transformer. able ferromagnetic material to provide an easy path for the magnetic field.
2. The transformer in A has a low secondary voltage and the transformer in di- This allows a better magnetic 'linkage' between the primary and secondary wind-
agram B has a high secondary voltage ings.
Some examples of core construction are shown in diagram below.
The transformer in diagram A has a high secondary current and the transformer in Figure 8:
diagram B has a low secondary current.
It's important to note that the terms 'step up' and 'step down' refer only to the volt-
age and not the current.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Transformer Losses Hysteresis

Transformers transfer power from the primary winding to the secondary winding During each cycle of alternating current, the transformer core is taken through a
with very little loss. cycle of magnetising in one direction, demagnetising and then magnetising in the
Transformer efficiency is approximately 97 or 98%. other direction.
The energy expended in demagnetising the core is 'lost' energy. Using a core ma-
terial, such as silicon steel, which can be demagnetised easily, can reduce hyster-
Power Out esis losses.
Efficiency = ------------------------------------ x 100%
Figure 10:
Power Out +Power Losses
Transformer losses can be divided into IRON and COPPER losses. Iron losses are
losses developed in the core and copper losses are developed in the windings.
s
Let's first look at iron losses, which consist of; magnetic leakage, hysteresis and
ic
eddy current losses.
n
Magnetic Losses
ch
In a practical transformer a small number of the flux lines do not complete their cir-
cuit through the core but take shorter paths as shown in diagram below. Note the
Te
primary and secondary flux leakage.
Magnetic or flux leakage can be reduced by winding the coils one over the other
and by careful design of the transformer core.
SR
Figure 9:
Eddy Current Losses
The alternating magnetic field in a transformer can induce 'eddy' currents in the
iron core.
These eddy currents cause energy to be lost as heat.
The eddy currents can be reduced by building up the core with laminations insu-
lated with a resin.
The effect on eddy currents is shown in diagram below.
Figure 11: Copper Losses

Copper losses are caused by the resistance of the primary and secondary wind-
ings.
Current flow in the windings causes energy to be lost in the form of heat.
The amount of heat loss will be a function of I2 R.
Copper losses can be reduced by ensuring that the resistance of the windings is
as low as possible.
Effect of Frequency on Transformers

The inductive effect of the windings depends upon the frequency of the supply, i.e.,
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE XL= 2 π F L (Ω)
s
ic
A transformer is designed for use at a particular frequency and any attempt to run
it at a lower frequency will increase the current and the transformer is liable to over-
n
heat or even 'burn out'.
If operated at frequencies above the rated limit, eddy currents, hysteresis losses
ch
and winding reactance increase and transformer efficiency is reduced.
Te
SR
Transformer with no Load Figure 12:

Figure 12 A shows a transformer being operated without a load. This means that
the secondary of the transformer is open.
Therefore there is no secondary current. Even so, there is primary current because
the primary is connected across an AC voltage source.
In this case, the amount of primary current is determined by the impedance of the
transformer's primary and the applied voltage.
Since no power is being used in the secondary, the primary acts like an inductor.
The primary of a typical iron-core transformer can have an inductance of several
henrys. This tends to keep the primary current very low.
In addition to the inductance, the primary winding has a certain value of AC resist-
s
ance. This limits the current even further.
The small amount of primary current that flows with no load is called excitation cur-
ic
rent.
Figure 12 B illustrates two functions that the excitation current must perform. First,
n
it overcomes the AC resistance of the primary.
ch
In Fig B, the resistance of the inductor is shown as a separate resistor. This resist-
ance dissipates power in the form of heat. Secondarily, the exciting current sup-
ports the magnetic field in the core.
Te
XL of the primary is normally much larger than its AC resistance.
Thus, the exciting current lags behind the applied voltage by almost 90 degrees.
Consequently, when no current flows in the secondary, the primary of the trans-
former acts like an inductor.
SR
This is the situation which occurs when there is no secondary current. However,
when secondary current flows, these conditions are changed and the transformer
operates differently.
Since the transformer is normally operated with a secondary load, we must under-
stand why it operates differently when secondary current flows.
Transformer with Load Figure 13:

The following figure shows a simple transformer with a load resistor connected
across the secondary winding.
When AC current flows in the primary, it induces a current in the secondary.
Let’s see how the current in the secondary affects the operation of the transformer.
In fig A the polarity of the applied voltage is negative at the top of the primary and
positive at the bottom.
This forces current to flow down through the primary winding and the current de-
velops a magnetic field in the direction shown.
Notice that the secondary is wound directly on top of the primary. Therefore, the
expanding magnetic field caused by the primary current also cuts the secondary
winding.
s
The current flow in the secondary establishes a magnetic field of its own as shown
in fig B.
ic
The expanding flux in the secondary also cuts the primary turns.
This induces yet another EMF back into the primary winding.
n
This induced EMF opposes the counter EMF developed in the primary. Stated an-
ch
other way, the current induced in the primary, from the secondary, aids the original
primary current.
This causes the primary current to increase.
Te
This increase in the primary current is caused by the expanding magnetic field of
the secondary. The more current that flows in the secondary, the stronger the sec-
ondary magnetic field.
This in turn, increases the primary current. Consequently, an increase in the sec-
SR
ondary current causes an increase in the primary current.
The exact amount of increase in each depends on the turns ratio
The sum of the effects just described is called mutual inductance.
The inductance is said to be mutual because the primary induces a voltage into
the secondary and, simultaneously, the secondary induces a voltage back into the
primary.
The Power Supply Transformer Autotransformers

This type of transformer is used wherever a number of different voltage levels are Autotransformers have one winding instead of two or more.
required. Part of the winding is used for both primary and secondary while the rest of the
They are often found as internal sub-components in electrical or electronic equip- winding acts as either the primary or the secondary, dependent upon whether it is
ment. used to step up or step down the voltage.
Each secondary has three connections. The middle one being called the centre Since a portion of the winding is common to both primary and secondary, this re-
tap. duces the total weight of copper.
The voltage between the centre tap and the outside connections is a half of the In addition, the common portion carries only the difference between primary and
voltage across the two outside connections. secondary currents.
The windings are often colour coded to indicate the separate windings, their use, It can therefore be wound of lighter gauge wire, giving a further reduction in weight.
and the way they are to be connected. Autotransformers do not however isolate the primary and secondary circuits, and
The number of tappings and windings on a power supply transformer can be un- cannot be used in many electrical and electronic circuits for this reason.
limited as shown in diagram below. Also a break in the common winding, places almost full supply voltage across the
s
The transformer providing the power supply in equipment may have a large num- secondary.
ic
ber of connections but the principles of the basic static transformer still apply. The diagram below shows an autotransformer used as an aircraft instrument
transformer.
n
Figure 14:
ch
Figure 15:
Te
SR
The Variac Three Phase Transformers

A Variac is an autotransformer with a variable secondary tapping giving a variable Transformation of three phase AC from one voltage to another can be carried out
output. eg used as a dimmer in AC lighting circuits). by means of three separate single phase transformers, or by a single three phase
transformer.
Figure 16: In a single three phase transformer, the shell type iron core carries the primary and
secondary windings of one phase on each of the three limbs, as shown in diagram
below.
The primary and secondary windings can be connected having the phase wind-
ings in either star or delta or in any combination of the two.
Figure 17:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Servicing Figure 18:

Transformers require little attention, but air cooled types must be kept free from
dust or dirt, as this is liable to give rise to overheating.
They should never be covered as this will interfere with cooling. Periodic insulation
tests between windings and between each winding and the core should be carried
out, and the output voltage at various loads should be verified with an accurate
voltmeter.
Current Transformers
Current transformers are used wherever large currents have to be monitored.
Aircraft generator feeders, for example, carry currents too large to be connected
directly to an ammeter, the current coil of a wattmeter, or control and protection
circuits within generator control units.
s
The diagram below shows an ammeter supplied by the secondary of a current
ic
transformer.
The turns ratio is arranged to give full scale deflection when full load current flows
n
in the primary.
ch
Current transformers having a single turn primary are usually arranged as shown
in diagram below, where P represents the primary conductor passing through the
centre of a laminated iron ring C.
Te
The secondary winding S is wound around the ring.
This type of current transformer is known as a bar-primary current transformer.
Sealed current transformer assemblies are very common on modern aircraft.
They utilise generator feeder cables as the primary.
SR
The secondaries are contained within the sealed assembly.
The assembly has a plug and socket type connector.
A current transformer assembly can contain numerous secondary windings; up to
eight is not uncommon.
The outputs of current transformer assemblies often provide current information
for control and protection circuits inside generator control units.
The diagram below shows a typical current transformer assembly.
One final word of caution regarding current transformers.
If the secondary load is removed and the primary current is allowed to flow, the
induced secondary EMF may be sufficiently high to cause insulation breakdown.
Never allow a current transformer to operate without a secondary load. If the nor-
mal load has to be disconnected, provide an alternative load or even a short circuit
before allowing primary current to flow.
Exercises: Answers:
1. Transformers transfer electrical power from one coil to another

by……………........ inductance.
2. A step down transformer with a primary voltage of 115 volts has a turns ra-
tio of 4.
What will be the secondary voltage?
3. If the power consumed by the secondary circuit of a transformer is 52 watts,

what will be the primary current if the primary voltage is 115 volts?
s
ic
4. List three types of core construction.
n
5. Explain what is meant by eddy current losses and comment on how they
ch
can be reduced.
Te
6. What would be the effect of operating a transformer at a frequency lower
than the rated one?
7. A power supply transformer has a single secondary winding.

SR
TRUE/FALSE?
8. How many windings does an autotransformer have?
9. Which aircraft component would contain a three-phase transformer?
10. What precautions would you take if the secondary load of a current
transformer is disconnected?
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.16 Filters
3.16 Filters
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Filters General Figure 1: Filter Types

A filter is a frequency discriminating circuit. Filters greatly attenuate some frequen-
cies while allowing others to pass with virtually no opposition.
Filters are frequency selective in that they pass some frequencies and attempt to
keep others out.
Two of the most common types of filters used in electronic circuits are the low-pass
filter and the high-pass filter.
A low-pass filter permits low frequency signals to pass from the input to the output
with little or no attenuation.
High frequencies, however, are greatly attenuated.
A frequency known as the cut-off frequency is the general dividing line between
those frequencies that are passed and those that are attenuated.
s
A high-pass filter is the opposite of a low-pass filter. The high-pass filter permits
ic
frequencies above the cut-off frequency to pass. Frequencies below the cut-off
point are greatly attenuated.
n
Simple RC and LC networks can be used as low and high-pass filters.
Such circuits are able to perform a frequency selective function because of the
ch
change in reactance with frequency.
Te
SR
Low-Pass Filter The cut-off frequency is a function of the resistor and the capacitor values and is
determined by the expression below:
The simplest form of low-pass filter is shown in figure below.
It consists of a resistor and capacitor connected in series across an input voltage. An important thing to note about an RC low-pass filter is that while the circuit is
The output voltage is taken from across the capacitor. frequency selective the selectivity is very gradual.
The output is not sharply defined at the cut-off frequency.
The best way to understand the operation of the low-pass filter is to look at the cir- Higher frequencies are only attenuated, not cut out completely. In other words, the
cuit as a voltage divider. low-pass filter does pass frequencies higher than the cut-off frequency but they are
The input voltage is applied across the resistor and capacitor in series. The output more greatly attenuated than those frequencies below the cut-off point.
voltage is taken from across the capacitor. The voltage division ratio depends Despite this imperfection in RC low-pass filters, these circuits are still very useful.
upon the sizes of the resistance and the capacitive reactance.
The value of the resistance remains constant, of course, but the value of the ca- LC Filters
pacitive reactance changes as the input frequency changes. A simple LC low-pass filter also below, at low frequencies XL is much lower than
At very low input frequencies, the capacitive reactance will be very high. the resistance of RL.
s
If the reactance is high compared to the resistance, most of the input voltage will Thus, most of Vin is developed across RL.
ic
drop across the capacitor. Furthermore, the XC of the capacitor is high at low frequencies.
At low frequencies then, the circuit offers very little opposition, and nearly all the Thus, most of the current flows through RL and Vout is high at low frequencies.
n
input voltage appears at the output.
At high frequencies the situation reverses, XL of the coil increases, dropping most
As the input frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. This means
ch
of the applied voltage.
that less voltage will be dropped across the capacitor and more across the resistor Only a small voltage is dropped across RL. Furthermore, XC of the capacitor de-
as the frequency gets higher. creases, so that most of the current is shunted around RL.
Te
For this reason, the output voltage begins to drop off as frequency is increased. Hence, the filter effectively blocks high frequency signals.
At very high frequencies, the reactance will be very low.
If it is significantly lower than the value of the resistance, then very little voltage will
appear at the output.
SR
The frequency response curve shown in figure below illustrates this effect.
This curve shows the amount of output voltage with respect to frequency.
On the left-hand side of the curve, at very low frequencies, the output voltage is
nearly equal to the input voltage.
In fact, with a frequency of 0 Hz or dc, the capacitor offers maximum opposition
and the output voltage will be equal to the input voltage.
As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance begins to decrease. The out-
put voltage then begins to drop off.
After the cut-off frequency is reached, the output voltage drops off at a constant
rate.
At the cut-off frequency, the output voltage is equal to approximately 70% of the
input voltage or Vout = 0.707 Vin.
Figure 2: Figure 3:
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
High-Pass Filter Figure 4: High Pass Filter

A simple RC high-pass filter is shown in figure A below. Like the low-pass filter, it
consists of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series to the input voltage.
In the high-pass filter, however, the output voltage is taken from across the resis-
tor.
In figure B below, the circuit is drawn as a voltage divider. At very high input fre-
quencies, the capacitive reactance will be very low.
If it is low compared to the resistance, little voltage will be dropped across it.
At high frequencies then, most of the input voltage will appear across the resistor.
As the frequency decreases, the capacitive reactance increases.
More and more voltage will be dropped across the capacitance and less across
the resistance.
s
Therefore, as the frequency decreases, the output voltage will begin to decrease.
The decrease is gradual at first, but at the cut-off frequency, the attenuation be-
ic
comes more pronounced and the output voltage drops at a constant rate with de-
creasing frequency.
n
Figure below shows the frequency response curve of an RC high-pass filter.
ch
Note that at high frequencies the output voltage is nearly equal to the input voltage
(Vin).
As the frequency decreases, the output voltage begins to decrease.
Te
At the cut-off frequency, the output voltage is approximately 70% of the input volt-
age.
Below the cut-off frequency, the attenuation increases and the output voltage
drops.
SR
As in the low-pass filter, the cut-off frequency is a function of the resistor and ca-
pacitor values.
The same expression used for computing the cut-off frequency of a low-pass filter
applies to the high-pass filter.
LC Filters
At high frequencies, XC is high and XL is low. Thus, the high value of XC drops
most of the applied voltage.
The low value of XL tends to bypass RL. Thus, the circuit passes high frequencies
but blocks low frequencies.
Band Pass Filter Figure 5:

The filter (a) shown in Figure 5 is a series resonant circuit consisting of and induc-
tor L and a capacitor C.
At the resonant frequency, the series resonant circuit has a very low impedance.
Thus, it drops very little of the applied voltage Vin.
Most of the voltage is developed across RL.
Consequently Vout is high at the resonant frequency.
Below the resonant frequency, the XC of the capacitor is higher than the resistance
of RL.
Consequently, most of Vin is dropped across the capacitor.
This leaves only a small voltage across RL, Thus, Vout is a low voltage.
Above the resonant frequency, the XL of the coil is higher than RL. Therefore, most
of the voltage is dropped across the coil and Vout is again a low voltage.
s
Figure (b) shows how the circuit responds to a band of frequencies.
ic
At the resonant frequency of L and C, Vout is high.
Above and below resonance Vout drops off quickly to a low voltage.
n
A parallel resonant circuit can also be used as a band pass filter.
ch
At resonance the impedance of the tank circuit is maximum.
Consequently, very little current flows through the tank circuit.
Most of the current flows through RL.
Te
The current through RL is maximum at resonance.
Below resonance XL of the coil is small when compared to the value of RL.
Thus, most of the current flows through the coil and very little current flows through
RL .
SR
Above resonance, most of the current flows through the capacitor again leaving
little current through RL.
That is, above and below resonance, RL is partially shorted (bypassed) by low im-
pedance of the tank.
Thus, most of the applied voltage is dropped across RS.
Band Stop Filters Figure 7:

The response of the band-stop or band-reject filter is opposite to that of the band-
pass filter.
That is the filter stops or attenuates/rejects the frequency/frequencies to which it
is tuned.
Figure (A) below shows an LC band stop filter.
Here L and C form parallel resonant circuit. The resonant circuit is in series with
the load RL.
At resonance the impedance of the tank circuit is much higher than RL.
Consequently, most of Vin is dropped across the tank circuit and very little voltage
is available at the load.
Above and below resonance, the resistance of RL is higher than the impedance of
the tank circuit.
s
Therefore most of Vin is developed across RL.
ic
Figure (B) shows the frequency response curve. Figure 8:
n
Figure 6:
ch
Te
SR
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.17 AC Generators
3.17 AC Generators
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Generating AC Figure 1:
Although alternating current may be generated in a number of ways, the most ba-
sic means of obtaining AC is by using an electromechanical device known as an
AC generator or alternator.
An AC generator produces an alternating voltage which in turn develops an alter-
nating current through any load (resistor, lamps, etc.) that is connected to the gen-
erator's output terminals.
Basically an AC generator produces an AC voltage by causing a loop of wire to
turn within a magnetic field. The relative motion between the wire and the magnetic
field causes a voltage to be induced within the wire.
This voltage changes, in magnitude and polarity, as the speed and direction of the
wire changes, in relation to the magnetic field.
s
Electromagnetic Induction
ic
An AC generator produces an alternating voltage because it makes use of a fun-
n
damental but important process known as electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction is the process of inducing a voltage within a wire or con-
ch
ductor by moving it through a magnetic field.
The voltage developed across the conductor shown below results because of the
Te
relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic lines of force. This rela-
tive motion must exist in order for a voltage to be produced.
The conductor may move while the field remains stationary or the conductor could
be held stationary while the field is moved. Either condition would cause a voltage
SR
to be produced.
If there is no relative motion, no voltage is produced.
The voltage produced within the conductor is generally referred to as induced volt-
age. This voltage is induced within the conductor regardless of whether there is
current flowing through the conductor or not. In fact, a continuous current cannot
flow through the conductor unless there is a complete circuit.
You can use the left-hand generator rule, illustrated in below, to determine the di-
rection of current flow or the polarity of induced voltage, within a conductor.
When your left hand is positioned as shown, your thumb indicates the direction of
conductor motion, your index finger points in the direction of magnetic flux, and
your middle finger, which is bent out from the palm at a 90 degree angle, points in
the direction of the induced current.
Magnitude of Induced Voltage all of these factors into account.

This simple rule is stated as follows:
The amount of voltage induced in a conductor is determined by several factors.
The voltage induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate at which the
First, the induced voltage is affected by the strength of the magnetic field. conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force.
A stronger magnetic field will result in more lines of force per unit area. This means
that there are more lines to cut and the induced voltage is increased. When the Figure 2:
field strength is reduced, fewer lines of force exist, and the induced voltage de-
creases.
Induced voltage also depends on the speed conductor movement. The faster the
conductor moves, the greater the induced voltage. This is because the faster mov-
ing conductor cuts more lines of force, in a given period of time. When the speed
of the conductor is reduced, few lines of force are cut per unit of time and, the in-
duced voltage decreases.
s
The length of the conductor within the magnetic field also affects the induced volt-
ic
age. The longer the conductor, the greater the induced voltage. The longer con-
ductor cuts more lines of force as it moves through the magnetic field. A shorter
n
conductor intercepts (cuts) fewer lines of force, and induced voltage is decreased.
The angle at which the conductor, cuts the magnetic field, also affects the induced
ch
voltage. When a conductor moves at a right angle (90 degrees) with respect to the
magnetic field, as shown in the previous diagram, maximum voltage is induced.
When the angle between the field and the direction of the conductor motion de-
Te
creases, induced voltage decreases. This relationship is true regardless of the di-
rection of the induced voltage.
Remember, the amount of voltage induced in a conductor is affected by the follow-
ing four factors:
SR
1. The strength of the magnetic field.
2. The speed of conductor movement.
3. The length of the conductor in the field.
4. The angle at which the conductor cuts the field.
E = B x L x v x Sin θ (Volts)
Although these four factors effectively state the conditions, which affect the volt-
age induced in a conductor, it is possible to formulate one simple rule, which takes
Generator Construction Figure 3:

An AC generator is shown in the diagram below. It consists of a wire loop called
an armature, which is mounted so that it rotates within a magnetic field.
The magnetic field exists between north and south poles of a magnet.
The magnet used for this purpose is commonly referred to as a field magnet.
The field magnet is constructed so that it produces a strong, concentrated mag-
netic field between its poles. It can be either permanent magnet or an electromag-
net.
The electromagnetic is preferred in applications where a high field strength is re-
quired to produce substantial output power.
The AC voltage induced in the rotating armature must be extracted at the ends of
the wire loops, which form the armature. However, the armature constantly turns,
s
thus making it impossible to permanently attach any wires, or leads, directly to the
ic
armature.
For this reason, it is necessary to use some type of sliding contact at each end of
n
the wire loop. As you see in the diagram below two cylindrical metal rings are at-
ch
tached to the opposite ends of the loop. These metal rings are called 'Slip Rings'.
An external circuit, or load, is connected to these slip rings through contacts, which
are held against the rings.
Te
The contacts are made from a soft but highly conductive material (usually carbon),
and are called brushes.
The brushes slide against the slip rings as the armature turns. The brushes serve
SR
as two stationary contacts to which an external load can be connected.
The brushes are the output terminals of the generator.
Simply stated, the AC output voltage is applied from the armature, through the
brushes, to the load.
Generator Operation side are series-aiding and the two sides of the armature form a complete loop.
These induced voltages are equal in value.
In order to function properly, an AC generator must be operated so that its arma-
ture rotates, at a constant speed. Therefore, the voltage which appears at the brushes, is equal to the sum of the
voltages, induced in each side. The polarity of these voltages are shown in figure
As the armature rotates, in the magnetic field, one side moves down through the B along with the resulting currents. Notice that the series-aiding voltages produce
magnetic field while the other side moves up. It is important to note that, during a current that circulates through the armature and the load.
each complete revolution of the armature, each side must move down and then up
through the field. Figure 4:
Furthermore, each side of the armature always remains in contact with its respec-
tive brush, through a slip ring.
Keeping these considerations in mind, we will now examine the basic action that N S N S N S N S
takes place during one complete revolution of the armature.
An armature is shown in four specific positions in figure A. These are intermediate
s
Electron
positions which occur during one complete revolution of the armature. Electron
Flow Flow
ic
Notice that one side of the armature and its associated slip ring and brush are
black, the other side is white.
n
A Generator B C D
The two colours are used to help you keep track of each side of the armature. Terminal Voltage
+
A B C D E
ch
Generator
Also, a resistive load is connected to the brushes so that a complete circuit is Terminal 0
Voltage
0˚ 90˚
180˚ 270˚ 360˚
formed. The complete circuit allows current to flow through the armature to the -
load.
Te
The output voltage is monitored by a voltmeter. Notice that the voltmeter is con- As you examine figure B, notice that the armature is horizontal. In other words,
nected across the load. the black and white sides of the armature are cutting the magnetic lines of force,
at right angles (the fastest cutting rate), resulting in the maximum induced voltage.
Assume that the armature starts rotating in a clockwise direction, from the initial
At this time, the output voltage applied to the load is at its maximum value, as in-
SR
position shown in figure A. Notice that initially the black side of the armature is on
top and the white side is on the bottom. dicated by the voltmeter. It is important to note, that the output voltage does not
suddenly jump from zero to maximum.
As the armature moves from this starting position, the black side moves from left
to right, and the white side moves from right to left. The output voltage increases to a specific rate. As the armature rotates from the
position shown in figure A, to the position shown in figure B, it cuts the magnetic
However, both sides are moving parallel to the lines of force (no lines are cut). lines of force, at an ever increasing angle, until maximum voltage is obtained.
When a conductor moves parallel to the field, the induced voltage is zero. Notice This causes the output voltage to increase smoothly from zero to its maximum val-
that the voltmeter, which is connected to the brushes, indicates zero at this time. ue.
As the armature rotates from the position shown in figure A, to the position shown When the armature rotates from the position shown in figure B to the position
in figure B, the black side moves down through the field while the white side moves shown in figure C, it cuts the magnetic lines of force at a slower and slower rate.
up. The opposite side of the armature therefore cuts the magnetic lines of force in
opposite directions. When the armature reaches the position shown in figure C, the opposite sides of
the armature are moving parallel to the lines of force and no flux lines are cut.
The polarity of the voltage induced in the black side will be opposite the polarity of
the voltage induced into the white side. However, the voltages induced in each This means that the output voltage decreases from maximum to zero again.
From C through to A, the second half revolution is completed. Such a generator might produce as much as 1,000,000 watts of output power.
Only here opposite voltages are induced in the loop sides from that in the first half This would be enough power for an entire community.
revolution. Figure 5: AC Generator
The effect of this is that the current through the load reverses direction.
One complete revolution (360 degrees) is made up of a positive (0 to 180 degrees)
and a negative (180 to 360 degrees) alternation.
These two alternations comprise what is called a cycle of AC.
A cycle of AC is the combined time that it takes to generate the positive and neg-
ative alternations.
This is also defined as the period of an AC waveform.
The AC generator just described is the simplest device that can be used to gener-
s
ate AC voltages.
ic
The AC generators used to produce electrical power for commercial applications
are more complex in construction. However, all AC generators utilize many loops
n
of wire, within their armatures, to increase the induced voltage to a much higher
value.
ch
These generators may also contain more than one pair of north-south magnetic
poles. When more than one pair of poles are used, one revolution of the armature
can produce more than one AC voltage variation.
Te
Some AC generators that are designed for low power applications can be very
small. For example, alternators that are used on most automobiles, are small AC
generators that are only six or seven inches in diameter.
SR
These small AC generators can produce a few hundred watts of output power.
These alternators (generators) are powered by the cars engine and used to pro-
duce an AC voltage that is converted to a DC voltage.
The DC voltage is then used to operate the car's electrical system.
The newer alternators are used in place of DC generators (which were once widely
used) because they are more efficient and require less maintenance.
The process of converting AC to DC is relatively easy and inexpensive.
The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.
Some AC generators are designed to produce large amount of electrical power
and are extremely large.
For example, an AC generator that is used by an electric power company might be
too large to fit into the living room of your house.
Aircraft AC Generators Figure 6:

Ever since the first aircraft to use any kind of electric equipment was launched, the
electrical loads on airplanes and other flying devices have increased.
Today, modern jet airliners are equipped with scores of different electric systems,
each requiring a substantial amount of electric energy.
To supply the power for their electric systems, these giant airplanes are equipped
with generating equipment sufficient to furnish lights for a small town.
The generators (alternators) for the Boeing 747 jumbo jets can produce a total of
240, kilovolt-amperes (KVA) or more.
One generator is driven by each of the engines and each one produces power far
in excess of that produced by any commercial generator of similar weight.
An electric generator may be defined as a machine which changes mechanical en-
s
ergy to electric energy. The mechanical energy may be supplied by any one of
ic
many devices such as gasoline engines, steam engines, diesel engines, steam or
water turbines, wind-driven propellers, gas-turbine engines, or atomic-powered
n
engines.
On airplanes, generators are usually driven by the airplane engine.
ch
Te
SR
Generator Classifications Figure 7:

Generators are classified according to the type of current they supply, their capac-
ity, or power output, type of windings, number of phases, internal connections, and
frequency if the generator is an ac type.
DC generators are further described as shunt-wound or compound- wound.
Shunt-wound and compound-wound generators are used on aircraft. As genera-
tors, also called alternators, are usually rated according to their voltage, number
of phases, power output, and operating frequency.
For example: a 120/208 Vac three-phase 400 Hz 20 KVA generator.
When an airplane is in flight, its own generator or generators supply power for all
its electrical operations.
It is well to remember that the battery serves no particular purpose as long as the
s
generator system is working properly.
ic
The generator system must be designed so that it will carry all operating loads dur-
ing flight.
n
Large aircraft like jet airliners employ three-phase ac power systems rated at
ch
115/200 Vac, with a frequency of 400 Hz.
Compared with a 28V dc system, an ac system will develop several times as much
power for the same weight; hence it is a great advantage in large aircraft to use
Te
the ac systems.
Light aircraft manufactured during recent years are commonly equipped with 12 or
24 Vdc alternators similar to those used for automobiles.
SR
The alternating current is rectified to produce the dc requirements for the aircraft
electric systems.
AC Generator (1) Figure 8:

A compete generator assembly consists of an AC exciter generator, a rotating rec-
tifier and a main generator.
The AC exciter consists of a six pole stationary DC field and a rotating armature.
The exciter field is supplied with DC power from the voltage regulator.
This causes a 3-phase voltage to be developed in the exciter armature.
The voltage is rectified and fed into the AC generator rotating field.
This field generates the useful AC output voltage in the AC stator.
Current supplied by the voltage regulator to the shunt field winding provides ex-
citation for the exciter generator.
In so doing, it controls the exciter output of the main AC generator.
The shunt field winding consists of two coils wound in parallel in six series coils
mounted on the six poles.
s
On one end both insulated wires are connected to a common F terminal.
ic
On the opposite end, one wire is connected directly to the A terminal and the other Voltage Regulator GCU
wire is connected through a thermistor to the A terminal. (Part of Generator Control Unit)
n
The thermistor, mounted in the exciter frame, has an inverse temperature resist- PMG Exciter
Stator Field
ch
ance characteristic.
The high resistance at low or normal ambient temperature blocks current flow in AC DC
one of the parallel wires and causes the overall shunt field resistance to be about
AC
Te
that of the remaining single wire.
At the higher temperature resulting from normal operation, the resistance of each N
A
single wire increases to approximately double. DC B
At the same time the resistance of the thermistor drops to a negligible value per- C
S
mitting approximately equal current to flow in each wire.
SR
N
The combined resistance of the two parallel wires at higher temperatures is ap-
proximately equal to that of the single wire at low temperature.
Temperature compensation is thereby provided. Permanent Exciter Exciter Output Main
Magnet Output Rectifier Field Output
Permanent magnets are mounted on the exciter frame between the six stator (Rotor) (Stator)
poles.
These magnets alternately reversed in polarity provide a built-in residual voltage,
which ensures voltage build-up and eliminates the need for field flashing or for a
starting relay.
AC Generator (2) Figure 9:
Brushless Alternator with Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)

The alternator essentially contains three generators in one:
1. Permanent magnet generator: produces power for exciter.

