Original Paper
Landslides Srahyrlandy Rocio Díaz I Edel Cadena I Salvador Adame I Norma Dávila
DOI 10.1007/s10346-019-01285-6
Received: 5 February 2019
Accepted: 13 September 2019 Landslides in Mexico: their occurrence and social im-
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany
part of Springer Nature 2019
pact since 1935
Abstract Landslide inventories are extremely important. They are
vital for hazard analyses. This article presents an inventory of
landslides in Mexico from 1935 to 2017. Although landslide mon-
itoring studies exist in specific areas of the country, so far, no
historical catalog has been published that provides a basis for
spatial-temporal analysis and determining impact in terms of the
loss of human lives. The reported events were categorized as the
following types of displacements: fall, landslide, and complex
movement and flow; data were standardized and stored using
SPSS software. In addition, estimates were produced to ascertain
the number of people who may have been affected by landslides in
2019 based on their relationship with marginalization levels at the
national level, as elaborated by the National Population Council
(CONAPO). Marginalization degrees represent the exclusion of a
population from development through socioeconomic inequalities
that manifest themselves as low income and the lack of education,
health, infrastructure, and access to basic services. It was found
that localities with high and very high marginalization levels ac-
count for almost half of the landslides over 82 years. This study
reveals new findings in terms of the spatial distribution of events
and the affected populations that are considered a valuable con-
tribution to the study of landslides in Mexico.
Keywords Landslides . Inventory . Risk . Historicity .
Population
Introduction
It is common to hear the phrase, BThose who do not know their
history are condemned to repeat it.^ Indeed, being aware of the
historicity of natural events is fundamental not only to date such
events but also to determine their causes and effects. It is a first
step in the estimation of recurrence, that is, the possibility of the
events occurring again under similar conditions, as well as the
localization of areas with high risk of disaster. The Hyogo Frame-
work for Action for disaster risk reduction of the United Nations
(UN 2005) identifies the development and improvement of rele-
vant databases as a key priority for the capacity building of
developing countries (Taylor et al. 2015).
There are research initiatives that have made notable efforts to
produce global and national landslide inventories using different
techniques that range from the consultation of news items to the
identification of displaced areas using geographic information
systems (GIS) (Damm and Klose 2015; Devoli et al. 2007a; Devoli
et al. 2007b; Kirschbaum et al. 2010; Kirschbaum et al. 2015; Klose
et al. 2016; Korup 2005; Nadim et al. 2006; Palenzuela et al. 2015;
Pennington et al. 2015; Taylor et al. 2015; Trigila et al. 2010).
However, most inventories are made for specific areas, and few
countries have developed initiatives at the national scale
(Kirschbaum et al. 2010).
Mexico is a country with unique topographic, climatic, hydro-
logical, and orographic characteristics that, owing to its location
on tectonic plates in constant movement, frequently presents
seismic and volcanic activity. Two-thirds of the country is consti-
tuted by mountainous systems where geological, geomorphologi-
cal, structural, and climatic factors combine to define geologically
unstable zones (Morales Domínguez et al. 2016). It is a country
with high exposure to the occurrence of landslides with disastrous
effects for society. According to Mexico’s National Center for
Prevention of Disasters (CENAPRED), there have been more than
75 disasters of significant magnitude over the last 20 years that
have caused approximately 7000 deaths and tens of thousands of
victims (Bitrán Bitrán 2001). These events usually take place in
mountainous areas with the presence of human settlements, where
the occurrence of heavy rainfall plays an important role in their
occurrence. According to Bitrán Bitrán (2001), in Mexico, geolog-
ical events have caused the deaths of between 6000 and 6500
people from 1980 to 1999, approximately 500 people per year.
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to offer an overview of
the magnitude, location, and impact of landslides in Mexico, as
well as the population that could be affected in the future. To
achieve this, an inventory of events from 1935 to 2017 is presented
as a result of the review of reports from different free-access digital
databases, agencies, and other sources, as well as the determina-
tion of the municipalities with the highest frequency, and the social
impact this entails. The present analysis provides decision-making
governmental authorities with information to accurately allocate
the necessary resources for disaster risk management in the most
affected regions; furthermore, it also presents essential data for the
construction of risk scenarios and for studies by the scientific
community.
Methods
The construction of the inventory is presented in 2 phases: (i)
consultation and collection of landslide records and (ii) standard-
ization and construction of the inventory. Subsequently, an anal-
ysis of the information was carried out to estimate the affected
population in 2019 as well as the spatial distribution of the land-
slides at the national scale for the entire period.
Information gathering
The collection of historical records of landslides was carried out
based on the consultation of different free-access digital databases,
agencies, and other sources for events that took place at the global,
continental, and national levels. At the global level, various data-
bases that compile landslides are presented. Although they repre-
sent a valuable contribution to the recognition of landslides, they
are not complete (Van Den Eeckhaut et al. 2012).
Regarding Mexico’s generalities and global rank in the occur-
rence of landslides, the Global Landslide Catalog by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was consulted
(NASA 2015). In addition, the records reported since 1900 by the
International Disaster Database (EM-DAT) developed by the Cen-
ter for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) (Guha-
Landslides
 Original Paper
Sapir n.d.) were taken into account (Table 1). This database offers
the possibility of consulting their causes, dates, casualties, eco-
nomic losses, graphs with trends of occurrence by type of event,
and maps with their worldwide distribution. However, it only
reports events with more than 10 casualties, thereby excluding
most small-scale events (Van Den Eeckhaut et al. 2012).
At the regional level, the Disaster Effects Inventory System
(DESINVENTAR) (Corporación OSSO 2016) was consulted
(Table 1); it presents a database with events as of 1970 with
information taken from newspaper sources that contain data on
dates, causes, number of lives lost, economic losses, and damage to
infrastructure. Inquiries can be carried out by country with filters
for municipality or state, providing optimal volumes of informa-
tion to ascertain the recurrence of disasters according to the type
of phenomenon.
The publications Diagnosis of Dangers and Identification of
Disaster Risks in Mexico and Mexican Continuity Record of the
20th Century, newspapers, and CENAPRED were consulted. The
last is dedicated to the collection and preparation of statistical
information about natural hazards contributed by different related
institutions. The collection of historical events is recorded up to
the year 2000 (Ordaz and Zeballos 2007). CENAPRED also in-
cludes research data that present historical information on events
caused by triggering factors such as rain and earthquakes applied
to some areas in Mexico (Alcántara-Ayala 2004; Alcántara-Ayala
and García 2008; Jaimes et al. 2010). In addition, 659 records at the
national level were included that were compiled by the National
Institute of Statistics and Geography of Mexico (INEGI) and can
be consulted in the Digital Map of Mexico (INEGI 2016a) (Table 1).
It should be noted that in Mexico, up to two decades ago, the
information and preparation of a national landslide inventory was
not of interest (Jaimes et al. 2010). The consolidation of civil
protection actions and documentation of disasters began with
the 1985 earthquake, which had a large effect on Mexico City; thus
far, this disaster remains the most documented (Ordaz and
Zeballos 2007). According to Alcántara-Ayala (2004), by 2004,
there was not a complete database of records of landslides at the
national level. Currently, this claim remains, as there is no coor-
dination among entities to compile information that is duplicated
or missing, which is the work done in this research.
Standardization of data and construction of the inventory
The construction of the inventory required a thorough review of
various databases, from those at the global scale to regional and
local ones; since their scale varies, they present varying degrees of
accuracy in the information on the reported events. Because of
Table 1 Some sources consulted
Sources Number of landslides Period
Jaimes et al. 2010 4 1935–2010
EM-DAT 35 1941–2017
Alcántara-Ayala 2008 4 1956–1999
DESINVENTAR 2236 1970–2013
INEGI 659 2004–2011
Global Landslide Catalog 59 2007–2013
Landslides
this, duplicate events were suppressed, as the global inventories
only report the deadliest events, some of which are also described
in local inventories; in this way, the presentation of repeated
events was prevented.
It is worth mentioning that inventories describe the location of
landslides by using the names of the places where they occurred;
the events are not georeferenced with x,y coordinates, with the
exception of a few cases documented in the Global Landslide
Catalog and INEGI. Owing to this, the homogenization of data in
spatial terms was carried out by defining the name of the place as
well as the municipality in which the locality is found.
Once the data were obtained, the database entries were stan-
dardized; special attention was directed to correct spelling errors
and avoid duplicate information. The following fields were defined
for the conformation of the database to homogenize the records
and group them in a single database: entity code (state), munici-
pality code, type, trigger, deaths, latitude, longitude, date, year, and
month.
The homogenization of the database was carried out by
adopting general typologies described in the inventories for
the fields described previously. It is common to find that inven-
tories present the same information, though with different ter-
minology; an instance of this is the reference to the triggering
factor as rainfall or precipitation. Owing to this, categories were
established for each field in such a manner that according to the
information level contained in the inventory, it may be included
in an encompassing category. For example, for the triggering
factor, descriptions such as tropical storm and hurricane were
found; these were grouped into a single category: tropical
cyclone.
The information in the field BType^ was reclassified using the
following categories according to the EPOCH classification
(EPOCH 1993): landslide, fall, flow, and complex movement. In
addition, debris flow and avalanche categories, documented in
some records, were preserved because they have specific charac-
teristics and are terms commonly used in Latin America. In the
field BTrigger,^ the categories were precipitation, earthquake, trop-
ical cyclone, unknown, and anthropogenic activities. In the last
section, all the reported actions by humans are grouped as causes
of landslides (e.g., inadequate construction, location, negligence,
and explosions). The BEntity Code^ and BMunicipality Code^
fields refer to the numerical codes for all the states and munici-
palities of the Mexican Republic according to the National Insti-
tute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) (2016b). Each of these
fields presents its label with the name of the state and the munic-
ipality where the landslide occurred.
Estimation of the affected population
Technical and scientific reports rarely describe the type and
magnitude of the damage as well as the consequences for soci-
ety (Devoli et al. 2007a). However, social impact is a crucial
element for the development and implementation of preventive
measures since risk is a social construction, and the larger the
population located in unsuitable zones is, the higher the risk
level. For this reason, the frequency and distribution of land-
slide data were analyzed to identify the localities and the pop-
ulation affected by landslide occurrence to ascertain, at the state
and municipal levels, the percentage of population potentially at
risk in 2019.
 On the other hand, the layer for landslide distribution and frequen- municipality to which the locality belongs was adopted for that
cy developed by the Socioeconimic Data and Applications Center- particular locality. Later, the affected population was estimated for
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (SEDAC-NASA) the year 2019 by calculating the AAGR as follows:
(CHRR et al. 2005; Dilley et al. 2005) was used as an input for the
spatial distribution of events. This layer contains data on the area of 1) AAGR = ((Cf/Ci(1+t)− 1) × 100
the Mexican territory with levels of the occurrence of events, which
were validated by superimposing the inventory records (Fig. 1).
To obtain the population data, localities in areas with a high where Cf = population of the final year (2015); Ci = population
concentration of landslides were selected by localization in GIS. of the initial year (2010); and t = time in years. In this case, there is
When the locations with a high occurrence of events were obtain- only information from the 2010 census and a national inter-censal
ed, they were associated with the most recent population data, sample in INEGI 2015, and the estimate was produced as a func-
which in this case corresponds to the 2010 census (INEGI 2010). tion of the increment in 5 years from 2010 to 2015 to later estimate
This information was useful to estimate the affected populations the population for the following years (Table 2).
by municipality for 2019. This process was carried out in two steps: The estimates of the following years were calculated by apply-
(i) completing the population data in localities without records ing the AAGR from 2016 as follows:
and (ii) estimating the affected population for the year 2019 using
the average annual growth rate (AAGR). 2) Pop2016 = Pop2015 × (1+(AAGR/100)
To perform the estimation, it was necessary to complete the 3) Pop2017 = Pop2016 × (1+(AAGR/100)
population data in a locality (i.e., a formal subdivision of a mu- 4) Pop2018 = Pop2017 × (1+(AAGR/100)
nicipality) without information. The average population of the 5) Pop2019 = Pop2019 × (1+(AAGR/100)