2. Exciter: supplies dc power for the field winding.
3. Output generator: produces 3 phase alternating current.
The PMG consists of six permanent magnets attached to the rotor shaft.
They generate 80 volts (at zero load) three phase AC. This voltage is sent to the
s
voltage regulator within the generator control unit and there it is rectified to DC and
ic
sent back to the field of alternator output voltage.
The armature of the exciter then generates 3 phase AC which is rectified by three
n
rotating diodes and sent as DC to the field of the main generator.
ch
Three phase AC 120/208 volts 400Hz is generated by the main generator.
Three current transformers are located on each phase of the ground side of the
main generator leads. These are used for the differential protection sensing and
Te
are basically looking at current flow out of the generator.
One of the advantages of using a PMG as a separate generator is reliability in fault
protection.
SR
Even though the main generator leads may be shorted out, this does not effect
PMG output. The PMG can continue to supply power to the effective protection cir-
cuits so that appropriate action can be taken to clear the fault.
On previous generators using magnets with residual voltage the fault could drag
down the control power to a low level where fault protection could be impaired.
Brushless Alternator Figure 10:

The brushless alternator is more efficient because there are no brushes to wear
down or to arc at high altitudes.
A brushless alternator consists of rotor which includes the rotating armature of the
exciter generator, a half-wave or full-wave, three-phase rectifier, and the rotating
field for the main generator (alternator), the stationary field of the exciter generator
and the stationary armature (stator) of the main alternator; and necessary frame-
work and bearings to make the unit functional.
The exciter generator for the alternator is a three-phase alternator, the output of
which is converted to dc by means of the rectifier is fed to the windings of the main
alternator rotor.
Voltage regulation is provided through the field of the exciter. Note that the main
s
rotating field (rotor) and the exciter armature are mounted on the same hollow
shaft.
ic
The exciter-armature output passes through conductors to the inside of the shaft
and to the three-phase rectifier. The dc output from the rectifier is carried outside
n
the shaft to the main rotor windings.
ch
Since the exciter armature, the rectifier, and the main rotor are all mounted on or
in the same shaft, there is no need for slip rings, brushes, or a commutator.
Te
The need for flashing the field of the exciter to restore residual magnetism has
been eliminated by the installation of permanent magnets in the main field poles.
Thus there is always a magnetic field to start the generation of current. The design
of the brushless ac generator is made possible by the development of the silicon
SR
rectifier.
This three-phase rectifier consists of six single rectifiers connected together to
form one unit which is provided with cooling fins.
Even though the unit is comparatively small, its capacity is adequate to handle the
maximum field load required by the alternator.
To provide a full-wave rectifier for three-phase alternating current using six rectifi-
ers, the individual rectifier diodes are joined in series pairs with three input termi-
nals, one between the individual units of each pair.
The positive sides of the pairs are connected together for the positive output, and
the negative sides are connected together for the negative output.
Brushless AC Generator Characteristics Figure 12:

Among the advantages of a brushless AC generator are the following:
1. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush, slip-ring or commutator
wear.
2. High stability and consistency of output, because variations or resistance
and conductivity at the commutator and slip rings are eliminated.
3. Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at bushes is eliminated.
Figure 11:
s
n ic
ch
Te
Producing Three Phase Current
Three phase current is produced in exactly the same way as single phase alter-
nating current except that the generator has three coil wound stators 120° apart
instead of one.
SR
Rotating the rotor develops an alternating current of equal potential in each of the
three coils.
Although at any one moment the potential is maximum in one of the coils it will be
less in the other two coils.
Should the rotor be in the exact vertical position we have maximum induced Elec-
tro Motive Force (EMF) in the top coil, whereas the left and right coils are inducing
less EMF.
Should the rotor be turned through 120° to the right, then the right coil will induce
maximum EMF etc.
As a complete cycle of the rotor produces a full period of alternating EMF, the three
EMF's will be in opposition by a 1/3 of a period or 120° advanced.
Voltage Regulation Figure 13:

The efficient operation of aircraft electrical equipment depends on the fundamental
requirement that the generator voltage at the distribution busbar system be main-
tained constant under all conditions of load at varying speeds, within limits of a pre-
scribed range.
It is necessary, therefore, to provide a device that will regulate the output voltage
of a generator at the designed value and within a specified tolerance.
There are a number of factors which, either separately or in combination, affect the
output voltage of a generator, and of these the one which can most conveniently
be controlled is the field circuit current, which in its turn controls the flux density.
This regulator must also maintain the correct value of exciter shunt field current
when no AC voltage corrective action is required (steady state output).
s
In the figure shown, note that a pair of connections labeled AC sensing input feeds
ic
a voltage proportional to the AC generator output voltage to the AC voltage regu-
lator.
n
Note also that a portion of the exciter's field current flows through a rheostat, Rx,
then through the exciter shunt field windings, and finally back to the exciter arma-
ch
ture.
Obviously, the exciter supplies direct current to its own control field, in addition to
Te
the AC generator field, as determined by the setting of RX.
The setting of Rx is controlled by the magnetic strength of control
coil L.
SR
The magnetic strength of L in turn is controlled by the voltage across resistor R.
The voltage across R is rectified DC, and is proportional to the AC line voltage
(Rectifiers are devices that change AC to DC).
Thus, the essential function of the voltage regulator is to use the AC output volt-
age, which it is designed to control, as a sensing influence to control the amount
of current the exciter supplies to its own control field.
Three Wire Star or 'Y' Connection
A drop in the output AC voltage will change the setting of Rx in one direction and
The fig below shows the three windings connected in the form of a Star or 'Y'.
cause a rise in the exciter control field current.
In this case all the 'Start' ends of the windings are connected together at what is
A rise in the output AC voltage will change then setting of Rx in the opposite direc-
known as the 'Star' or 'Neutral' point.
tion and cause a drop in the exciter control field current.
This method of connection is known as a 'three wire' method.
These latter two characteristics are a drop in the exciter control field current.
These latter two characteristics are caused by actions within the voltage regulator.
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Training Manual 3.18 AC Motors
3.18 AC Motors
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
AC Motors-General Since airplane electrical systems typically operate at 400 Hz, an electric motor at
this frequency operates at about seven times the speed of a 60 Hz commercial
Because of their advantages, many of aircraft motors are designed to operate on motor with the same number of poles.
alternating current.
In general, AC Motors are less expensive than comparable DC Motors. Because of this high speed of rotation, 400 Hz ac motors are suitable for operating
small high-speed rotors, through reduction gears, in lifting and moving heavy
In many instances, ac motors do not use brushes and commutators and, therefore, loads, such as the wing flaps, the retractable landing gear, and the starting of en-
sparking at the brushes is avoided. gines.
They are very reliable and very little maintenance is needed.
The 400 Hz induction type motor operates at speeds ranging from 6,000 RPM to
Also, they are well suited for constant-speed applications and certain types are
24,000 RPM.
manufactured that have, within limits, variable speed characteristics.
Alternating current motors are rated in horsepower output, operating voltage, full
Alternating-current motors are designed to operate on polyphase or single-phase load current, speed, number of phases, and frequency.
lines and at several voltage ratings.
Whether the motors operate continuously or intermittently (for short intervals) is
The subject of AC Motors is very extensive and no attempt has been made to cov-
s
also considered in the rating.
er the entire field.
ic
Only the types of AC Motors most common to aircraft systems are discussed in Types of AC Motors
detail.
n
There are two general types of ac motors used in aircraft systems: induction mo-
The speed of rotation of an AC Motor depends upon the number of poles and the tors and synchronous motors.
ch
frequency of the electrical source of power and can be calculated using the formu- Either type may be single-phase, or three-phase.
la,
Three-phase induction motors are used where large amounts of power are re-
quired.
Te
60 × f They operate such devices as starters, flaps, and hydraulic pumps.
N = -------------
p Single-phase induction motors are used to operate devices such as surface locks,
intercooler shutters, and shutoff valves in which the power requirement is low.
N = shaftspeed in RPM
SR
Three-phase synchronous motors operate at constant synchronous speeds and
f = frequency
are commonly used to operate flux gate compasses and propeller synchronizer
p = number of pairs of poles systems.
Single-phase synchronous motors are common sources of power to operate elec-
tric clocks and other small precision equipment.
They require some auxiliary method to bring them up to synchronous speeds; that
is, to start them.
Usually the starting winding consists of an auxiliary stator winding.
Figure 1: AC Motor
s
n ic
ch
Te
SR
Induction Motors-General Figure 2: Rotor of an Induction Motor