Fig. 1 Areas with the highest concentrations of landslides nationwide based on CHRR et al. (2005) and the distribution of events collected in the inventories. a The areas
of the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas are presented in greater detail, as they present landslide concentrations. b Locations of concentrated events in localities in
the state of Guerrero. c Localities with a high occurrence of landslides in the state of Oaxaca. d Distribution of events in the southern state of Chiapas

Landslides
 Original Paper
Table 2 Examples of estimations for years without population data by applying the AAGR
State Municipality Population Population AAGR Pop Pop Pop Pop
2010 2015 2010–2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Oaxaca San Miguel 2274 2097 – 1.61 2063 2030 1997 1965
Chicahua
Guerrero Coahuayutla de 13,025 12,725 – 0.46 12,666 12,607 12,548 12,490
José María
Izazaga
Chiapas Amatán 21,275 19,348 – 1.88 18,984 18,627 18,277 17,933
Puebla Zapotitlán 8220 8495 0.66 8551 8608 8664 8722
Michoacán Arteaga 21,790 22,138 0.32 22,208 22,279 22,349 22,420

Example improve susceptibility cartography since it emphasizes the distri-

To obtain those affected by municipality, the population data of
the localities where the landslides occurred were added, and the
percentage was calculated by adding the number of people affected
by locality and considering the total population of the municipal-
ity to which they belong (Table 3).
The estimation of the affected population was made taking the
2010 census information and the 2015 inter-censal sample as a
basis. The data were considered reliable despite their age since
these are the only population data available, and thus far, no
evidence of significant changes in population trends was found
for the 2010–2019 period. Mitigation measures can reduce the
exposed population, but there are no data that give an account
of this; it may be assumed that these measures are virtually absent
in many places, as there have been insufficient resources dedicated
for the prevention and reduction of both the vulnerability and the
exposure of the population (Rodríguez 2018). Attention has been
paid to the response to emergencies but not to disaster prevention
(Alcántara-Ayala et al. 2019) since the municipal governments in
these places lack the resources for this.
Results
Doubtlessly, disasters represent an interruption in the improve-
ment of a region. Their occurrence means a catastrophe in social,
environmental, political, and economic terms. The recording of
natural events is fundamental in the analysis of risk because it
allows the identification of their tendency to ascertain their return
periods or recurrence for a determined period of time and space.
Hence, it is possible to estimate when and where similar events will
occur. An inventory of landslides is an essential initial step to
bution, types, and patterns of past events (Gaidzik et al. 2017).
Landslides worldwide
According to EM-DAT figures worldwide, the number of land-
slides is on the rise. In 1978, landslide events were frequent; nearly
150 events were registered. In 1990, landslide occurrence doubled
with 300 events of different types. Meanwhile, almost 550 events
were reported in the early 2000s (Fig. 2). It should be noted that
this database records events with more than 10 casualties, 100 or
more people affected, or that resulted in a declaration of a state of
emergency or call for international assistance (Kirschbaum et al.
2015).
Landslides in Mexico
From 1935 to 2017, 2997 events were registered in Mexico, of which
1967 were landslides, 625 were flows, 384 were debris flows, 15 were
rock falls, 2 were avalanches, and 2 were complex movements (Fig.
3a). Among the causes, it is emphasized that 93% of these events
were triggered by hydrometeorological factors such as rainfall,
storms, and cyclones and 2% by earthquakes, while 4% did not
present data on the causes (Fig. 3b), one event was caused by
volcanic activity and seven events were due to faults.
The annual occurrence of landslides shown in Fig. 4 exhibits an
increasing trend since 1999. However, in 2007, there was a signif-
icant increase in the number of events (i.e., over 100 landslides
annually). The year 2010 was the most critical with more than 900
events; since 2007, at least 100 landslides have occurred every year
(Fig. 4).

Table 3 Examples of the estimated population affected by municipality in 2019

State Municipality Affected population Estimated total population Percentage of affected
2019 2019 population
Oaxaca San Miguel Chicahua 1345 1965 68.45
Guerrero Coahuayutla de José 6677 12,490 53.46
María
Chiapas Amatán 7534 17,933 42.01
Puebla Zapotitlán 933 8722 10.7
Michoacán Arteaga 1843 22,420 8.22

Landslides
Fig. 2 Worldwide annual occurrence of landslides (source: EM-DAT database (www.emdat.be))

Geographically, landslides are located along the Mexican
mountain system, which covers the Sierra (the Spanish word
for mountain range) of Baja California, Sierra Madre Oriental,
Sierra Madre Occidental, and Sierra Madre Sur, as well as the
coasts of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. There is a higher
concentration in the central part of the country along the
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the
south, as well as in the border area with Guatemala (Fig. 5).
Nearly half of the localities that register landslides are located at
altitudes ranging from 1000 to 2500 m above sea level.
A higher concentration is noticed in the center of the coun-
try; in the states of Hidalgo, Mexico, Puebla, and Tlaxcala; and
in the central region of Veracruz along its border with Puebla
and northern Mexico City. It is likely that this concentration is
related to population density since these are the states with the
heaviest infrastructure development in the country. However,
the state of Chiapas has the highest occurrence of events, but
these events are repeated in specific places, so high concentra-
tions are not visualized over large areas (Fig. 5).
The states with more than 100 events since 1935 are Chiapas,
Oaxaca, Veracruz, Michoacán, Puebla, Jalisco, Sonora, Yucatan,
Hidalgo, and Mexico (Table 4, Fig. 6). At the municipal level, 357
events occurred in the municipality of Amáten, followed by the
Ángel Albino Corzo municipality with 168 events, both in the state
of Chiapas. Altamirano in Chiapas had 45 events; in Michoacán,
the municipality of Aguilillas, registered a total of 39 events; Atil in
Sonora had 23 events, followed by Ensenada in Baja California
with 22 events. These last two stand out, as they belong to states
that have not been associated with the occurrence of landslides
(Table 5).
The monthly analysis of landslide occurrence reveals that
most events occur during the rainy season, which extends from

Fig. 3 Occurrence of landslides and their triggers in Mexico from 1935 to 2017. a Events according to type of movement. b Causes or triggers of landslides

Landslides
 Original Paper

Fig. 4 Temporal distribution of landslides in Mexico

May to October; this suggests that the main trigger is rainfall. & Landslides and mudflows in Acapulco and different zones of
According to the historic database of the deadliest events, they the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero in 1997 caused by Hurricane
have been caused by phenomena such as hurricanes and trop- Pauline (Alcántara-Ayala and Echavarría 2014), 247 people died
ical storms (Table 6). Some examples are as follows: (Alcántara-Ayala 2008).

Fig. 5 Spatial distribution of landslides in Mexico and altitude in the period from 1935 to 2017

Landslides
Table 4 Number of landslides by state in Mexico during 1935–2017 (Kirschbaum et al. 2010; Corporación OSSO 2016; INEGI 2016a)
State Number of events State Number of events State Number of events
Chiapas 726 Tlaxcala 85 Campeche 19
Oaxaca 353 Chihuahua 62 Coahuila 18
Veracruz 260 Nuevo Leon 52 Durango 17
Michoacán 194 Tamaulipas 51 Morelos 16
Puebla 173 San Luis Potosi 44 Queretaro 16
Jalisco 156 Sinaloa 36 Colima 14
Sonora 127 Zacatecas 30 Nayarit 13
Yucatan 116 Tabasco 28 Aguascalientes 10
Hidalgo 110 Baja California 26 Quintana Roo 10
Mexico 100 Guanajuato 23 Baja California Sur 2
Guerrero 85 Distrito Federal (Mexico City) 22

& Flow in Amatán, Chiapas where 16 people died due to the
passage of tropical storm Matthew in September 2010.
& Hurricane Manuel in September 2013 brought heavy rain that
triggered mudflows and landslides in La Pintada, Guerrero,
where 71 people lost their lives.
& In 2016, 32 people died due to landslides caused by heavy rain
after tropical storm Earl hit the state of Puebla (CNN 2016).
Another cause of landslides is earthquakes. Recently, several
earthquakes occurred in the central and southern regions of the
State of Mexico (El Universal 2017). The highest intensity was
registered on September 7, 2017, with a magnitude of 8.1 (SSN-
UNAM 2017a). The epicenter occurred in a rural, mountainous
area with a high potential for landslide occurrence. Thus, there
were events on the roads of the state of Oaxaca (Televisa 2017)

Fig. 6 Evidence of some of the deadliest landslides in Mexico (Table 6). a Landslide in Minantitlán, Colima, 1959 (source: Padilla 2006); b Landslide in Angangueo,
Michoacán, 2010 (source: El Universal 2010); c Landslide in La Pintada, Guerrero, 2013 (source: Alcántara-Ayala and Echavarría 2014); d Landslide in Teziutlán, Puebla,
1999 (source: Alcántara-Ayala and Echavarría 2014)

Landslides
 Original Paper
Table 5 Municipalities with more than ten landslides (Kirschbaum et al. 2010; Corporación OSSO 2016; INEGI 2016a)
Municipality Number of Municipality Number of Municipality Number of
events events events
Amatán 357 Atil 23 Buenavista 13
Angel Albino Corzo 168 Ensenada 22 Amaxac de 13
Guerrero
Altamirano 45 Arteaga 22 Almoloya 12
Acuamanala de Miguel 40 Chemax 21 Cotija 11
Hidalgo
Aguilillas 39 Dzilam de Bravo 19 Acatlán 11
Aconchi 39 Atitalaquia 17 Bejucal de 10
Ocampo
Álvaro Obregón 38 Acaxochitlán 16 Balancán 10
Chahuites 30 Amatenango de la 14 Dzilam González 10
Frontera
Tapachula 28 Atemajac de Brizuela 13

and surrounding areas. The 7.1-magnitude earthquake on Sep-
tember 19th caused damage to the southern routes of the State
of Mexico (SSN-UNAM 2017b) with significant human and eco-
nomic losses in the states of Mexico and Morelos and mainly in
Mexico City, which were declared in a state of emergency
(Jefatura de Gobierno de la Ciudad de México 2017).
Social impact
According to reports, over 82 years, 3447 people died due to the
occurrence of some types of landslide. The events that triggered
the greatest loss of lives were the landslide on October 1, 1956, in
La Paz, Baja California, with 1000 casualties; the landslide in
Minatitlán, Colima, with 871 casualties on October 27, 1959; the
landslide on October 11, 1999, in Coyutla, Veracruz, with 800
casualties; and the landslide in Teziuitlán, Puebla, on October 4
of the same year, in which 263 people lost their lives (see
Table 6). Although the affected and deceased people in some
reports are attributed to landslides, a gap in this information is
noticeable since only 22% of the records in the database register
this type of data. For this reason and due to the importance of
having up-to-date information useful for decision-making, it is
vital to estimate the number of people who live at risk of future
landslides at the state and municipal levels based on the heavy
concentration of past events in these areas.
According to estimates, at the national level in 2019, 1,405,978
people in 21 states may be affected by landslides. The states of
Chiapas, Jalisco, Veracruz, Michoacán, Guerrero, and Oaxaca ex-
hibit the highest number of possible affected people, where almost
4 out of 5 people (i.e., 81.95%) can suffer some kind of damage.
Chiapas leads the list with a little less than half of the total
population, followed by the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca
(Table 7).
Table 7 also shows that the states of Chiapas, Guerrero, and
Oaxaca occupy the first three places for the Baffected
population^ ranking, and in the Baffected population for every
10,000 inhabitants,^ Veracruz occupies the first position, Chia-
pas the second, and Nayarit the third position. On the other
hand, the states of Tlaxcala and Durango rose the most in the
classification of Baffected population per 10,000 inhabitants^
after Nayarit; that is, the proportion of their population affected
increased.
At the municipal level, 995 out of 2454 municipalities experi-
enced these events. In only 23 municipalities, one out of five
inhabitants may suffer some damage, that is, 20% of the total
of the possibly affected population. The municipalities with the
largest numbers of affected people are as follows from highest to
lowest: Del Nayar, in the state of Nayarit, with 23,425 people. The
municipality of Motozintla holds the second place with 21,778
people in this condition. San Juan Cancuc in Chiapas is ranked
3rd with 19,850 inhabitants at risk (Table 8). It is worth mention-
ing that 8 of the 10 municipalities with the largest number of
people exposed to a landslide belong to the state of Chiapas.
In terms of social impact due to landslides, it is important to
note that despite the municipality of Del Nayar having the highest
affected population, it is not located in a region to which attention
is usually directed. The areas of Puebla, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Vera-
cruz, and Chiapas receive significant help because of the occur-
rence of large-magnitude events in terms of size and damage.
However, currently, the state of Nayarit is not part of the list of
most commonly affected states. This may be because the events do
not occur in the same places, have a lower magnitude, and/or are
poorly registered.
The highest number of deaths due to landslide disasters has
been recorded in the municipalities of Teziutlan in the state of
Puebla and Atoyac de Alvarez in the state of Guerrero. It is noted
that among the 10 municipalities with the highest number of
deaths, three are located in the state of Chiapas (Table 9); however,
the rank changes when the loss of human lives per 10,000 inhab-
itants is considered. Table 10 shows the ranking for the munici-
palities with the highest number of annual deaths per 10,000
inhabitants. It was found that 3 of the 10 municipalities with the
highest number of deaths and with the highest number of annual
deaths per 10,000 inhabitants belong to the state of Puebla (i.e.,
Teziutlan, Eloxochitlan, and Tlaola). Meanwhile, the municipality

Landslides
 Table 6 Deadliest events reported in Mexico (more than 15 deaths) (Alcántara-Ayala and García 2008; Kirschbaum et al. 2010; Corporación OSSO 2016; INEGI 2016a)
Type Place Deaths Trigger Date Source
Landslide La Paz, Baja California 1000 Hurricane 10/01/1956 Ayala, 2008
Sur
Landslide Minatitlán, Colima 871 Hurricane 10/27/1959 Ayala, 2008
Landslide Coyutla and 800 Rain 11/10/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
Totonacapan,
Veracruz
Landslide Teziutlán and Sierra 263 Rain 04/10/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
Norte, Puebla
Landslides Oaxaca, Acapulco, 247 Hurricane 10/8–9/1997 CENAPRED, 2004 In: Ayala, 2008
Guerrero
Landslide Tlalpujahua, Michoacán 176 Rain 05/27/1937 Lugo and Flores, 1997 In: Ayala, 2008
Landslide Motozintla, Chiapas 171 Rain 10/6–12/1998 La Jornada daily newspaper
Landslide San Pedro Atocpan, 150 Rain 06/04/1935 Lugo and Flores, 1997 In: Ayala, 2008
Mexico City
Landslide Valdivia, Chiapas 150 Rain 09/6–12/1998 La Jornada daily newspaper Ayala, 2008
Landslide Atentique, Jalisco 100 Rain 10/16/1955 OFDA/CRED database
and
mud-
flow
Mudflow Atoyac de Álvarez, La 71 Hurricane 09/16/2013
Pintada, Guerrero
Landslide Papantla, Veracruz 60 Rain 10/07/1999
Landslide Eloxochitlán, Sierra 60 Rain 07/05/2007 La Jornada daily newspaper
Negra, Puebla, 8 km
on the state highway
Tacotepec de Porfirio
Díaz-Tehuacán
Landslide Motozintla, several 49 Tropical 10/17/2005 La Jornada daily newspaper
communities, Chiapas storm
Landslide Ángel Albino Corzo, 45 La Niña 09/17/1998 La Jornada daily newspaper
Jaltenango de la Paz,
Chiapas.
Landslide Tlaola, Sierra Norte, 39 Rain 10/08/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
Puebla
Landslide Xaltepec and 32 Tropical 08/08/2016 CNN daily newspaper
Chicahuaxtla, Puebla storm
Landslide Manzanillo, Colima 21 Rain 11/27/1982 El Universal daily newspaper
Landslide Teziutlán, Puebla 21 Rain 11/01/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper

Landslides
 Table 6 (continued)
Type Place Deaths Trigger Date Source
Debris flow Irapuato, Guanajuato 20 Overflowing 08/21/1973 Excélsior daily newspaper

Landslides
Landslide Santa María del Río, San 20 Hurricane 07/05/2010 El Universal daily newspaper
Luis Potosi.
Mexico-Laredo High-
way
Landslide Ostuacán, San Juan 19 Rain 11/06/2007 La Jornada daily newspaper
Grijalva, Chiapas
Flow Angangueo, Michoacán 19 Rain 02/05/2010 La Jornada and El Universal daily newspapers
Landslide Hermosillo, Sonora 18 Rain 08/21/1977 Excélsior daily newspaper
Landslide Tenampulco, Puebla, 18 Rain 10/07/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
border area between
Puebla and Veracruz
Landslide Pantepec, Puebla 18 Rain 10/08/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
Original Paper

Landslide Buenavista, Tabasco 18 Rain 10/31/2007 http://www.capetimes.co.za/?fArticleId=410945

Flow Amatán, Chiapas 16 Tropical 09/29/2010 http://technews.tmcnet.com/topics/associated-press/articles/106209-death-toll-southern-mexico-Flujo
Settlement of cyclone de lodos-up-32.htm
Reforma and Planada
(Amatan, Chiapas),
Nueva Colombia
community
Debris flow Tequila, Jalisco 16 Tropical 07/06/1975 El Universal daily newspaper
storm
Landslide Tlalmanalco, Mexico. 15 Rain 10/11/1976 Excélsior daily newspaper
San Andres, paper
factory
Landslide Iron mine, Charcas, San 15 Another 10/06/1978
Luis Potosi cause
Landslide Atoyac de Álvarez, 15 Rain 09/02/1988 La Jornada daily newspaper
Guerrero
Landslide San Salvador, San 15 Rain 10/05/1999 La Jornada daily newspaper
Miguel Acambay,
Hidalgo
Debris flow Nuevo Leon, 49 15 Hurricane 07/01/2010 First governmental report of Nuevo Leon 2010
municipalities were
affected
Table 7 Estimated affected population for 2019 in the states of Mexico
State Affected population Rank Affected population for every 10,000 inhabitants Rank
Chiapas 432,973 1 802 2
Guerrero 189,631 2 527 4
Oaxaca 174,264 3 431 5
Veracruz 147,366 4 1.205 1
Michoacán 112,145 5 239 6
Jalisco 95,870 6 115 7
México 74,674 7 93 8
Puebla 55,518 8 88 9
Nayarit 44,953 9 610 3
Distrito Federal 28,332 10 17 14
(Mexico City)
Chihuahua 12,766 11 43 10
Hidalgo 12,652 12 35 12
Durango 6992 13 39 11
Colima 5676 14 6 18
Tlaxcala 3428 15 26 13
Morelos 3270 16 17 15
Tabasco 2297 17 11 16
Querétaro 2010 18 8 17
Zacatecas 814 19 5 19
Guanajuato 323 20 1 20
Sinaloa 24 21 0 21

of San Cristobal de la Barranca, state of Jalisco, holds the second
place with 45 deaths per 10,000 inhabitants; the municipality of
Atoyac de Alvarez, in the state of Guerrero, occupies the 2nd and
5th positions for the highest number of deaths and the highest
number of annual deaths for every 10,000 inhabitants,
respectively.
Marginalization is multidimensional and considers the exclu-
sion of a population from development. The degrees of marginal-
ization are the result of the application of the index developed by
CONAPO (2015), which is a summary measure that identifies
inequalities according to the deficiencies suffered by the popula-
tion as a result of the lack of access to education, housing in poor
condition, low infrastructural development, and lack of material
goods (CONAPO 2010). Through the Dalenius and Hodges meth-
od, the degree of marginalization is classified in 5 ranges (very
high, high, medium, low, and very low), where populations with
high degrees of marginalization have greater deficiencies in edu-
cation, with the lowest monetary income and housing with inad-
equate infrastructure.
The analysis of the degree of marginalization of the zones where
landslides have occurred shows that 48% of the landslides took place
in localities with a high and very high degree of marginalization, and
populations with medium and low degrees of marginalization expe-
rienced 40% of the landslides. On the other hand, the areas with very
low degrees of marginalization experienced 12% of the events (Fig. 7).
It is worth mentioning that the concentration of events occurs in
areas with high degrees of marginalization, which indicates that the
most marginalized populations are the most prone to experience the
effect of any sort of landslide.
Discussion
Landslide research in Mexico has been carried out for some
time. Without a doubt, there have been significant advances in
their documentation by government entities and researchers.
Alcántara-Ayala (2008) described the most disastrous landslides
for the country between 1935 and 2006; Jaimes et al. (2010)
developed a georeferenced database with the most important
landslides triggered by rainfall and earthquakes. In 2008, a
proposal for the construction of a national inventory was pub-
lished (Alcántara-Ayala and García 2008) and was applied to a
portion of the Sierra Norte de Puebla. As a result, the system-
atization of events and identification of recent landslides were
accomplished for a specific area of such state; however, its
application at the national scale was not carried out.
It should be noted that despite the invaluable efforts of the
aforementioned studies, a complete and updated inventory at the
national level has not been available up to the present. In addition,
many of the landslide studies characterize events in specific areas
at a local scale and the majority from the perspective of engineer-
ing. Therefore, it is evident that more attention is paid to events

Landslides
 Original Paper
that have large dimensions; those that were small and did not
Percentage of municipal generate loss of human lives or affected the population were not
documented and much less georeferenced. Much of the research is
addressed from a local perspective. Therefore, it is necessary to
build landslide inventories at the national level with the intention
population

of carrying out regional studies that provide spatial information

49.50
29.36
28.00

35.44

40.77
11.46

10.13

51.35
33.38
6.88
about the recurrence of phenomena, since having an estimation of
affected people Bmost of the time^ depends on complex variables
that entail a close relation with social aspects.
It is worth mentioning that the heavy concentration of occur-
rence of landslides in areas with high degrees of marginalization
population
Affected

indicates that the most marginalized populations are the most

11,493
10,777
10,629

9828

9660
9492
9472
9428

9339
9320
prone to experience the effect of any sort of landslide. This work
represents an effort to complement such research from a basic
aspect, such as the collection of events over a long period,
Coyuca de Catalán