The most popular type of AC motor in use is the induction motor.
The induction motor needs no electrical connection to the rotating element, and
therefore, there are no brushes, commutators, or slip rings to worry about.
Induction motors operate at a fixed RPM that is determined by their design and
their frequency of the AC.
Three-phase induction motors require some form of starting circuit which is auto-
matically disconnected.
Single-phase motors operate equally well in either direction of rotation, and the di-
rection they turn is determined by the starting circuit.
Many small appliances such as fans and blowers or record players are driven with
a small induction motor called a shaded-pole motor because of the way its rotating
s
field is obtained.
ic
These small motors have a very low starting torque, but their simplicity and low
cost make them desirable for application where torque is not important.
n
An induction motor has a rotating field in its stator which contains a number of elec- Three - Phase Induction Motors
ch
tromagnets whose strength and polarity change with the changes in the excitation
Figure below shows a plot of the current in each of the three phases, and figure B
current.
shows the way the six wires from the three-phase power are connected to the sta-
In an induction motor the rotating element is call a squirrel cage because of its con-
tor of the motor.
Te
struction.
The coils connected to A-phase causes poles 1 and 4 to have the greatest mag-
A core, made of a stack of thin circular laminations or soft steel, is keyed to the
netic strength with coil one producing the north pole and coil four producing the
shaft. Slots are cut in the periphery of the core into which bars of copper or alumi-
south pole.
num are fitted. End plates of heavy copper or aluminum are fastened to each end
SR
of the core, and the bars are welded to these plates. One hundred and twenty electrical degrees later, the current is maximum in phase
B, and coils two and five produces the greatest strength, with two being north, and
Their is no electrical connection to the rotor, but as soon as current flows in the
five south.
stator, the lines of magnetic flux produced by the field coils cut across the rotor and
induce a voltage in the bars. One hundred and twenty degrees later the strength of coils three and six is the
greatest because the current in phase C is the strongest.
The rotor has such an extremely low resistance that the induced voltage causes a
large current to flow, and this current creates a magnetic field that reacts with the If, after starting, one connection to a three-phase motor is broken, the motor will
rotating field in the stator. continue to run but will deliver only two-third of the rated power.
The steel core of the rotor also has a voltage induced in it, but because it is made Also, a two-phase motor will run at one-half its rated power if one phase is discon-
up of thin sheets of metal, each covered with an oxide, its resistance is quite high, nected.
which keeps the current low. Neither motor will start under these abnormal conditions.
Any current that does flow in the core causes a power loss which is called the iron As soon as the current starts to flow through the stator windings and generates the
loss in a motor. magnetic field, these fields induce current in the rotor and the magnetic field from
these current tries to lock with the rotating field of the stator.
The rotor is mounted on ball bearings and is free to turn as it follows the field. Figure 4: Location of the Field Magnets in the Stator
It was stated that the rotor tries to follow the rotating field, and it is the fact that it
is unsuccessful in following it that gives the motor its torque. If the rotor could ex-
actly follow the rotating field, the bars in the rotor would not cut across lines of flux
and there would be no voltage induced into the rotor.
But the mechanical load attached to the rotor prevents it keeping up with the rotat-
ing field, and the amount it lags behind is called the slip of the motor and is meas-
ured in percent.
The more slip, the greater the induced voltage in the rotor and the greater the
torque.
The rotating field of a 60-hertz motor with four poles (2 pairs) will turn at 1800 RPM.
Because of the slip which is usually around 4% the motor will turn at a nominal
s
speed of around 1728 RPM.
ic
Direction of Rotation
n
Figure 5:
Reversing any two of the three phase supply winding connections will lead to the
ch
stator rotating field to reverse and therefore will lead to the rotor turning in the op-
posite direction to before.
Te
Figure 3: Waveform of Three Phase Alternating Current
SR
Single - Phase Induction Motors Figure 6: Magnetic Fields in a Single Phase Induction Motor
The basic difference between the operation of a single-phase and a three-phase
induction motor is the fact that the field of a single-phase motor does not actually
rotate, and because of this, a single-phase motor is not self-starting, but must have
some form of starting circuit built into its stator.
The field windings are place on pole pieces built into the stator housing so they will
have alternate polarity during each half-cycle of the excitation AC.
For example, during one half cycle, the polarity of the field coils will be as in figure
B. These fields do not rotate, but rather pulsate.
When current begins to flow in the stator windings and the magnetic field builds
up, a voltage is induced into the bars of the rotor and the magnetic filed of the rotor
locks with the fields in the stator.
s
If the rotor is not spun by some outside force, it will only vibrate as the field mag-
netism pulsates back and forth.
ic
But if the rotor is spun, the pulsation's of the magnetic field will cause it to appear
to rotate.
n
The mechanical inertial of the heavy rotor will keep it in motion and under the in-
ch
fluence of the magnetic pole ahead of it.
It is obvious that this type of motor will run equally well in either direction, depend-
ing upon only the direction the rotor was spun to start it.
Te
All that is needed to start the rotor spinning is an alternating current that is out of
phase with the current that produces the main field, and there are two commonly
used ways of doing this.
SR
Resistive Start Induction Motors Capacitive Start Induction Motors

The resistor-start motor uses two sets of windings, each producing a magnetic Resistor-start motor do not have very much starting torque, but a relatively high
field around alternate poles in the stator. starting torque may be obtained by shifting the phase of the current in the start
One set of windings, the start windings has a much higher resistance than the windings with a capacitor which causes the current to lead the voltage.
main, or run, windings. A centrifugal switch that is operated by the rotor will open the start-winding circuit
Study of basic AC states that current in an inductive circuit lags behind the voltage and the motor will operate with only the main windings energized.
more than the current in a resistive circuit. A centrifugal switch in the capacitor circuit opens the start windings when the rotor
By having every other pole magnetized by an inductive winding and the alternate is up to about 75% of its normal speed, and the motor continues to operate with
poles magnetized by a resistive winding, a rotating field will be set up. only the main windings producing the pulsating field.
When the switch for a resistance-start motor is closed, the two sets of fields rotate
and the magnetic field from the current induced in the rotor will interact with them Figure 8:
and the rotor will follow the rotating field.
s
As soon as the rotor gets up to about 75% of its normal speed, a centrifugal switch
that is operated by the rotor will open the start-winding circuit and the motor will
ic
operate with only the main windings energized.
n
Figure 7:
ch
Te
SR
Shaded Pole Induction Motors Figure 9: Shaded Pole Induction Motor