Chilapa de Álvarez
General Heliodoro

San José Tenango

reaching another dimension that is rarely dealt with in the coun-
try. The analysis of data from a national perspective for the
Totolapan
Municipality

San Miguel

integration of landslide occurrence, spatial distribution, temporal

Villa Corzo
Huitiupán
Castillo
Pantelhó

Luvianos trend, and social impact has not been addressed properly in the
Tonalá

country. This is the first study where efforts have been made to
determine the number of people who could be affected by all
kinds of landslides and how these landslide places relate to the
degree of marginalization.
Guerrero
Guerrero

Guerrero

Guerrero
Chiapas

Chiapas
Chiapas

Chiapas

Oaxaca
México

The historical data on landslide occurrence, including the spa-

State

tial component, are fundamental tools in the assessment of land-

slide risk. Historical records of landslide occurrence in a
particular area provide supporting evidence to explain why the
Rank

area is shown as high risk in a landslide risk map. Its relevance has
11
12
13

14

15
16
17
18

19
20

been recognized by the United Nations in the Hyogo Action

Framework.
Of course, it is clear that there are limitations in the collection
Percentage of municipal

of data; many of them cannot be accessed for free. There are also
problems with the veracity of the necessary information, being
essential to consulting and making comparisons between various
sources (Klose et al. 2015; Devoli et al. 2007a; Alcántara-Ayala and
population

García 2008; Guzzetti et al. 1994). This creates a certain level of

Table 8 Municipalities with the largest affected population estimated for the year 2019

46.40
28.59
49.25

13.17

38.49
35.73

10.31

28.91

uncertainty that must be considered. The same is true for the

4.00

5.20

population estimates since these give approximate data on popu-

lation increases based on the 2010 Population and Housing
Census.
To reduce the uncertainty in the investigation, in the first place,
population

it is required to have updated population data. Since Mexico

Affected

23,425
21,788
19,850

18,789

18,391
15,266
14,872
14,863

13,979
12,301

conducts censuses every 10 years, it is a difficult task to obtain

current data; this way, up to the present, estimates are the most
accurate way. Even if in the 9 years for which the estimation was
made there may have been changes with regard to the number of
La Concordia
Municipality

people exposed owing to the implementation of municipal policies

Motozintla

Milpa Alta
Tapachula
Del Nayar

Simojovel
Cancuc

Chenalhó

Ocosingo
San Juan

for risk management, the data for the population of localities are
Chilón

assumed, as there is no evidence of implementing such measures.

This occurs because in Mexico, there is no strategy oriented to
strengthen preventive capacity; their actions are rather reactive,
which has led to the concentration of federal resources in efforts
Federal

to assist and alleviate disasters after their occurrence. Between

Chiapas
Chiapas

Chiapas

Chiapas
Chiapas
Chiapas

Chiapas
Chiapas
Distrito
Nayarit
State

2004 and 2012, approximately 89.4 billion MXN (4.6 billion USD)
were channelled to the Fund for Natural Disasters, while only
approximately 1.7 billion MXN (86.6 million USD) were allocated
for preventive initiatives (Mansilla 2010).
Rank

For instance, in the most affected states and municipalities,

10
1
2
3

5
6
7
8

there were no reports on the implementation of measures to

Landslides
Table 9 Municipalities with the highest number of deaths
Rank State Municipality Deaths
1 Puebla Teziutlán 285
2 Guerrero Atoyac de Álvarez 163
3 Puebla Eloxochitlán 60
4 Chiapas Motozintla 54
5 Chiapas Ángel Albino Corzo 51
6 Chiapas Amatenango de la Frontera 46
7 Puebla Tlaola 45
8 Mexico Naucalpan de Juárez 44
9 Veracruz Coscomatepec 44
10 Distrito Federal (Mexico City) Álvaro Obregón 38

reduce risk, and in some cases, it was found that the actions
taken were to relocate the populations. This is the case for
Veracruz, where 12 communities were relocated; however, only
two were permanent: Rincón de Negros in the municipality of
Alto Lucero and Colonia de Cerro del Mesón in Poza Rica. The
other 10 were partially and temporarily relocated, so they are
still at risk (Ferrer et al. 2013). In the case of Motozintla, the
exposure of approximately 700 people was reduced, but this has
unleashed a series of social consequences that impact the dete-
rioration of the quality of life of a social group with a tendency to live
in a risk zone. The relocations occurred in places where the popula-
tion is exposed to new threats, such as the Vida Mejor III urbaniza-
tion located 200 m from a garbage dump, as well as alternatives for
social welfare, productive projects, and employment for families and
inhabitants that favor the gradual degradation of living conditions
and standardization in poverty (Briones Gamboa 2010).
The estimates could improve if more accurate and updated
information on the population by locality would be available, as
well as the population at risk or municipal reports on risk reduc-
tion. It is also vital to have data on landslides at the national level,
such as the spatial representation of their area in polygons. For
this purpose, the use of GIS and satellite images is proposed as a
resource that allows the recognition and mapping of landslides at
a national scale. Undoubtedly, this difficult task represents a long-
term challenge where joint work between experts and government
entities is a key element.
Another aspect is the creation of a repository that accurately
includes the cartographic information of sliding areas. Several
studies have now dabbled in the use of GIS and remote sensing
for specific areas of some states; however, such information is
disaggregated. With this information and future landslide recog-
nitions at the national level applying these techniques, the land-
slide areas in each locality could be covered in a more detailed
way, thus improving the assessment of their potential impact.
The efforts of this and future research, as well as that of
academics and experts from the scientific community, could be
directed in such a way that a national inventory can be consoli-
dated with data by event, magnitude, and exposed population. For
the last, the estimation method used in this research could be
applied. The advances in this aspect would increase the capacity
of the country to develop adequate disaster prevention programs,
with actions aimed at the areas that need it the most.

Table 10 Municipalities with the highest number of deaths per 10,000 inhabitants
Rank State Municipality Deaths/10,000 inhabitants
1 Puebla Eloxochitlán 48.01
2 Jalisco San Cristóbal de la Barranca 45.25
3 Oaxaca San Juan Coatzóspam 31.66
4 Puebla Teziutlán 28.55
5 Guerrero Atoyac de Álvarez 27.16
6 Mexico Zacazonapan 26.37
7 Oaxaca Santo Domingo Tepuxtepec 23.55
8 Michoacán Angangueo 23.08
9 Puebla Tlaola 22.45
10 Chiapas Ángel Albino Corzo 17.71

Landslides
 Original Paper
Fig. 7 Landslides by degree of marginalization at the national level. Zones of high marginalization with concentrations of landslides are shown in greater detail
Conclusions
In many parts of the world, including North America, the sever-
ity of landslide impacts rarely receives extensive scientific atten-
tion (Wieczorek and Leahy 2008; Spizzichino et al. 2013), as
landslides are characterized by large, widely dispersed damages
(cited by Klose, Damm and Highland, 2015). The impacts of
landslides are a social problem (Klose et al. 2015), which seems
to be increasing worldwide (Nadim et al. 2006), and Mexico is
not an exception.
This document presents the first database of landslides in
Mexico at a national scale as a contribution to increasing the
capacity of the country to improve good governance based on
interdisciplinary regional research. The results obtained go be-
yond the basic aspect of grouping and storing historical records.
This study offers a spatial analysis of data from a broader geo-
graphical and social perspective, revealing the spatial-temporal
distribution of events over 82 years and their impact in terms of
the affected population.
This work shows that landslides have had an increasing trend
as of the 1990s. The year 2010 presents the highest occurrences of
landslides. The frequency increased in 2007, and since then, at
least 100 events have occurred annually. Rain is the main trigger
since most of the events are due to intense rain, and some are
Landslides
associated with the passage of hurricanes and tropical storms.
Moreover, earthquakes have a lower incidence in the generation
of this type of process, possibly because earthquakes occur less
frequently than rain.
The analysis of the spatial distribution allowed the identifi-
cation of areas at risk since these states are historically recog-
nized as the most affected by these types of events remain, as is
the case of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Michoacán, and Puebla.
However, new areas of occurrence, including Yucatan, Sonora,
and Jalisco, are revealed. At the municipal level, Del Nayar, in
the state of Nayarit, stands out as the municipality with the
largest number of people who may be affected by the occurrence
of an event.
Furthermore, people who live in areas with a high occurrence of
landslides concentrated in the states of Chiapas, Guerrero, Oaxaca,
Veracruz, and Michoacán usually live in small rural areas in
regions with steep slopes. There is a direct relationship between
the degree of marginalization of the population and the number of
landslides: high degrees of marginalization have the highest per-
centage of occurrence of events. This is because there is an unbal-
anced distribution that tends to place less-fortunate people into
more vulnerable areas, thus increasing their suffering, owing to
their poor capacity to respond to any kind of landslide.
References
Alcántara-Ayala I (2004) Hazard assessment of rainfall-induced landsliding in Mex-
ico. Geomorphology 61(1–2):19–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.geomorph.2003.11.004
Alcántara-Ayala I (2008) On the historical account of disastrous landslides in Mexico: the
challenge of risk management and disaster prevention. Adv Geosci 14:159–164.
https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-14-159-2008
Alcántara-Ayala I, Echavarría A (2014). Cartilla de Diagnóstico Preliminar de Inestabilidad
de Laderas. México, D.F. https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/89637/
Cartilla_Diagnostico_Preliminar.pdf
Alcántara-Ayala I, García MF (2008) Procesos de remoción en masa en México : hacia una
propuesta de elaboración de un inventario nacional, 47–64. http://
www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0188-
46112008000200004&lng=es&tlng=pt
Alcántara-Ayala I, Salinas MG, García AL, Rueda VM, Orozco O, Aguilar SP, Tena RA
(2019). Gestión Integral de Riesgo de Desastres en México : reflexiones, retos y
propuestas de transformación de la política pública desde la academia.
Investigaciones Geográficas, (98). https://doi.org/10.14350/rig.59784
Bitrán Bitrán D (2001) Características del impacto socioeconómico de los principales
desastres. México D.F: Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres CENAPRED. http://
www.cenapred.unam.mx
CHRR Center for Hazards and Risk Research Columbia University, CIESIN Center for
International Earth Science Information Network Columbia University, NGI Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (2005). Global landslide hazard distribution. Palisades, NY:
NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC). Retrieved from https://
doi.org/10.7927/H4P848VZ
CNN (2016) Al menos 40 muertos por deslaves en México. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/
2016/08/07/deslaves-provocados-por-earl-en-mexico-dejan-al-menos-10-muertos/.
Accessed 20 Aug 2017
CONAPO Consejo Nacional de Población (2010) Indice de marginaciòn por entidad
federativa y municipio 2010. México. https://www.conapo.gob.mx/es/CONAPO/
Indices_de_Marginacion_2010_por_entidad_federativa_y_municipio
Corporación OSSO (2016) DESINVENTAR. Cali. https://www.desinventar.org/es/. Accessed
25 April 2017
Damm B, Klose M (2015) The landslide database for Germany: closing the gap at
national level. Geomorphology 249:82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.geomorph.2015.03.021
Devoli G, Morales A, Høeg K (2007a) Historical landslides in Nicaragua-collection and
analysis of data. Landslides 4(1):5–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-006-0048-x
Devoli G, Strauch W, Chávez G, Høeg K (2007b) A landslide database for Nicaragua: a tool
for landslide-hazard management. Landslides 4(2):163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10346-006-0074-8
Dilley M, Chen RS, Deichmann U, Lerner-Lam AL, Arnold M et al (2005) Natural disaster
hotspots: a global risk analysis. Disaster Risk Management Series. vol. 5. The World
Bank, Washington, D.C. http://go.worldbank.org/PT8XJZW3K0
El Universal (2010) Deforestaciones causan deslaves en Michoacán. http://
archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/658062.html
El Universal (2017) Metropoli. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/metropoli/edomex/
deslaves-y-sismos-colapsaron-carreteras-al-sur-del-edomex. Accessed 18 Oct 2017
EPOCH European Community Programme (1993). The temporal occurrence and forecast-
ing of landslides in the European community. Flageollet JC (ed.), vol 3. Contract No.
90 0025
Ferrer JR, Morales W, Romero D (2013) El Sistema Estatal de Protección Civil (SEPC) y
la Gestión del Riesgo Geológico (Deslizamiento de laderas). In La gestión del
riesgo por deslizamientos de laderas en el Estado de Veracruz, durante
2013 (pp. 89–97). http://www.veracruz.gob.mx/proteccioncivil/wp-content/up-
loads/sites/5/2014/08/Libro-Gestion-del-Riesgo-por-Deslizamiento-de-Laderas.pdf
Gaidzik K, Ramírez-Herrera MT, Bunn M, Ben A (2017) Landslide manual and automated
inventories, and susceptibility mapping using LIDAR in the forested mountains of