An interesting method of obtaining a rotating field from single phase AC is used in
the shaded pole type of motor that drive many of the low torque application where
low cost is a primary concern.
These small motors use the same type of squirrel cage rotors as are used in the
larger motor, but the field is simply a stack of soft steel laminations shaped to pro-
vide an opening for the rotor and provisions for mounting the coil.
The excitation AC magnetizes the core and changes the polarity of the magnetism
twice in each cycle.
Follow the rotation of the magnetic field around the cut-out for the rotor as shown.
In view A we see the way the poles would appear if no shading coils were installed;
one side of the opening would be a north pole and the other a south pole.
s
One half cycle later the polarity would shift to that in view B.
ic
This would give a pulsating field, but not one that rotates.
In view C we see the effect of the shading coil. A loop of heavy copper is wrapped
n
around one of the corners of the rotor cut-out.
ch
As the magnetic field starts to build up, a current is induced into the shading coil
that sets up its own magnetic field, which according to Lenz's law, opposes the
field that caused it.
Te
The result is that the magnetic build-up will be delayed and the north pole will start
at the corner of the cut-out away from the shading coil. As the excitation current
reaches its peak and starts to drop off, the shading coil will generate a magnetic
field that will delay the decreases of the field in the stator field core.
SR
As a result, the north pole will move up to the corner around which the shading coil
is wrapped.
The south pole on the opposite side of the cut-out behaves in the same way.
It starts opposite the shading coil as the field builds up and, as the field dies away,
it moves down under the shading coil.
The same procedure is followed in the next half-cycle of the AC, and the resulting
rotating field, in this case, will cause the rotor to turn in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion.
Synchronous Motors-General Principles Figure 10: Synchronous Motor
Operation
A polyphase current is supplied to the stator winding of a synchronous motor and
produces a rotating magnetic field the same as in an induction motor.
A direct current is supplied to the rotor winding, thus producing a fixed polarity at
each pole.
If it could be assumed that the rotor had no inertia and that no load of any kind were
applied, then the rotor would revolve in step with the revolving field as soon as
power was applied to both of the windings.
This, however, is not he case.
The rotor has inertia, and in addition there is a load.
s
The reason a synchronous motor has to be brought up to synchronous speed by
special means, may be understood from a consideration of the figure shown.
ic
If the stator and rotor windings are energized, then as the poles of the rotating
n
magnetic field approach rotor poles of opposite polarity A, the attracting force
tends to turn the rotor in the direction opposite to that of the rotating field.
ch
As the rotor starts in this direction, the rotating field poles are leaving the rotor
poles B, and this tends to pull the rotor poles in the same direction as the rotating
Te
field.
Thus, the rotating field tends to pull the rotor poles first in one direction and then
in the other, with the result that the starting torque is zero.
SR
Starting Figure 11:

As has been explained, some type of starter must be used with the synchronous
motor to bring the rotor up to synchronous speed.
Although a small induction motor may be used to bring the rotor up to speed, this
is not generally done.
Sometimes, if direct current is available, a DC motor coupled to the rotor shaft may
be used to bring the rotor up to synchronous speed.
After synchronous speed is attained, the DC motor is converted to operate as a
generator to supply the necessary direct current to the rotor of the synchronous
motor.
In general, however, another method is used to start the synchronous motor.
A cage-rotor winding is placed on the rotor of the synchronous motor to make the
s
machine self-starting as an induction motor.
ic
At start, the DC rotor field is de-energized and a reduced polyphase voltage ap-
plied to the stator windings.
n
Thus, the motor starts as an induction motor and comes up to a speed which is
ch
slightly less than synchronous speed.
The rotor is then excited from the DC supply (generally a DC generator mounted
on the shaft) and the field rheostat adjusted for minimum line current.
Te
If the armature has the correct polarity at the instant synchronization is reached,
the stator current will decrease when the excitation voltage is applied.
This is a transient condition, and if the excitation voltage is increased further the
motor will slip a pole and then come into step with the revolving field of the stator.
SR
If the rotor DC field winding of the synchronous machine is open when the stator
is energized, a high AC voltage will be induced in it because the rotating field
sweeps through the large number of turns at synchronous speed.
It is therefore necessary to connect a resistor of low resistance across the rotor DC
field winding is disconnected from the source and the resistor is connected across
the field terminals.
This permits alternating current flow in the DC field winding.
Because the impedance of this winding is high compared with the inserted external
resistance, the internal voltage drop limits the terminal voltage to a safe value.
Training Manual
Study Questions
3.1 Electron Theory 4. What is a molecule?
Answer:
1. What is an element?
Answer:
s
5. What is an ion?
ic
Answer:
2. What is a compound?
n
Answer:
ch
Te
6. How many electrons can take place in the valence shell?
3. Which are the parts of an atom? Answer:

SR
Answer:
7. Which parts of the atom belong to the nucleus?
Answer:
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 3.Study Questions - 1
Training Manual
8. Which forces are holding an electron in balance? 3.3 Electrical Terminology

Answer:
11. Which is the direction of the electron flow?
Answer:
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

12. Which is the direction of the conventional flow?
9. The Coulomb's law states:
Answer:
s
Answer:
n ic
ch
13. What is the definition of electromotive force?
10. What is the term for electrostatic charging by friction?
Te
Answer:
Answer:
SR
14. How much is 1 Ampere (in Coulomb)?
Answer:
Training Manual
15. What is the unit of EMF? 19. Which materials are used to produce piezoelectricity?
Answer: Answer:
16. Which factors will affect the resistance value? 20. Which are, in aviation, the most used thermocouples materials?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
17. There is a current of 40 mA in a lamp for 16 s. Calculate the quantity of charge 21. What kinds of compounds are used to produce a photoelectric voltage?
ch
that passes any point in the circuit in this time. Answer:
Te
Answer:
SR
22. Which electrolyte is used in a lead acid battery?
Answer:
18. Which are the common methods to produce EMF?
Answer:
Training Manual
23. What is the most used method to produce electrical power? 27. The cell capacity depends on?
Answer: Answer:
28. What will be increased if cells are connected in parallel?

3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
Answer:
24. Which are the differences between primary and secondary cells?
s
Answer:
n ic
29. What will be increased if cells are connected in series?
ch
Answer:
25. Which is the nominal voltage of a lead acid cell?
Te
Answer:
SR
30. On which AC systems are thermocouples used?
Answer:
26. Which is the nominal voltage of a nickel cadmium cell?
Answer:
Training Manual
31. What is the electrolyte in a nickel cadmium cell? 35. How can a thermal runaway be prevented?
Answer: Answer:
32. On which battery is the relative density a state of charge indication? 36. Which is the operation time of an emergency battery?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
33. What is the meaning of thermal runaway? 37. A 30 AH battery will be discharge in 50 minutes. Which is the capacity of the
ch
Answer: battery?
Te
Answer:
SR
34. Which causes can produce a thermal runaway?
Answer: 38. Which tool is used to measure the relative density of the electrolyte?
Answer:
Training Manual
3.6 DC Circuits 3.7 Resistance/Resistor

39. What is the definition of resistance? 42. What is the unit of resistance?
Answer: Answer:
40. What states Kirchoff's first law? 43. Which are the differences between carbon and wire wound resistors?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
ch
41. What states Kirchoff's second law? 44. The size of the resistor depends on?
Te
Answer: Answer:
SR
45. How can the value of a carbon resistor be determined?
Answer:
Training Manual
46. If resistances are connected in parallel, what will be the total resistance val- 50. How many fix resistance values are used in a Wheatstone bridge?
ue? Answer:
Answer:
51. R1=500 Ω, R2=750 Ω, R3=1k Ω, R4=1.5k Ω, R5=1k Ω, RT=?

47. How can the total resistance value be calculated if they are connected in se-
ries?
s
Answer:
n ic
ch
48. What is the task of the rheostat?
Te
Answer:
Answer:
SR
49. What is the task of the potentiometer?
Answer:
Training Manual
52. All resistances are 3 Ω. RT=? 54. Calculate the unknown value R in the following circuit.
Answer:
s
ic
Answer:
n
ch
53. Calculate the unknown value R in the following circuit.
Te
3.8 Power
SR 55. What is the definition of work?
Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
56. What is the definition of power? 60. I = 5 A; R = 10 Ohm P=?
Answer: Answer:
57. What is the unit of power? 61. U = 100 V; 10 Ohm P=?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
58. Which are, for convenience, the 2 categories of energy?
ch
3.9 Capacitance/Capacitor
Answer:
62. What is the unit of capacitance?
Te
Answer:
SR
59. U = 10 V; I = 20 A P=?
63. Which factors will affect the capacitance?
Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
64. How can the total capacitance value be calculated if capacitors are connected 68. Calculate the total capacitance of the following circuits. C1=470pF C2=820pF
in parallel?
56 nF
Answer:
3.3 PF 180 nF
470 pF 3.3 PF 390 nF