Guerrero, Mexico. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 8(2):1054–1079. https://
doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2017.1292560
Briones Gamboa F (2010) Inundados, reubicados y olvidados : Traslado del riesgo de
desastres en Motozintla. Revista de Ingeniería 31:132–144 https://www.redalyc.org/
html/1210/121015012005/
Guha-Sapir D (n.d.) EM-DAT: the Emergency Events Database. Brussels, Belgium:
Université catholique de Louvain (UCL) - CRED. http://www.emdat.be. Accessed 15
Feb 2017
Guzzetti F, Cardinali M, Reichenbach P (1994) The AVI Project: A Bibliographical and
Archive Inventory of Landslides and Floods in Italy. Environmental Management
18:623. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02400865
INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2010) Censo de Población y Vivienda
2010. México: INEGI. http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/2010/
INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2015) Encuesta intercensal 2015.
https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/intercensal/2015/#
INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2016a) Mapa Digital de México V6
http://gaia.inegi.org.mx/mdm6/?v=bGF0OjIzLjMyMDA4LGxvbjotMTAyLjE0NTY1LH
o6MSxsOmMxMTFzZXJ2aWNpb3N8dGMxMTFzZXJ2aWNpb3M=. Accessed 26
Nov 2016
INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2016b) Marco Geoestadístico. http://
www.inegi.org.mx/geo/contenidos/geoestadistica/. Accessed 13 Feb 2017
Jaimes MA, Niño M, Reinoso E, Carlos R (2010) XXV Reunión Nacional de Mecánica de
Suelos e Ingeniería Geotécnica. In: Acosta NPL (ed.) Base de datos de deslizamientos
inducidos por sismo y lluvia en México para calibrar un modelo de análisis de talud
infinito. vol. 3. D.F: Sociedad Mexicana de Ingeniería Geotécnica, A.C. pp. 895–901.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00006442
Jefatura de Gobierno de la Ciudad de México (2017) Declaratoria de Emergencia con
motivo del fenómeno sísmico ocurrido el día diecinueve de septiembre de dos mil
diecisiete en la Ciudad de México. México: Gaceta Oficial de la Ciudad de México.
http://data.consejeria.cdmx.gob.mx/portal_old/uploads/gacetas/
9f49ae03379f5a7b40fa03d1a94b12bb.pdf
Kirschbaum DB, Adler R, Hong Y, Hill S, Lerner-Lam A (2010) A global landslide catalog
for hazard applications: Method, results, and limitations. Nat Hazards 52(3):561–575.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-009-9401-4
Kirschbaum DB, Stanley T, Zhou Y (2015) Geomorphology spatial and temporal analysis
of a global landslide catalog. Geomorphology 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.geomorph.2015.03.016
Klose M, Damm B, Highland LM (2015) Databases in geohazard science: an introduction.
Geomorphology 249:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.06.029
Klose M, Maurischat P, Damm B (2016) Landslide impacts in Germany: a historical and
socioeconomic perspective. Landslides 13(1):183–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10346-015-0643-9
Korup O (2005) Distribution of landslides in southwest New Zealand. Landslides 2(1):43–
51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-004-0042-0
Mansilla E (2010) Diagnóstico nacional de los asentamientos humanos ante el riesgo de
desastres. México. http://www.sedesol.gob.mx/work/models/SEDESOL/Sedesol/sppe/
dgap/diagnostico/Diagnostico_PRAH.pdf
Morales Domínguez L, Castañeda Martínez A, Gonzáles Huesca AE (2016) Análisis de
umbrales de lluvia que detonan deslizamientos y sus posibles aplicaciones en un
sistemas de alerta temprana por inestabilidad de laderas. https://outlook.office.com/
owa/?path=/attachmentlightbox
Nadim F, Kjekstad O, Peduzzi P, Herold C, Jaedicke C (2006) Global landslide and
avalanche hotspots. Landslides 3(2):159–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-006-
0036-1
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2015). Global Landslide Catalog.
Retrieved June 20, 2017. http://data.nasa.gov/Earth-Science/Global-Landslide-Cata-
log/h9d8-neg4
Ordaz M, Zeballos A (2007) Información para la gestión de riesgo de desastres estudio de
caso de cinco países: México. Ciudad de México. https://www.cepal.org/
publicaciones/xml/9/33659/Mexicoliviano.pdf
Padilla LR (2006) El huaracán del 59, historia del desastre y reconstrucción de Minatitlán.
Colima, México https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=D5np-
QNYUDgC&pg=PP1&source=kp_read_button&redir_esc=y
Palenzuela JA, Marsella M, Nardinocchi C, Pérez JL, Fernández T, Chacón J, Irigaray C
(2015) Landslide detection and inventory by integrating LiDAR data in a GIS
environment. Landslides 12(6):1035–1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-
0534-5
Pennington C, Freeborough K, Dashwood C, Dijkstra T, Lawrie K (2015) The national
Landslide Database of Great Britain: acquisition, communication and the role of
social media. Geomorphology 249:44–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.geomorph.2015.03.013
Rodríguez G (2018) Gestión de riesgos , gran ausente de la agenda política. America
Latina en movimiento, pp 1–4. https://www.alainet.org
Spizzichino D, Margottini C, Trigila A, Ladanza C (2013) Landslide Impacts in Europe:
Weaknesses and Strengths of Databases Available at European and National Scale.
In: Margottini C., Canuti P., Sassa K. (eds) Landslide Science and Practice.
Landslides
 Original Paper
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 73-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31325- Wieczorek GF, Leahy PP (2008) Landslide Hazard Mitigation in North America. Environ-
7_9 mental and Engineering Geoscience 14 (2):133-144. https://doi.org/10.2113/
SSN-UNAM (2017a) Reporte especial. Sismo de Tehuantepec. Ciudad de México. http:// gseegeosci.14.2.133
www.ssn.unam.mx/sismicidad/reportes-especiales/2017/
SSNMX_rep_esp_20170907_Tehuantepec_M82.pdf
SSN-UNAM (2017b) Reporte Especial. Sismo del día 19 de septiembre de 2017,
S. R. Díaz ())
Puebla-Morelos (M 7.1). Ciudad de México. http://www.ssn.unam.mx/sismicidad/
Department of Chemistry,
reportes-especiales/2017/SSNMX_rep_esp_20170919_Puebla-Morelos_M71.pdf
Autonomous University of the State of Mexico,
Taylor FE, Malamud BD, Freeborough K, Demeritt D (2015) Enriching Great Britain’s
Instituto Literario 100, Centro, 50000, Toluca de Lerdo, State of Mexico, Mexico
National Landslide Database by searching newspaper archives. Geomorphology
Email: sraydiaz@gmail.com
249:52–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.05.019
E. Cadena : N. Dávila
Televisa (2017) Inmuebles destruidos y deslaves en carreteras por sismo en Oaxaca.
México: Televisa.News. https://noticieros.televisa.com/videos/inmuebles-destruidos-y-
Department of Geography,
deslaves-carreteras-sismo-oaxaca/
Autonomous University of the State of Mexico,
Trigila A, Iadanza C, Spizzichino D (2010) Quality assessment of the Italian Landslide
Toluca de Lerdo, State of Mexico, Mexico
Inventory using GIS processing. Landslides 7(4):455–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10346-010-0213-0
S. Adame
UN United Nations (2005) Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the
Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. United Nations, Geneva, pp 28
Autonomous University of the State of Mexico,
Van Den Eeckhaut M, Hervás J, Jaedicke C, Malet JP, Montanarella L, Nadim F (2012)
Toluca de Lerdo, State of Mexico, Mexico
Statistical modelling of Europe-wide landslide susceptibility using limited land-
slide inventory data. Landslides 9(3):357–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-
011-0299-z

Landslides