65. How can the total capacitance value be calculated if capacitors are connected
in series?
820 pF 3.3 PF 220 nF
s
Answer:
n ic
Answer:
ch
69. C1, C2 & C3 = 3.3 µF
66. Which will be the voltage of a fully charge capacitor?
Te
56 nF
Answer:
SR
3.3 PF 180 nF
470 pF 3.3 PF 390 nF

67. Do the capacitors plates have the same charge?
Answer:
820 pF 3.3 PF 220 nF
Answer:
Training Manual
70. C1=220nF C2=390nF C3=180nF C4=56nF 72. Which will be (percentage) the charge of a capacitor after a time constant of
1?
56 nF
Answer:
3.3 PF 180 nF
470 pF 3.3 PF 390 nF
3.10 Magnetism
820 pF 3.3 PF 220 nF
s
73. Which elements are ferromagnetic?
ic
Answer:
n
Answer:
ch
71. Calculate the total capacitance in the following circuit.
Te
74. Explain the term paramagnetic.
Answer:
SR
75. Explain the term diamagnetic.
Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
76. Will a current flow produce a magnetic field? 80. What term is used when materials easily accept line of forces?
Answer: Answer:
77. How can the strength of the magnetic field in an electromagnet be increased? 81. How is the opposite of permeability called?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
78. How is the ability to retain magnetism called? 82. Which factors determine the magnitude of an induced voltage?
ch
Answer: Answer:
Te
SR
79. What is flux?
Answer: 83. Name the magnetic or electromagnetic applications.
Answer:
Training Manual
84. What can be done to provide a low resistance path for voltages producing in- 88. Which is the polarity of the induced voltage?
terferences to ground? Answer:
Answer:
89. What is the difference between Series Aiding and Series Opposing in the mu-
85. What is the characteristic of soft iron? tual inductance?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
ch
90. Which factors determine the magnitude of an induced voltage?
Te
Answer:
86. What is induction?
Answer:
SR
91. Which are the laws of electromagnetic induction?
87. At how many degrees will a maximum induction be produced?
Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
92. What is the unit of inductance? 96. How is the mechanical rectifying device in a generator called?
Answer: Answer:
93. How to calculate the total inductance when connected in series? 97. Which are the 3 generator classifications?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
94. How to calculate the total inductance when connected in parallel? 98. Sparking at the brushes will produce interferences in the reception of audio
ch
Answer: signals. How can the interferences be eliminated?
Te
Answer:
SR
3.12 DC Motor/Generator Theory 99. What is a motor?
95. What is a generator? Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
100.How are motors usually rated? 104.How is the time, required to produce one complete cycle, called?
Answer: Answer:
101.What is a Net EMF? 105.What is frequency?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
102.Which are the characteristic of a compound wound DC motor? 106.What is the unit of frequency?
ch
Answer: Answer:
Te
SR
107.What is the Peak value?
3.13 AC Theory
Answer:
103.How is the waveform of the voltage in an AC circuit called?
Answer:
Training Manual
108.What is the Peak to Peak value? 112.Name the advantages of a three phase system?
Answer: Answer:
109.What is the RMS value?
Answer:
s
113.Which is the phase shifting of a three phase system?
ic
Answer:
n
110.What is the Average value?
ch
Answer: 114.What is the advantage of a four wire star connection?
Te
Answer:
SR
111.Name all types of Waveforms.
Answer: 115.An aircraft has a line to line voltage of 300 volts. What is the phase voltage?
Answer:
Training Manual
3.14 RLC Circuit 119.The higher the frequency, the higher the current and there-
fore…….....................................…….the capacitive reactance.
116.Calculate the power in the following circuit.
Answer:
120.Explain the term CIVIL.

Answer:
Answer:
s
117.Calculate the reactive power in the following circuit.
n ic
ch
121.Calculate the reactance and impedance of the following circuit.
Te
Answer: SR
118.Calculate the power factor if the apparent power is 169.265 VA and the true
power is 119.365 W
Answer: Answer:
Training Manual
122.Calculate the reactance Xc of the capacitor and the impedance of the circuit. 3.15 Transformers
124.How are the primary and secondary winding of a transformer linked together?
Answer:
125.A step up transformer with a turn radio of 12 has a primary voltage of 115V.
Answer: What is the secondary voltage?
s
ic
Answer:
n
123.Calculate the resonance frequency.
ch
Te
126.Using the same step up transformer, if the primary current is 2 Ampere, what
is the secondary power?
Answer:
SR
Answer:
Training Manual
127.How to reduce the eddy current in a transformer? 131.A Low Pass filter consists of?
Answer: Answer:
128.What happen if a transformer is used at a lower frequency (below efficiency). 132.A High Pass filter consists of?
Answer: Answer:
s
n ic
129.Where are autotransformers in A/C used? 133.What is a typical application of a filter?
ch
Answer: Answer:
Te
SR
3.16 Filters 3.17 AC Generators
130.What is the cut off frequency? 134.Which factors will affect the amount of voltage induced in a conductor?
Answer: Answer:
Training Manual
135.How is the process of converting AC to DC called? 139.In a three phase motor with 90kVA, a phase will be disconnected after start.
Answer: What will be the actual rated power?
Answer:
136.Which are the advantages of the brushless alternator?
Answer: 140.Which types of AC motors are not self-starting?
Answer:
s
n ic
ch
3.18 AC Motors
137.How can the rotation speed of an AC motor be calculated?
Te
Answer:
SR
138.Name the two types of AC motors (used in aircraft systems).
Answer:

3AB1B2 Print May16 X

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

3AB1B2 Print May16 X

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Basic Maintenance Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals

Training Manual Contents

3.1 Electron Theory Voltage Produced by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.7 Resistance/Resistor 3.10 Magnetism

Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Generator Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1 Electron Theory

Figure 1: Periodic Table of the Elements

BOHR Model of the Atom

The Difference between Elements Figure 5: Carbon

The Balanced Atom

3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

This is called the force of attraction an electrostatic force.

Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 2:

Quite simply, Coulomb's Law states:

1. Like charges repel.

2. Unlike charges attract.

Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 4:

F = the force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of repulsion

3.3 Electrical Terminology

Potential Difference Figure 1:

Electromotive Force Figure 4:

The main sources of EMF are:

1. when electrodes of dissimilar materials are immersed in an electrolyte, as in

Factors Affecting Resistance Figure 7:

Cross sectional Area

mils = 1/1000 inch

The letter G is used to represent conductance, so the equation can be written:

Conventional Current Flow

3.4 Generation of Electricity

Primary Methods of Generation Voltage Produced by Friction

Voltage Produced by Pressure Figure 4:

Voltage Produced by Heat Figure 6: Thermocouples

Voltage Produced by Light Figure 7:

Magnetism and Motion Figure 9:

3.5 DC Sources of Electricity

Introduction Figure 1: Electrical Cell

Primary Cell Figure 3: Secondary Cell

Electrical Output of a Cell Cells - Series and Parallel

Photocells Figure 9: Photocell

Lead Acid Cell Voltage:

Summary Figure 10:

Alkaline Cells Electrolyte

Separator Charged State

Nickel Cadmium Battery Figure 13:

Construction of Ni/Cd Battery

Emergency Lighting Batteries Capacity Test

Capacity Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas

ACTUAL(Ah) 100 Hydrogen Gas

Electrical Hazard Handling Battery Acid

Fire and Explosion Precautions

Ohms Law Figure 1:

Perform the following calculations: Figure 4:

Kirchoff's Laws Kirchoff's Second Law (Voltage Law)

Internal Resistance of a Supply Figure 8:

The voltage "lost" in the cell is E - VR.

V2 = 20Vdc, R2 is in series with V2, R2 is 20 ohms,

R3 is in series with both R1 and R2 and its value is 40ohms.

Consider the following circuit in which a current of 10 amperes flows in a resist-

Examples of Multiples and Sub-multiples commonly used

Putting them all together the resistance is given by

Resistor Types Power Rating of Resistors

Resistor Colour Code Figure 8:

Total Resistance in a Circuit V = I x RT (3)